Seakeeping

Longitudinal radius of gyration. In waves longer than the ship, a small radius
of gyration is beneficial in reducing motions.
A bulbous bow generally reduces motions in short waves but can lead to
increased motions in very long waves.
Forward sections. U-shaped sections usually give less resistance in waves and
a larger longitudinal inertia. V-shaped sections usually produce lower
amplitudes of heave and pitch and less vertical bow movement. Above-water
flare has little effect on motion amplitudes but can reduce wetness at the
expense of increased resistance and possible slamming effects.
Freeboard. The greater the freeboard the drier the ship.
It will be noted that a given change in form often has one effect in short
waves and the opposite effect in long waves. In actual ocean conditions, waves
of all lengths are present and it would not be surprising, therefore, if the
motions, etc., in an irregular wave system showed less variation with form
changes. Research has shown that, for conventional forms, the overall performance of a ship in waves is not materially influenced by variations in the main
hull parameters. A large ship will be better than a small one.
Local form changes can also assist in reducing the adverse consequences of
motion, e.g. providing finer forms forward with large deadrise angle can reduce
slamming forces.
SHIP STABILIZATION

There is a limit to the extent to which amplitudes of motion can be reduced in

conventional ship forms by changes in the basic hull shape. Fortunately, considerable reductions in roll amplitudes are possible by other means, roll being
usually the most objectionable of the motions as regards comfort. In principle,
the methods used to stabilize against roll can be used to stabilize against pitch
but, in general, the forces or powers involved are too great to justify their use.
Stabilization systems
These fall naturally under two main headings:

(a) Passive systems in which no separate source of power is required and no

special control system. Such systems use the motion itself to create moments
opposing or damping the motion. Some, such as the common bilge keel, are
external to the main hull and with such systems there is an added resistance to
ahead motion which has to be overcome by the main engines. The added
resistance is offset, partially at least, by a reduction in resistance of the main
hull due to the reduced roll amplitude.
Other passive systems, such as the passive anti-roll tanks, are fitted
internally. In such cases, there is no augment of resistance arising from the
system itself.
The principal passive systems (discussed presently) fitted are:
Bilge keels (and docking keels if
fitted) Fixed fins

Passive tank system

Passive moving weight system.

(b) Active systems in which the moment opposing roll is produced by moving
masses or control surfaces by means of power. They also employ a control
system which senses the rolling motion and so decides the magnitude of the
correcting moment required. As with the passive systems, the active systems
may be internal or external to the main hull.
The principal active systems fitted are:
Active fins
Active tank system
Active moving weight
Gyroscope.
Brief descriptions of systems
The essential requirement of any system is that the system should always
generate a moment opposing the rolling moment.

(a) With active fins a sensitive gyro system senses the rolling motion of the
ship and sends signals to the actuating system which, in turn, causes the fins to
move in a direction such as to cause forces opposing the roll. The actuating
gear is usually electrohydraulic. The fins which may be capable of retraction
into the hull, or may always protrude from it, are placed about the turn of bilge
in order to secure maximum leverage for the forces acting upon them. The
fins are usually of the balanced spade type, but may incorporate a flap on
the trailing edge to increase the lift force generated.

Fig. 12.27 Active fin system

The capacity of a fin system is usually expressed in terms of the steady angle
of heel it can cause with the ship moving ahead in still water at a given speed.
Since the force on a fin varies in proportion to the square of the ship speed,
whereas the GZ curve for the ship is, to a first order, independent of speed, it
follows that a fin system will be more effective the higher the speed. Broadly
speaking, a fin system is not likely to be very effective at speeds below about
10 knots.

(b) Active weights systems take a number of forms, but the principle is illustrated by the scheme shown in Fig. 12.28. If the weight W is attached to a

Fig. 12.28 Active weight system

rotating arm of radius R then, when the arm is at an angle a to the centre
line of the ship and on the higher side,
Righting moment = WR sin a
Such a system has the advantage, over the fin system, that its effectiveness is
independent of speed. It involves greater weight and power, however, and for
these reasons is not often fitted.

(c) Active tank systems are also available in a variety of forms as illustrated in
Fig. 12.29. The essential, common, features are two tanks, one on each side of
the ship, in which the level of water can be controlled in accord with the
dictates of the sensing system. In scheme (a), water is pumped from one
tank to the other so as to keep the greater quantity in the higher tank. In
scheme (b), the water level is controlled indirectly by means of air pressure
above the water in each tank, the tanks being open to the sea at the bottom.
Scheme (b) has the advantage of requiring less power than scheme (a). In
scheme (c), each tank has its own pump but otherwise is similar to scheme (a).

Fig. 12.29 Active tank systems

(d ) All active stabilizing systems depend upon gyroscopes as part of their

control system. If the gyroscope is massive enough, use can be made of the
torque it generates when precessed to stabilize the ship. Such systems are not
commonly fitted because of their large space and weight demands.
(e) Bilge keels are so simple and easy to fit that very few ships are not so fitted.
They typically extend over the middle half to two-thirds of the ship's length at

Fig. 12.30 Passive tank system

the turn of bilge. Compared with a ship not fitted, bilge keels can produce a
reduction of roll amplitude of 35 per cent or more. They are usually carefully
aligned with the flow around the hull in calm water so as to reduce their
resistance to ahead motion. Unfortunately, when the ship rolls the bilge keels
are no longer in line with the flow of water and can lead to significant increases
in resistance. For this reason, some large ships may be fitted with a tank
stabilizing system and dispense with bilge keels.
( f ) Fixed fins are similar in action to bilge keels except that they are shorter
and extend further from the ship's side. An advantage claimed for them is
that, by careful shaping of their cross-section, the lift generated at a given
ahead speed can be increased compared with the drag they suffer. A
disadvantage is that, projecting further from the hull, they are more
susceptible to damage. They are generally less effective at low speed.

(g)

Passive tank systems use the roll of the ship itself to cause water in the
tanks to move in such a way as to oppose the motion. Starting from rest with
water level in

the two tanks, if the ship rolls to starboard water flows from port to starboard
until the maximum angle of roll is reached. As the ship now tries to recover, the
water will try to return but will nevertheless lag and the moment due to the
water will oppose the roll velocity. Also, if the resistance of the duct is high
the water will not be able to return before the ship is rolling to port, i.e. the
level of water in the tanks can be made to lag the roll motion. By carefully
adjusting the resistance of the duct the system can be 'tuned' to give maximum
stabilizing effect. This will be when the phase lag is 90 degrees.
One limitation of such a scheme is that the system can only be 'tuned' to one
frequency. This is chosen as the natural period of roll because it is at this
period that the really large angles of roll can be built up. At other
frequencies the passive tank system may actually lead to an increase in roll
angle above the 'unstabilized' value, but this is not usually serious because
the roll angles are small anyway. A more sophisticated system is one in which
the resistance in the duct can be varied to suit the frequency of the exciting
waves. In this way roll damping is achieved in all wave lengths.

(h) Passive moving weight systems are similar in principle to the passive tank
systems but are generally less effective for a given weight of system.
Comparison of principal systems
Table 12.1 compares the principal ship stabilizing systems. The most
commonly fitted, apart from bilge keels, are the active fin and passive tank
systems.
Performance of stabilizing systems
The methods of predicting the performance of a given stabilizer system in reducing motion amplitudes in irregular seas are beyond the scope of this book. A
common method of specifying a system's performance is the roll amplitude it
can induce in calm water, and this is more readily calculated and can be
checked on trials.
When the ship rolls freely in still water, the amplitude of each successive
swing decreases by an amount depending on the energy absorbed in each roll.
At the end of each roll the ship is momentarily still and all its energy is stored
as
potential energy. If 1 is the roll angle, the potential energy is 1 GM2. If, on
2

the next roll, the amplitude is 2 then the energy lost is

1
(
\
2
2
1 + 2
(1 - 2) = GM8
GM(1 - 2) = GM
2
2
where = mean amplitude of roll.
The reduction in amplitude, 8, is called the decrement and in the limit is
equal to the slope of the curve of amplitude against number of swings at the
mean amplitude concerned. That is,
(
8 = -

dn