MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Programming the Basic Materials of Music for Self-Instructional Development of Aural Skills
Author(s): Charles L. Spohn
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Autumn, 1963), pp. 91-98
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for Music
Education

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Progratnming
theBasicMaterials
of Music
forSelf-Instructional
Development
of AuralSkills
CHARLESL. SPOHN
mentof a skill.... It is not something
emphasison true reproductionof one talks about, it is somethingone
recordedsound,makethe usesof audio tiks."l
A paraphraseso that the statement
devicesfor the instructionof musicobvious. The use of recordingshas been is appropriateto music follows: "The
an establishedmethod for music in- learningof musicperse is not so much
structionboth in the classroomand the learningof a body of contentas it
for the improvement
of musicperform- is the developmentof skills. It is not
ance. Disc and magnetic recordings somethingthe studentlearnsabout,it
have been used by musicstudentsand is somethinghe learnsto do. It is not
teachers to provide self-instructional somethingsomeonetalks about, it is
improvementespeciallyfor developing somethingone does."The early develperformanceskills. It seems strange, opmentof music studentsis directed
however,that recordedmaterialshave towardthe acquisitionof variousskills.
not been widely used to developaural This involves tasks that studentsdo.
skills that are neededby all personsin This concept,however,does not mean
that there are not overallvalues that
music.
The use of recordedteachingmate- cannot be generalized and talked
rialscan assistinstructionin two ways. about. This conceptdoes imply that
First,therehas beena needto improve the values of more advanced music
the presentationof materialsused to learning depend upon some kind of
developstudents'auralskills in music. humanperformancein early learning.
The teaching of music has been
Recordingsofferthe advantagesof duplicating the presentationas well as challengedand improvedby the use of
the possibilitiesof programmingfor listeninglaboratoriessimilar to those
self-presentation.Second, a way is widelyadoptedfor the teachingof forneeded to study the problemsrelated eign languages,in which studentscan
to the developmentof these aural use recordedmaterialsin programsof
skills. The use of recordingsofferthe self-instruction.With these kinds of
possibility of controlledpresentation facilitiesit is possiblefor collegemusic
studentsto developneededskills. There
on an individualbasis.
The uses of recordedteachingmate- is opportunityto comparethe effects
rial are well establishedin foreignlan- of differentstimulias skillsarelearned.
guage instruction. In a report pre- The elementalmaterialsof music can
pared by the Councilof Chief State be programmedand recordedfor use
School Officers, the statement was
1 Council of Chief State School Officers,Standmade:"Thelearningof a languageper
ards for Matcrials and Equipment for the Imse is not so much the learningof a provement
of Instrxction, (Washington D. C.
body of content as it is the develop- 1958), p. 27.
I MPROVEDRECORDINGtechniqueswith

91

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92

JOURNAL OF ESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION

in listeninglaboratories.
Questionspos- The manual skill of notation means
sibly can be answeredconcerningthe the ability to write accuratelythe symspeed with which students learn to bols of music that represent rhythm
identify and use the elementalmate- and pitch. Also included in this skill
rials of music. The facilities of the is the accurate indication, through the
listeninglaboratorymakeit possibleto use of descriptive terminology and
obtaindata aboutthe interrelations
of markings, of tempo, tempo variations,
dynamics, articulation,and style.
the variousmusicskills.
For all studentsof music,the study
The visual perception of the notaof the fundamentalsof music (often tion of music is called music reading.
referredto as music theory) is basic. The readint, of music as a means of
Understanding
the materialsof music, developing better musicianship or
which include the rhythmicelement, knowledCeabout music was established
the melodicflow, the harmonicstruc- early as an objective of the teaching
ture, the general musical structure of the fundamentals of music. The
(thesemay be referredto as the tech- need for adequacy in this area is as
nical knowledgeof music), is directly important for music students as the
related to the developmentof aural ability to read words is for all students. The teaching of music reading
skills.
The technicalknowledgeof the fun- should be similar to the teaching of
damentalsof musicincludestwo close- reading in any language. Often howly relateditems. Theyare the symbols ever, music readingis neglected as stufor the notationof musicand the de- dents "learn to play an instrument."
scriptive terminologyand markings The aural comprehensionof music
which indicate the interpretationof is a skill that is, in a sense, the reverse
the notation.The symbolsusedin no- of music reading. Aural comprehentatingmusicrepresenttwo basicchar- sion means the abilty to notate music
after it is heard. The listener is able
acteristics rhythmandpitch.
The descriptive terminologyand to demonstratethe skill of aural commarkingswhichaid in the interpreta- prehensionwhen he accurately identition of musicare additionalfacts that fies the sounds or words that he has
are a part of the fundamentals
of mu- heard. It is not the objective for the
sic. Iwheuse of both Englishand for- training in fundamentals of music
eign wordsare an acceptedand essen- classes to develop the phenomenon
tial partof music.Tempo,tempovari- known as "absolute pitch" but rather
ation,dynamics,articulation,
andstyle to learn the association betweell sound
and symbels. This is often referredto
are indicatedin this manner.
The development
of skillsin relation as "relative pitch."
to the fundamentals
of musicincludes Traditional''fundamelltalsof music"
threespecifictechniques:(a) the man- courses aim to develop the skills of
ual skill of notation, (b) the visual music reading and aural comprehenperceptionof notation,and (c) the sion. The problemsstudents encounter
auralcomprehension
of notation. The in learningto reproducemusic notation
threeskills are believedto be closely vocally (music reading) or in learning
relatedto each other. Theirvery na- to notate music that has been perture indicatesthe need for a secure formed (aural comprehension)are bebackground
in the technicalaspectsof lieved to be similar. Music students
music.

must develop skills so that they are

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PROGRAMMINGTHE BASIC MATERIALSOF MUSIC

93

able to go fromsoundto sound,nota- are dependentupon studentresponses

tion to notation, symbol to symbol, to drill items.
sound to notation, sound to symbol,
New methodshave been developed
notationto sound,notationto symbol, and usedat The OhioState University
symbolto sound,and symbolto nota- Schoolof Music for the self-presentation. All responsesto musicshouldbe tion of the elementalmaterialsof muat such a level that they may be con- sic. Thesemethodsaresimilarto those
nectedto any relevantmusicstimulus. used for teaching foreign languages.
The teachingmaterialsused in fun- The facilitiesof foreign-language
labdamentalsof music classes have been oratoriesare used for this instruction.
developedfroma predetermined
stand- The methodshave involvedthe techard that has existed for many years. niques of programmingthe elemental
The presentationof these materialsis materialsof music on magnetictape.
generallystereotyped.The result has
The first olf these methadswas debeen that the best studentsmeet the veloped from researchin 1958 when
requirementswith apparentease and the author found that for an experiseldom do more, while the students mentalgroupusing tape-recorded
selfwith little pre-college background presentationmusic materialsin comstrugglewith little or no success. The parison with a control group taught
resultsof this teachingeffortare often traditionally,the average percentage
frustratingto both teacherand student. decreasein the numberof errors(that
is, the differencebetween the pretest
PresentingFundamentals
and posttestscoresdividedby the preIn the traditional music funda- test score) madeby the controlgroup
mentalsclassroomthe studenthas been was 57.68 percent, while the corredependentupon the teacherto present spondingdecreasein the numberof
the correctstimuli. The student also errorsmadeby the experimentalgroup
has been dependentupon the teacher was 80.33 percent.2The differencein
for the reinforcementof the desired favor of the experimentalgroup was
responses. Good students often need significantat the 5 percentlevel.
stimulipresentedseveraltimes before
Aural Interval Project
the desiredbehavioris achieved.Poor
students need still more. The total
Refinementsin the methadof selfnumberof stimulito be presentedin a presentationmusicmaterialswereposmusic class multipliedby the number sible when a similarstudy using one
of reiIlforcements
neededfor each stu- of the elementalparts of music,interdent to achieve the desired criteria vals, was done by the author,William
would result in an astoundingfigure. Poland,and CarolineArnold.
The methodsof the traditionalmusic
The questionwas asked, "Canmuclassroomprovide limited useful in- sic studentslearn to identify melodic
formation for researchpurposes for
ascendingintervalsby means of prothe followingreasons:
grammedmaterialsand self-presenta1. It is difficultto provideadequate
controls.
2. There is not equal opportunity 2 Charles L. Spohn, "An Exploration ill the
Use of Recorded Teaching to Develop Aural
for all studentsto learn.
Comprchensionin College Music Classes," doc3. It is difficultto obtaindesirable toral
dissertation, (The Ohio State University,
data. This especiallyis truewhendata l9S9; University Microfilms, Inc., tS9-S941.)

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94

JOURNAL OF RESEARCHIN MUSIC EDUCATION

TABLE1
PATTERN
OF TRAINING
DRILLS

Set I

Category 1

Category 2

Category 3

P8, m2, M2, m3

M3, P4, T, m6

P5, M6, m7t M7

Set II

Category 4

Category 5

P8, m2, M2, m3, M3, P4

T, m6, P5, M6, m7, M7

Category6

Set III

P8, m2, M2, m3, M3, P4, T, m6, P5, M6, m7, M7

tion methods?"The purposeof the Poland4the intervalsweregroupedby

aural interval project was to: (a) difficultyof recognition.
study the questionfor a reasonable Each drill containedforty-eightinanswerand (b) developa methodthat tervals:Set I 4 intervals,eachplayed
wouldmakean evaluationof learning twelvetimes; Set II 6 intervals,each
possible. The seventy-sevenfreshman played 8 times; Set III 12 intervals,
studentsenrolledin the 1960 funda- eachplayed4 times.
mentalsof musiccoursewerethe subThe pitch range of the intervals
jects for the study.
used in the study was fromg to f#".
The intervals used for the study The presentationof the intervalswas
were those which may be found be- melodicascending.The twelve intertween degreesof a majorscale. The vals were divided into three groups;
stimulusfor the studywas the record- easy (P8, m2, M2, m3), intermediate
ed performance
of the intervalssound- (M3, P4, T, m6), and difficult(P5,
ed by a piano. The responsefor the M6, ml, Ml). The drills that were
identification
of intervalswas by their used for trainingwere based on this
symbolicnames. The completelist of division. The drills were constructed
symbolsused in the study was: m2, into three sets and six categoriesas
M2, m3, M3, P4, T(Tritone),P5, m6, shownin Table 1.
M6, m7, Ml, P8.
The drills were recordedon magOnthe basisof the previousresearch netic tape. The tempo of each drill
done by Otto Ortmann3and William was MM J 72.
6 Otto Ortmann, "Problems in the Elements
of Ear Dictation," ResearchStgdy in Mgsic ffo.
2 (Baltimore: Peabody Conservatoryof Music,
1934) .

f I >

>
Fig- 1 (Phyed)
Stimulus

I -

'William Poland, "An Investigation of Some

Aural and Notational Elements in Music
Theory," doctoral dissertation, (Ohio State University, 1960; UniversityMicrofilms,t60-2129).

15

f I -

Time for (Spoken) P8 (Played)

student
ceresponse
Correct
Reinfore
*

.!

identification

On to
next

stimulus

ment

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PROGRAMMINGTHE BASIC MATERIALSOF MUSIC

95

TABLE2
THEMEANPERCENTAGE
SCORES
OFSTUDENTS
WHOCOMPLETED
THETAPED
DRILLS
Melodic Intervals
x
s

Harmonic Intervals

Pretest

Posttest

Difference

Pretest

Posttest

Difference

71
15

88
13

17

58
20

75
22

17

N=47

Figure 1 gives an exampleof the

procedure.
Each stimuluswas soundedfor four
counts.The stimuluswas playedtwice.
After the first playing there were six
countsat the sametempoin whichthe
student could respondon the worksheet by naming the interval. After
the judgmentwas made, the correct
answerwas given (the correctanswer
had been recordedon the tape). The
intervalwas playedagain. If the students had made the correctresponse,
in a set of boxes on the worksheet,
they were instructedto place a check
mark in the lower row of boxes immediatelyunder their answer. If the
answer was incorrect, the students
were instructedto put the correctanswerin the lowerbos.
Here is a sampleof the way a correct answershouldlook.
P8

test contained forty-eight intervals.

Half of the intervalswere played in
the mannerknown as melodic (two
tones sounded individuallyone after
the other). Ihe remainingtwentyfour intervalswereplayedin the manner known as harmonic (two tones
soundedsimultaneously).
All the training on intervals was
done outsideof the "fundamentals
of
music"class with the self-presentation
tapes. All studentswere instructedto
do each of the six practicetapes included in the three sets. The procedure was as follows: If first performanceon the first practice tape
(categoryone of Set I) was to a criterion of forty-sis out of forty-eight
intervals correct, then the student
could proceedto the next drill level.
(The next level was categorytwo of
Set I.) If the first performancewas
not to the criterion,the taped-drillwas
repeated until the criterion was
Here is a sampleof the way an in- reached. When the criterion was
reached,an equivalenttaped-drillwas
correctanswershouldIook.
given. If the criterionwas reachedon
PS
P8
the first performanceof this tape, the
A pretest and equivalentposttest studentcouldproceedto the nextlevel.
were constructedand recorded.Each If the criterionwas not reached,that
TABLE3
THE MEANPERCENTAGE
SCORES
OFSTUDENTS
WHODD) NOT COMPLETE
THETAPEDDRILLS
Melodic Intervals
x
s

Harmonic Intcrvals

Pretest

Posttest

Difference

Pretest

Posttest

Difference

54
16

71
20

17

42
13

50
23

N=30

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96

JOURNAL OF RESEARCHIN MUSIC EDUCATION

tape was practiceduntil the criterion tervalscan be improved.In this study,

was achievedand an equivalenttape not only did the studentshave all the
advantagesof self-presentationand
was given.
From the sample of seventy-seven machine teaching methods but the
students, forty-seven completed the teachershad extraclass timenormally
aural intervalstudy. Thirty students spent on interval trainingfor other
failedto completethe seriesdue to the teaching As a resultof the procedure
outlinedin the study, it is possibleto
lack of time. (The trainingperiod
establishindividualbasesso thatprogduringthe quarterwas only sis weeks ress may be observed.The new proin length.) Table 2 shows the rela- cedure provides an opportunityto
tionshipof scores for the groupthat study studentproblemsrelatedto the
completedthe taped drills. Table 3 developmentof the skills. There are
showsthe relationship
of scoresfor the sufficientdata for an evaluation.The
groupthat did not completethe taped advantagesare as follows:
drills.
1. Adequatecontrolscan be exerA comparisonof the scores of the cised.
two groups will show that in each
2. There is equal opportunityfor
case therewas an improvement
in the all students to learn. It has been
ability of the studentsto identifyin- shown that all studentswho are adtervals. The groupthat completedIthe mitted to The Ohio State University
tapes improvedequallywell on their Schoolof Musiccan learntheseskills.
ability to identify both melodicand
3. It is possibleto obtainsuitable
harmonicintervals. The differencein data.
improvement
is significantat the 1%
4. Reinforcementof the right anlevel. The groupof studentsthat did swer is immediate.
not completethe tapesdueto timealso
5. The entireclass may be superstartedat a lowerlevel (a meanscore vised while each studentworksat his
of 547^oon the pretest comparedto own rate.
meanscore715fofor the othergroup).
6. After absence a student may
This groupof studentsdid, however,
easilybeginwherehe left off.
show a markedimprovement
in their
ability to identify melodic intervals 7. Material can be organizedso
which is significantat the lSo level. that each problemwill dependupon
The ability of this groupto identify the precedingone with the resultthat
harmonicintervalswas not significant- progressto an eventualIycomplexreply increased.An analysisof individual ertoiremay be controlled.
errorsshowsthat even when students 8. Mistakes are recorded;therehad not achieved accuracyin their fore, drillsmay be modifiedas experidentification(whichwas necessaryto iencedictatesby substituting,modifymeet the criterionlevel), there was ing, or addingtasks or steps.
9. Flexibilityof time schedulealimprovement
in theirjudgmentsabout
lows each studentto practice.
the intervals.
10. Consistentpresentationof maEvaluation
terial is in skillfulhands.
The evidenceindicatesthat through 11. Each studentcan progressin a
self-presentation
methodsthe abilityto sequenceof learningwhich best fits
identifybothmelodicandharmonicin- his particularneeds.

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THE BASIC MATERIALSOF MUSIC

PROGRAMMING

97

procedurein The Ohio State

standard
12. The teacher can devote more
Schoolof Music. The stuclasstime to activity of non-drill University
of the freshmanclassof the 1962dents
nature.
63academicyear upon entry to Ihe
ContinuedResearch
State UniversitySchoolof Music,
Ohio
a batteryof fourmusictests
given
were
Under a grant supportedby the
to the tests given by the
addition
in
reUnitedStates Officeof Education,
Ithreetests measuredcomUniversity.
conbeen
in musiclearninghas
search
in thirteenvariables(skillsin
tinuedunderthe directionof the au- petencies
the elementheabilityto conceptualize
thor.Music educatorshave been in
The fourth
music).
of
volvedwith teaching the recognition talmaterials
changein
of
pattern
the
testmeasured
ofthe varioussoundsand symbolsof
variables
on
scores
musicand their related problemsas the perfolrmance
of the
parts
elemental
representing
process.
partof the music learning
music,
in
language
notated
and
that
so
aural
Manymethodshave evolved
points
certain
at
measured
to
are
which
materials
basic
studentscouldlearn
seintegrated
two-year
basic
the
presentain
The
level.
amore adequate
the
in
courses
tionof these materialshas been pri- quenceof college level
of music. On the basis
marilyan aural or visual approach. fundamentals
data the studentswere
test
If studentsrespondedovertly to these of all of the
matchedgroupsat the
the
four
to
assigned
they normallyperformed
materials,
trainingperiod.
writing
by
each
or
of
singing
beginning
tasksby
required
learnedusing
students
known
of
been
group
has
One
Little
theirresponses.
promaterial
any
of
self-instructional
effectiveness
taped
learning
as to the
and
sounds
music
of
aural
with
combinations
grammed
possible
several
the
of
The
materialpresentationor the response madepaperandpencilresponses.
modes. The previously reportedre- studentshearda recordedmusicstimusearch provided a self-instructional lus andrespandedwith paperand pentechniquethat had been shownto be cil, then weregiven the correctidentia moreeffectivemethodof learningto fication.The secondgroupof students
perceive music than similar learning learnedusing self-instructionalmusic
taught by traditionalprocedures.In
otation programmedand presented
addition,this techniqueaffordeda way visually and recordedtheir voice reof controlledpresentationon an in- sponseson tape, then were given the
dividualbasis. It, therefore,was pos- correctidentification.The thirdgroup
sible to study and comparethe effec- of studentslearnedusing taped selftivenessof studentslearningbasic ele- instructional material programmed
mentsof musicpresentedwith two dif- with auralmusicsoundsand recorded
ferent self-presentationmethods and theirvoice responseson tape,and then
two differentkinds of responsemodesX were given the correct answer. The
Intervals,rhythmstand a combina- fourthgroupof studentslearnedusing
tion of two intervalsand a rhythm self-instructionalmusic notation programmedand presentedvisually and
called tone groups werethe basic elestudy.
this
in
made paper and pencil responsesand
mentsof musicpresented
then weregiven the correctanswer.
The academic year 1961-62 was
A ten-weekperiod was allotted for
of
spent in the continuedpreparation
studentsto learneach one of three
the
establishment
further
materialsandthe
basic elements. Only one of the three
of de self-presentationmethods as

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98

JOUlitNALOF ESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION

elementswas to be learnedduringeach mation, (e) Music Recognition,(f)

ten-weekperiod. Ihe students used BasicElementsof MusicTest,and (g)
speciallyprepared
self-presentation
ma- AmericanCollegeTest.
tenals that wereavailableon a library 2. Age
basisin the musicaudiovisualtraining 3. Ses
laboratory.This trainingwas in addi- 4. Appliedmusicperformance
area
tion to the instructionthat tookplace
in theirregularfundamentals
of music 5. Classgradesin music
The statlsticalanalysisis providing
classandwas consideredadjunctiveto
their classroomwork. Preliminaryre- the opportunityto analyzeand study
viewof the datafromthis researchhas the problemsrelatedto the developing
indicatedthat for some elementsof of skills relatedto the perceptionof
musicperception,one stimulusis more music.This researchhasaddedto presuseful than another. These data also ent knowledgeso that hypothesesmay
revealthat one stimulusor modeof re- be formulatedfor subsequentresearch
sponseis superiorfor learningby some concerningthe individualdifferences
students,whilenot as eSectivefor oth- withwhichstudentslearnthe skills of
ers. There is evidencefrom this re- interval identification,rhythmicdisand tonegroupperception.
searchto indicatethat for some stu- crimination,
dents, alternativemeansof providing This researchhas beenan opportunity
immediateknowledgeof results(rath- to evaluateand analyzeproblemsreer thanstatedinformationfromwhich lated to the shapingof comples bethe studentcan learnwhetherhis re- haviorinvolvedin learningneededmusponsewas right or wrong)wouldbe sic skills. It is importantto use everv
moreeffective.Thispreliminary
review possiblemeansto aid the teacherand
has seemedto indicatethat the singing makethe teachermoreeffective. The
responseis an excellent method for hope is that teacherswill be able to
learningthe basicelementsof music. providebetter opportunitiesfor stuFutureevaluationwill be basedon dentsto learnas a resultof data that
a completestatisticalanalysisthat is are collectedfrom the projectedreunderwaybut not completeas of this search. The researchoutlinedin this
writing. Measurements
that are being paperdoesnot answerall the problems
used in the analysis and evaluation that have plaguedstudents,teachers,
and musiciansfor at least 400 years.
are:
1. Tests Scoreson: (a) Pretestand There have been encouragingsigns,
Posttestforintervals,rhythm,andtone however,that futureresearchwill progroups, (b) Ohio State Psychological vide the answersto some fundamental
Examination,(c) MusicSkill and In- problems.
formation,(d) GeneralMusic Infor- The Ohio State University

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