is considered sourceless because once power

which is generated from mud flowing through the

toolis no longer applied to the PNG, it ceases to
emit neutrons. Conversely, chemical sources are
always on.
The neutron output from the PNG also makes
thermal neutron capture spectroscopy measurements possible. Similar to the measurements
from the wireline ECS tool, the EcoScope spectrometry service delivers elemental yields of silicon [Si], calcium [Ca], iron [Fe], sulfur [S],

Standard SpectroLith
Processing

titanium [Ti], gadolinium [Gd], potassium [K],

hydrogen [H] and chlorine [Cl]. Although the
EcoScope tool was not able to differentiate limestone from dolomite in the past, the tool response
was recently recharacterized to include a magnesium [Mg] measurement (below). The ability to
measure Mg is fundamental for distinguishing
dolomite from limestone. In barite-weighted mud
systems, this becomes a crucial measurement for
determining formation lithology because the PEF

Calcite-Dolomite
from PEF

Calcite-Dolomite from
Enhanced Spectroscopy

Dolomite

Dolomite

Quartz-Feldspar-Mica

Calcite

Calcite

Clay

Anhydrite

Anhydrite

Anhydrite-Gypsum

Quartz

Quartz

Pyrite

Bound Water

Bound Water

Carbonate

Illite

Illite

> Refining lithology determination. Standard SpectroLith processing (left)

cannot distinguish calcite from dolomite in the absence of a PEF or
magnesium measurement and assumes that all calcium is associated with
calcite. When lithology is computed using the PEF measurement from a
Litho-Density tool, the software is able to distinguish dolomite from calcite
(center), but the PEF measurement can be affected by barite in the drilling
fluids and by hole conditions. The excessive anhydrite shown in the center
track is attributed to these effects. If more than two minerals are present,
the PEF measurement is less accurate. Spectroscopy that includes a
magnesium measurement (right) distinguishes dolomite from calcite and is
not affected by hole conditions and fluid properties. Other minerals can be
accurately quantified as well.

48

Oilfield Review
Autumn 10
CleanPhase Fig. 11
ORAUT10-CLNPSE Fig. 11

measurement from a Litho-Density tool is rendered unusable by the effects of the barite. In
complex mineralogy the spectroscopy measurement helps identify mineral constituents and provides an effective matrix density, or grain density,
for more-accurate density-porosity computations.
Complex Middle East Carbonate
Recently the EcoScope tool was run in an offshore
Abu Dhabi carbonate field.21 Production from this
field began in 1968 from Lower Cretaceous, Upper
Jurassic, Upper Permian and Lower Triassic formations. In 2006 Total decided to drill and develop
the Late Triassic (Gulailah) and Lower Jurassic
(Hamlah) Formations, which had not been previously produced.
The Hamlah reservoir is 50 m [164 ft] thick
and comprises two intervals separated by shale.
The lower interval is a micro- to very fine-grained
crystalline dolomite interbedded with limestone
streaks. The upper interval grades between limestone, wackestone to packstone, with some grainstone and dolomite. Porosity ranges from 6% to
8%, and permeability ranges from very low to low.
The Gulailah reservoir is 250 m [820 ft] thick,
with alternating dolomitic and anhydritic beds.
The dolomites are sucrosic to finely crystalline,
anhydritic and occasionally argillaceous. Porosity
ranges from 8% to 13% and permeability is low to
very low.
Deviated wells were drilled using 1.35-g/cm3
[11.3-lbm/galUS] barite-weighted mud systems.
This barite significantly degraded the PEF measurement. The EcoScope tools spectroscopy
measurement was able to accurately distinguish
calcite from dolomite and provide the matrix
grain density.
Another common complication encountered in
evaluating deviated wellsespecially in carbonatesis resistivity anomalies caused by shoulderbed effects. These arise when the measurement
volume includes regions with large conductivity
contrasts. Electromagnetic averaging and charge
buildup along the interface between layers result
in polarization horns, seen as anomalous spikes in
the resistivity data (next page).22
Although shoulder-bed effects are generally
small in vertical wells, for deviated and horizontal wells these effects may be prominent in long
intervals as wells approach, intersect and depart
from layer boundaries. Resistivities affected by
shoulder beds can produce misleadingly high
hydrocarbon saturations when calculated using
Archies saturation equation.

Oilfield Review

1 ohm.m

1 ohm.m

50 ohm.m
50 ohm.m

Resistivity, ohm.m

1,000

100

10

1
1 ohm.m
5,000

5,010

50 ohm.m
5,020
Distance from boundary, ft

5,030

5,040

1,000
1 ohm.m

50 ohm.m

Sigma, cu

100

10

1
5,000

5,010

5,020
Distance from boundary, ft

5,030

5,040

> Shoulder-bed effects on LWD resistivity measurements. Averaging of resistivity measurements affects the output at
bed boundaries. In wells drilled nearly perpendicular to the layering (top left), these effects tend to be localized as
the tool crosses a resistivity interface. Horizontal wells may cross multiple zones with large resistivity contrasts (top
right). In this situation, charges accumulate at the interface and induce a polarization horn, or spikeswhich are
dependent on the depth of investigationthat are not representative of the actual resistivity (middle). If not
accounted for during interpretation, the elevated resistivities produce misleadingly high hydrocarbon saturations
using Archies saturation equation. The sigma measurement (bottom) does not suffer from the polarization effect,
permitting a more accurate evaluation of the hydrocarbon saturation in high-angle wells.

The superiority of sigma-based saturation

measurements over conventional methods is
compromised in the presence of significant mudfiltrate invasion. Resistivity-response modeling
has shown that invasion less than 5 cm [2 in.] has

Summer 2010

negligible effects on the sigma measurement.

Generally, because the measurement is taken so
close to the bit, the formation does not have time
to become significantly invaded before the
EcoScope tool acquires
data. The
TSFigure
12 tools resistivity
sensor array, collocated with the sigma measure-

ment, can determine the degree of invasion in

the area sampled.
21. Griffiths R and Poirier-Coutansais X: Complex
Carbonate Reservoir EvaluationA Logging While
Drilling Field Example, paper AA, presented at the
SPWLA Regional Symposium, Abu Dhabi, UAE,
April 1618, 2007.
22. Griffiths and Poirier-Coutansais, reference 21.

49

Resistivity
40-in. Blended LWD Tool
40-in. 2-MHz Phase Shift

Neutron Porosity
50

28-in. 2-MHz Phase Shift 50

16-in. 2-MHz Phase Shift
0.2

ohm.m

Clay-Bound Water
Irreducible Water
Free Water

Matrix-Adjusted Porosity

2,000 50

Density Porosity
%

Total Porosity
%

250-ppt Salinity
a = 1, m = n = 2

SpectroLith Apparent Salinity

0 400

ppt

Sigma Apparent Salinity

0 400

ppt

Water Saturation
(Sigma)

150-ppt Salinity
a = 1, m = n = 2
SpectroLith Apparent Salinity

100

4 100

0 400

Clay-Bound Water
Irreducible Water
Free Water
Water Saturation
(Sigma)
100

4 100

ppt
4
Water Saturation 400
Water Saturation
(Archie)
(Archie)
Sigma Apparent Salinity
ppt

> Improved Archies equation and sigma saturation measurements. Apparent formation salinity is computed assuming the
formation is 100% water saturated (Tracks 3 and 5, green curves). Apparent salinity from the spectroscopy chlorine/hydrogen
(Cl/H) ratio measurement (Tracks 3 and 5, blue curve) is presented for comparison. Archie saturation is calculated using n and m
exponents set to 2 and an Rw based on the assumed salinity corrected for downhole conditions (Tracks 4 and 6, blue curve).
Sigma-based saturations (red curve) are computed using two different water salinities: 250 and 150 parts per thousand (ppt).
The red lines in Tracks 3 and 5 indicate the salinity input used for each analysis. The analysis using 250-ppt salinity water
(Tracks 3 and 4), which was the original assumption, exhibits a large separation between the two saturation solutions. Also, the
SpectroLith apparent salinity (blue curve) does not match the salinity used in the analysis (red line). For the 150-ppt salinity
analysis (Tracks 5 and 6), the SpectroLith apparent-salinity curve (blue) tracks the salinity value used in the analysis (red line),
and both saturation methods are in much closer agreement (Track 6). This simultaneous solution yields a more reliable saturation
measurement and a more reasonable choice for formation-fluid salinity. Note the lack of separation between deep and shallow
resistivities (Track 1) indicating shallow invasion and acceptable sigma measurement. Neutron and density porosities, adjusted
for matrix lithology from spectroscopy data, are also presented (Track 2). (Adapted from Griffiths and Poirier-Coutansais,
reference 21.)

In the Total well, the preinvasion sigma from

the EcoScope tool provided a valid water saturation measurement independent of formation
resistivity. As an added benefit, petrophysicists
were able to determine appropriate inputs to
Archies water saturation equation to match the
sigma-based measurement. Because carbonate
reservoirs often have unknown Rw values, simultaneously solving for water salinity provided a
realistic Rw and water output that satisfied both
equations (above).
Sum Greater than Parts
The EcoScope approach provides answers about
fluid saturations in carbonates, but a preinvasion
sigma measurement is often unavailable.
Recognizing the challenges in carbonate

50

evaluation, Schlumberger scientists devised a

workflow for petrophysical and textural evaluaReview
tion that Oilfield
integrates
standard wireline logging
suites withAutumn
recently10introduced measurements.
CleanPhase Fig. 13
Several independent
research efforts
ORAUT10-CLNPSE
Fig. 13focusing on
discrete aspects of carbonate evaluation are combined using this systematic methodology. The
workflow evolved into the Carbonate Advisor software program (next page, top left). Each step in
the workflow provides a piece of the puzzle and
facilitates subsequent steps.
Petrophysicists applied this methodology to a
Cretaceous Middle East carbonate well that had
a comprehensive suite of wireline logs. The logging program included array resistivity (both
induction and laterolog), gamma ray, density,
thermal and epithermal neutron, NMR, full-wave-

form acoustic, neutron capture spectroscopy and

microresistivity imaging tools.
The analysis hierarchy began with lithology
and mineralogy determinations from fluid- and
matrix-sensitive data, including NMR information, density and neutron porosity logs, PEF logs
and neutron capture spectroscopy data. The petrophysicist can emphasize the importance of a
particular measurement based on its relevance
and the borehole environment to obtain a simultaneous solution that includes input from all
measurements.23 In this case the mineralogy consists predominantly of calcite with small amounts
of dolomite. Siliciclastic material and anhydrite
were also observed (next page, top right).
Elemental thermal neutron capture spectroscopy data quantified the dolomite, anhydrite,

Oilfield Review

Input Data

Outputs

Density, PEF, neutron,

NMR, spectroscopy

Lithology, porosity,
fluid type

NMR, borehole images,

acoustic data

Porosity partitioning

Dolomite

Formation testers

Calcite
Anhydrite
Quartz

Petrophysical
rock types
NMR pore size
transforms

Capillary pressures

Resistivity, sigma,
dielectrics, 3D NMR data

Fluid saturations

Array resistivities,
formation tester data

Fractional flow

Bound Water

Calcite

Porosity Correction

Anhydrite

Illite

Integrated carbonate
evaluation

Permeability

Dolomite

> Integrated carbonate solution. This flowchart shows the workflow sequence
for analyzing carbonate reservoirs using Carbonate Advisor software.

Microporosity
Mesoporosity

T 2 Distributions
T 2 Cutoff Long
0.5

Depth,
ft
0.5

ms

Total Porosity
50,000 50

T 2 Cutoff Short
ms

Free Fluid, NMR

Macroporosity

30

Computed Permeability
0 0.1

Core Microporosity
50,000 50

mD

10,000 30

Core Permeability
0 0.1

mD

10,000 30

Macroporosity Cutoff
%

Core Macroporosity
%

X,500

X,600

TSFigure 14

> Porosity partitioning of NMR data. The distribution of T2 transverse relaxation time data (Track 1) from
the NMR tool is partitioned based on cutoffs that can be refined from core analysis. In this example
volumes computed from distributions to the left of the red line (Track 1) represent microporosity, which
correspond to the blue shaded volume in Track 2. Microporosity measurements from core are plotted
along with the microporosity volume for confirmation. The area between the red and blue lines in Track 1
is mesoporosity, corresponding to the green shading in Track 2. The macroporosity (red shading) is
associated with remaining porosity (Track 1, right of the blue line). Permeability from core data is
plotted with permeability computed from NMR data (Track 3). The free-fluid volume computed from
NMR data can be similarly partitioned (Track 4). Fluid volume to the right of the cutoff (blue line) is
associated with mesoporosity, and the volume to the left is macroporosity. Core data points agree with
computed data. (Adapted from Ramamoorthy et al, reference 5.)

Summer 2010

> Lithology defined by the ECS tool. The

measurement principle for neutron capture
spectroscopy is the same for both the ECS and
the EcoScope tools; the difference is the neutron
source. The ECS sonde has a chemical source
and the EcoScope tool uses a pulsed-neutron
generator with a higher neutron output.
Traditional methods for determining lithology use
PEF data from a Litho-Density tool (left). This
method is best suited for two-mineral models. By
adding elemental yield data from the ECS tool
(right), the lithology can be refined, providing a
more accurate density-porosity measurement
because the grain density reflects the true
mineralogy. The porosity difference between
using a fixed limestone matrix density value and
an effective grain density computed from ECS
mineralogy is presented (Track 2, orange
shading). (Adapted with permission of the
SPWLA from Ramamoorthy et al, reference 5.)

quartz and clay (illite) volumes to generate an

Oilfielddensity,
Reviewallowing an accurate
effective grain
10
porosity toAutumn
be obtained.
CleanPhase Fig. 15
The lithology-corrected
porosity
was next parORAUT10-CLNPSE
Fig. 15
titioned into pore geometry components based
on NMR data, which were fine-tuned with borehole image and full-waveform acoustic data. In
contrast to the lithology and mineralogy, the pore
geometry was highly variable, with zones containing significant amounts of macroporosity interspersed with zones dominated by mesoporosity
and lesser amounts of microporosity (left).
23. Ramamoorthy et al, reference 5.

51

Lithology
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Illite (dry)
Montmorillonite
Siderite
Quartz
Anhydrite

Depth,
ft
AIT Tool
HRLA Tool

NMR Porosity Partition

Microporosity
Mesoporosity
Macroporosity

Calcite
Dolomite
Pyrite
Water
Hydrocarbon
Moved Hydrocarbon

Total Porosity
50

Contributing Flow
0

Computed Permeability
0 0.1

Core Porosity

T2 Distributions
100

Ternary Porosity Partition

Macroporosity
Macromesoporosity
Mesoporosity
Macromicroporosity
Mesomicroporosity
Micromacroporosity
Micromesoporosity
Microporosity

50

mD

10,000

Min

Core Permeability
0 0.1

mD

10,000 0

Capillary Pressure

Max

Water Saturation
%

100

X,400

X,500

X,600

> Integrated output. Shown is the final product from the Carbonate Advisor
program. These outputs provide an integrated and comprehensive
evaluation of the key properties that describe a reservoirs storage and flow
capacity. The petrophysicist may weight the data from specific tools and
choose between tools (Depth track, AIT array induction imager tool, green;
and HRLA high-resolution laterolog array, gold). Complex lithology and fluid
volumes (Track 1) are shown along with a moved-hydrocarbon analysis
(orange) from microresistivity data. Fluid-flow models are constructed from
resistivity data (Track 2). Porosity from NMR data (Track 3) are partitioned
and the results graphically displayed (Track 4). A full ternary analysis (Track 5)

The partitioned porosity from NMR data had

good correlation with data from MICP test
results. Analysts next used the partitioned porosity to estimate permeability. These log-derived
values compare well with minipermeameter
probe measurements made on core plugs.
Relative permeability and fluid saturations
were computed using both array induction and
array laterolog resistivity measurements. Because
of the high salinity of the borehole fluid, the induction measurement was unreliable at high resistivi-

52

is useful for identifying better quality reservoir rock. Drainage capillary

pressures are computed from NMR pore geometry data, adjusted to match
MICP data when available, and then plotted with water saturation (Track 6).
The dark-blue shading indicates the pore space that can become oil filled at
low capillary pressure. The shading transitions from blue to red,
corresponding to successively higher capillary pressures required to fill
additional pore volumes. Thus the layer around X,600, with more dark-blue
shading than the mostly red and yellow layer around X,500, represents
better quality rock. (Adapted from Ramamoorthy et al, reference 5.)

Oilfield
Review section. The laterolog
ties in the main
hydrocarbon
Autumnin10these zones.
data are preferred
CleanPhase Fig. 17
Drainage
capillary pressures
ORAUT10-CLNPSE
Fig.were
17 also computed based on NMR data transforms.24 Because
the NMR data provide pore size from T2 distributions, assuming bulk and diffusion effects are
minimal, by integrating the T2 distribution, a capillary pressure versus saturation relationship can
be developed. To convert T2 data to capillary pressure, a small calibration constant is required.
This constant is obtained by comparing the NMR
data with MICP measurements taken from similar core samples. Using the Carbonate Advisor

program, the analyst manually determines the

constant by comparing MICP entry pressures
with those computed from NMR log data.
The integrated approach of the Carbonate
Advisor software provides comprehensive evaluation of key properties that describe reservoir
storage capacity and flow characteristics (above).
The software follows a set workflow, but throughout the process the petrophysicist has interactive
control over how data are input, a particularly
useful feature when measurement conditions
may be less than optimal.

Oilfield Review

Seismic Observations

Data Analysis

Model Representations

Diffuse fractures

Seismic anisotropy

Anisotropy analysis and inversion

Implicit fracture models or DFN

Fracture corridors

Subtle discontinuities and scattering

Fracture cluster mapping

Fracture patch sets

Faults

Dislocated horizons

Ant tracking, fault transmissivity

Structural faults

Macroscale

Mesoscale

Microscale

Geologic Features

> Multiscale seismically constrained fracture characterization. Fractures

may exist over a wide range of scales from very small cracks to very large
faults. Understanding their distribution and properties at these different
scales is essential to characterize naturally fractured reservoirs. The scales
can be divided into three ranges: micro- (less than 1 m), meso- (10 to 100 m)
and macro- (greater than 100 m). Microscale fractures include layer-bound
diffuse fractures that can pervade across a geologic layer and are
frequently observed in image logs such as those from the FMI fullbore
formation microimager. Typically, these fracture types are the primary
controls used to build geologic models containing fractures, such as implicit
fracture models or discrete fracture networks (DFN). Although these diffuse
fractures are smaller than surface seismic wavelengths, a large population
density of such fractures can be detected with seismic measurements by
analyzing the seismic anisotropy. Mesoscale fracture corridors and
subseismic faults are the most difficult scale of fractures to characterize;

Searching Above Ground

Approaches discussed so far apply to data acquired
downhole. Because of the heterogeneity of carbonate reservoirs, the shallow depth of investigation
of most logging tools may limit their use for optimizing well positioning. For instance, fracture orientation obtained from imaging tools can be
influenced by local effects and may not reflect the
predominant trend in the reservoir. However, new
developments in seismic technology are providing
operators with assistance in detecting fracture
swarms within a reservoir and this knowledge can
be used to optimize well locations.
Three-dimensional surface seismic surveys
offer an expanded view of reservoir heterogeneity, extending over the entire field. Variations in
the reservoir properties such as porosity, clay
content and water saturation can all be characterized using seismic measurements, although
their resolution and detection level are limited

Summer 2010

they are at the lower end of surface seismic resolution and few wells may
intersect them. These narrow features cross layer boundaries and, with
suitable 3D seismic data and careful analysis such as with the fracture
cluster mapping workflow, they can be detected as subtle discontinuities in
the data. Because mesoscale fracture corridors can have very high
permeabilities and have major influence over reservoir dynamics, they
should be incorporated into geologic models as individual fracture patch
sets. In contrast to micro- and mesoscale fractures, macroscale faults are
comparatively easy to detect with 3D seismic data and form the basis for
structural modeling. Computer interpretation methods for fault detection,
such as the ant tracking algorithm used in the Petrel seismic-to-simulation
software, are available to automate the process and may be able to
overcome analyst bias. Detailed analysis of the seismically derived rock
properties around these faults may help in assessing fault transmissivity.

by the seismic wavelengths used, survey design

and other factors such as near-surfacegenerated noise. Recent developments in seismic
acquisition tools and processing techniques have
increased the usable bandwidth and signal-tonoise ratio such that higher resolution data with
enhanced signal fidelity are now obtainable.
Consequently, geoscientists are able to characterize in finer detail the heterogeneous porosity
and lithology variations and the multiscale fracture networks present in carbonate reservoirs.25
Most carbonate reservoirs are naturally fracTSFigure 22
turedfrom microscale diffuse fractures (less
than 1 m [3 ft]) to macroscale faults (greater
than 100 m [330 ft]). At the intermediate mesoscale (10 to 100 m) subseismic faults and fracture swarms, or corridors, may prevail (above). A
typical fracture corridor can consist of thousands
of parallel fractures of variable dimensions
densely packed together, forming a volume that is

typically a few meters wide, a few tens of meters

high and several hundred meters long.
Permeabilities in these corridors can range well
above 10 darcies. These corridors often act as
major conduits for fluid flowing within the reservoir and may be responsible for early water
breakthrough from natural drive or waterflooding. Therefore, to manage field production effectively and maximize total recovery, it is crucial
that the locations of fracture corridors are accurately known and modeled.
24. For more on the computation of capillary pressure:
Ouzzane J, Okuyiga M, Gomaa R, Ramamoorthy R,
Rose D, Boyd A and Allen DF: Application of NMR T2
Relaxation to Drainage Capillary Pressure in Vuggy
Carbonate Reservoirs, paper SPE 101897, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, Texas, September 2427, 2006.
25. Singh SK, Abu-Habbiel H, Khan B, Akbar M, Etchecopar A
and Montaron B: Mapping Fracture Corridors in
Naturally Fractured Reservoirs: An Example from
Middle East Carbonates, First Break 26, no. 5
(May 2008): 109113.

53

X-2

X-5

X-3

X-1

X-4

X-6
2 km
1 mi

> Surface relief map of Sabriyah field in northern

Kuwait. This field, the first of five to be analyzed,
was considered a key area in the study.
Geoscientists used the FCM workflow to evaluate
existing seismic data. Wells X-5 and X-6 were to
be drilled based on study results. Borehole
images and core from these wells validated the
fracture clusters predicted by the FCM model.

One method for identifying these corridors

using seismic data is the FCM fracture cluster
mapping technique. Geoscientists have developed the FCM workflow to identify discontinuities in the 3D surface seismic data associated
with subseismic faults and fracture corridors.
Two key factors contributing to the success of
this technique are the suitability of the seismic
acquisition and processing. The workflow
assumes that large clusters of natural fractures,
which constitute a fracture corridor, produce
coherent structural discontinuities that are
detectable with 3D seismic data. The complete
FCM workflow integrates expert interpretation
of high-quality seismic data and borehole measurements with geologic modeling and dynamic
simulation, which enables a detailed characterTSFigure 19
ization of naturally fractured reservoirs.
26. Acquisition footprints, seen on 3D seismic time slices,
are patterns that correlate to surface-acquisition
geometry and distort amplitude and phase of reflections.
This form of noise can obscure true subsurface
reflections and should be removed prior to
interpretation, if possible. Although the FCM workflow
might detect them, an experienced interpreter should
be able to identify them as noise rather than fractures.
27. The Q-Land system is a point-receiver acquisition and
processing system capable of acquiring 30,000 channels
of data in real time. Point-receiver data are recorded
with variable densities and processed with

54

The discontinuity extraction software identifies subtle inconsistencies that appear as lineaments in the seismic data. Generally, the raw
lineaments that are extracted are associated
with either geologic discontinuities in the reservoir or nongeologic residual features in the data
such as acquisition footprints or near-surface
noise contamination.26 To focus on detecting fracture clusters, the process is constrained and calibrated with a priori knowledge that includes
regional and local structural geology, tectonic
history, reservoir geomechanics, core analysis,
borehole images, sonic logs, vertical seismic profile data, well tests and production history.
Results are strongly dependent on the seismic
acquisition geometry and data quality and will be
less reliable with poor imaging, poor spatial and
temporal bandwidth, low signal-to-noise ratio
and acquisition footprints. Thus, there are stringent requirements on the 3D seismic data quality
to provide a meaningful input for detecting fracture clusters. Custom design of processing and
data acquisition, especially when using singlesensor data such as those provided by the Q-Land
seismic system, may be necessary.27
The FCM technique offers a radically different
technology for characterizing fractured reservoirs.
Historically, only the properties of diffuse fractures
have been characterized through the interpretation of a variety of seismic attributes, such as azimuthal anisotropy observations. However, with the
fully integrated FCM workflow, the location of individual fracture corridors can be detected and
embedded into a multiscale 3D reservoir model
containing faults and diffuse fractures. Dynamic
simulation of the fluid flow through these multiscale models and calibration with production logs
verify the major flow pathways. Operators can use
this information to locate injector and producer
wells to maximize reservoir sweep efficiency and
minimize water breakthrough.
Locating the Well
The FCM workflow was used to model five
Jurassic carbonate reservoirs in Kuwait. One of
these fields, the Sabriyah field, was selected as
the key area for study because of its challenging
structural setting and a drilling schedule that
complementary digital group forming (DGF) techniques.
DGF processed raw sensor measurements provide a
clean group-formed trace with improved resolution
and low noise.
28. Riedel shears produce a geometric fracture pattern
commonly associated with strike-slip fault systems.
They may form echelon patterns inclined 10 to 30 to
the direction of motion.
29. Refae AT, Khalil S, Vincent B, Ball M, Francis M,
Barkwith D and Leathard M: Increasing Bandwidth for
Reservoir Characterization with Single-Sensor Seismic
Data, Petroleum Africa (July 2008): 4144.

Depth,
ft
X,950

Y,000

Y,050

Y,100

Y,150

Y,200

> Crosswell seismic imaging. At the absolute best,

3D surface seismic data (left) can resolve features
down to tens of meters. Crosswell imaging, such
as the DeepLook-CS seismic imaging service,
acquires data from downhole sources and
receivers placed in separate wells. Using higher
frequencies extending to kilohertz provides
ultrahigh-resolution images between wells and
can resolve features as small as 1.5 m [5 ft]. Seen
in the crosswell data (right) is a subseismic fault
(magenta line) and the detailed multilayered
reservoir structure. Fracture corridors, interpreted
from discontinuities detected in a 3D seismic
volume, can also be verified from this type of
crosswell seismic imaging.

included four new wells (above left). An abundance of lineaments across the reservoir were
identified after initial analysis of the seismic
data. Further analysis of these lineaments
revealed a predominant population oriented
NNE-SSW along the main axis of the anticline
structure and a secondary population consisting
of orthogonal lineaments (next page). In contrast, borehole image data showed a dominant
ENE-WSW fracture orientation.
This analysis suggested that the dominant
NNE-SSW trend in the lineaments is probably associated with longitudinal fold-related fractures and
that the secondary set of orthogonal lineaments
correlate with the fractures identified from the
TSFigure 23
borehole image data and are possibly Riedel
30. The nominal fold is defined as the number of different
source-receiver locations that illuminate a particular
subsurface sampling point or bin. Each of the many
source-receiver pairs, corresponding to a given bin
location, will record reflections along different raypaths
and can be characterized by its nominal azimuth and
offset. A broad and uniform distribution of sourcereceiver offsets and azimuths within each bin provides
more information for seismic reservoir characterization.
31. Singh et al, reference 25.

Oilfield Review

X-3 Dipmeter Data

90
135

45

180

X-2

225

X-2

315
270

X-4 Dipmeter Data

90

X-3

135

X-3

45

X-5

X-5
180

X-1

225

X-1

315
270

X-4

X-4
in-line

in-line
135

x-line

Filters:
Search azimuth: All 360
Dip angle: Features dip > 70

135

45

x-line

225

315
in-line

45

x-line

x-line

315

225
in-line

Filters:
Search azimuth: 45 to 135 and 225 to 315
Dip angle: Features dip > 70

> Refining and defining fracture clusters. Existing seismic data were processed using discontinuity extraction software (DES) models without filters (left),
and the orientation of the fractures is overwhelmingly in line with the axis of the anticlinal structure (NNE-SSW). Logging data from Wells X-3 and X-4
indicated ENE-WSW orientation (insets). This is attributed to Riedel shears caused by NNE-SSW strike-slip faults. Azimuth filters applied to the seismic
data detected fracture clusters with different orientations (right). The orientation of these clusters is masked in the original processing. (Adapted from
Singh et al, reference 25.)

shears.28 While this limited study indicated the

presence of numerous structural discontinuities
across the field that could be related to subseismic
faults or fracture corridors, such interpretations
can be validated only through further integration
of other data sources and ultimately through drilling. An example of validation from other sources is
the use of ultrahigh-resolution crosswell seismic
imaging (previous page, top right).
To obtain more-detailed information about the
fractures in the carbonate reservoirs of Kuwait,
Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) acquired a state-ofthe-art 3D seismic pilot survey over 100 km2
[38 mi2] of the Northwest Raudhatain field using
the WesternGeco Q-Land technology. This system
employs maximum displacement vibroseis sweep
and single-sensor receivers (see Land Seismic
Techniques for High-Quality Data, page 28). The
MD Sweep technique enhances low-frequency
content by optimally designing the drive force and
variable sweep rate of the vibroseis units.29 Singlesensor deployment enables dense sampling of the
wavefield for removal of source-generated noise.

Summer 2010

The advanced acquisition design consisted of

a wide-azimuth square patch, resulting in a very
high nominal fold of 990 for 12.5-m by 12.5-m
[41-ft by 41-ft] bin size with uniform offsetazimuth distribution up to 6 km [3.7 mi].30 This
design is ideal for seismic fracture characterization using P-wave data. The Northwest Raudhatain
field presents an additional challenge because
the seismic reflections are contaminated by a
series of multiple-reflected seismic waves that
interfere with the primary reflections over the
reservoir. Advanced data processing is currently
being applied to suppress these multiples and
maximize the extraction of information from the
3D seismic data for an extensive seismically
guided fracture characterization.
In the past, engineers have proposed that
fracture corridors result in early water breakthrough but did not have effective tools to detect
TSFigure 20
their presence. Historically, fracture clusters
detected in wellbores were incorporated in stochastic 3D models to explain their effects on production. The ability to identify fracture clusters

away from the wellbore using the FCM workflow

and to visualize their orientation with 3D maps
will help optimize field development and avoid
unexpected water breakthrough.31
Hydrocarbons from Carbonates
Much of the worlds remaining hydrocarbon
reserves are thought to lie in carbonate rocks
whose complexity has often confounded petroleum engineers, geophysicists and geologists
working to extract their riches. Step-change
improvements in a wide variety of interpretation
techniques and sensor technologies are making it
possible for these professionals to more effectively
evaluate, drill and produce carbonate reservoirs.
By integrating techniques and technology, the statistical odds inherent in drilling and maximizing
recovery from carbonates are being shifted in
favor of todays petroleum technologists. TS

55