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Importance of Sea Lion and Deer and their Hunting in

Moche Culture

Vipul Reddy

December 13 2015

vxr150030

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Moche culture flourished in the Northern region of the Peruvian coast from around 200 to
700 CE. A culture deeply enriched with mythology and sacrifice, the culture placed a large
emphasis on ceramic-making, often depicting various significant acts and important social
activities on their fine pottery such as war, sacrifice, hunting, weaving, metalwork, and sex. They
viewed themselves as the best civilization, so anything that was associated with Moche was
automatically better. In order to assert their dominance, the Moche created detailed ceramics and
held ceremonies to convince that Moche culture was better. These ceramics often depicted
animals such as monkeys, sea lions, deer, birds, foxes, bats, fish, and reptiles. (Quilter 2010)
However, among these animals, the two most commonly represented were the sea lion and deer.
Both of these animals were prominent in Moche culture, but they had a different significance and
connotation for the Moche. Not only did the sea lion and deer have different associations with
the sea lion being associated with the Moche people and the deer associated with enemy
warriors, but the hunting of the sea lion and deer had different purposes as sea lion hunting was
seen as human sacrifice and deer hunting was a way for Moche elite to emphasize Moche
dominance over other civilizations.
Perhaps the reason the sea lion was associated with the Moche is because of its similarity
to the Moche during the times of El Nio. This phenomenon that usually occurs around every
seven years is associated with a band of warm ocean current that develops in the Western Pacific
near Australia. (Benson 2012) This current travels eastward across the Pacific and reaches South
America near the Peruvian coast. Unfortunately, El Nio reduces the upwelling of cold, nutrientrich water that is needed to sustain the native fish population near the coast. Therefore, many of
these species move southward along the coast and away from Moche fishing grounds. Along
with the warm ocean waters come large warm-water fish and sharks as their food source migrates

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from more tropical areas. These species are harder to hunt for humans and sea lions, so the
amount of available fish to reasonably capture decreases. Because of the migration of the small
fish southward, the Moche state significantly suffers as fish are a large source of food for the
general population. Likewise, the sea lions also visibly suffer during times of El Nio, which
may have caused the Moche to equate sea lions to their own culture. The population of sardines
and anchovies also decreases during El Nio. Since sardines and anchovies make up much of the
sea lion diet, the sea lions suffer without their needed protein. Sea lions therefore have to swim
deeper and deeper for resources and search harder and harder. They become extremely hungry
and agitated as they are unable to find food. In their efforts to obtain food, they would often
attack and destroy the fishing nets of Moche fishermen. (Benson 2012) Nonetheless, many sea
lions would starve and die on the Peruvian coast. The Moche equated their own struggle to the
struggle of the sea lions as both groups competed for the same reasons and therefore viewed sea
lions as similar to the Moche.
The sea lions were associated with the Moche primarily because the sea lions suffered
along with humans during El Nio, but there were also other reasons why the sea lions were
associated with the Moche. For one, the sea lion were similar to humans physically, especially in
Moche ceramics. As seen in Figure 1 (Sea Lion Effigy), sea lions were depicted with relatively
similar facial features to humans. The depiction of the sea lion is similar to a human in that the
sea lion has large eyes, has lines that look like eyelashes above its eyes, has a prominent septum
between its nostrils, and has a human-like mouth with relatively even, short, and flat teeth. The
connection between sea lions and humans goes beyond just physical similarity for the Moche.
Sea lions are mammals that take care of their offspring for a relatively long period of time, just
like humans. In fact, sea lion mothers have been nurturing their young for up to three years.

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(Werness 2004) Sea lions are also omnivores just like humans. Another important characteristic
of the sea lion was that it was a liminal creature, meaning that it was able to inhabit more than
one territory between the sea, land, and sky. (Park 2001) Liminal creatures such as the sea lion
and birds were held in higher regard because they were able to conquer and occupy multiple
zones. The sea lion can not only swim like a fish, but it is also covered in fur like a land animal.
Because of this liminality, sea lions had more of a higher social standing in terms of Moche
culture and were believed to possess special powers. (Park 2001) Therefore, equating sea lions
with the Moche people helped to reinforce the idea that the Moche were special.
Deer, on the other hand, were viewed as similar to enemies, specifically enemy warriors,
of the Moche state; therefore, they were not as respected as the sea lion. While the sea lion was
connected to El Nio, the deer were connected to farming in Moche culture. As seen in Figure 1
(Sea Lion Effigy), Moche depictions of deer ears often looked like leaves. (Benson 2012)
Furthermore, the Moche often depicted deer antlers as branches of trees and commonly included
vegetation on the antlers. Interestingly, the deer species native to the Peruvian coast where the
Moche lived, the white-tailed deer, would grow new antlers every year. The growth of the deer
antlers, which are one of the fastest growing animal tissues, began at a time when Moche farmers
would plant their crops, and the shedding of the antlers coincided with when the Moche farmers
would harvest the crops. Therefore, the deer were commonly linked to agriculture. (Benson
2012) Along with fishing, farming was one of the primary methods of food production for the
Moche. The Moche depended heavily on the farming of corn and beans for consumption and
cotton for textiles. Unfortunately for the Moche, deer also liked to consume those crops. They
ravaged farms and left victim farmers in turmoil. (Benson 1997) Figure 1 (Sea Lion Effigy)
depicts a fight scene between an anthropomorphic bean and a warrior deer. Since farming was a

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major food source for the Moche, the deer warriors could be associated with enemy warriors that
are trying to harm the Moche. Both the deer and Moche compete for the plants, which is
analogous to how the Moche compete with other civilizations for goods and resources. The
connection between the deer and enemy warriors is made mostly because of the deers physical
properties. Deer have many attributes that warriors possess: both are alert, have sharp vision,
have good hearing, and can run fast for short distances. Deer antlers also represent weapons and
are often used to spar with other deer. (Benson 1997) Because of these similarities, the deer were
often depicted as and associated with warriors. However, deer are, in general, poor warriors.
They are not known for their ferocity, usually run away when challenged by a confrontation, do
not fight back, and are not known for their smarts, as evidenced by the death of deer who spar
with their antlers, and get them permanently stuck with another deer. The Moche realized that
although the deer had the physical tools to be good warriors, they were not. This allowed for
Moche elites to use deer as a way to spread Moche idealism. Because the Moche considered
themselves better than other civilizations, they tried to emphasize the superiority of the Moche
state. By associating the deer with enemy warriors, the Moche are able to claim that their
warriors are better. As shown in Figure 2 (Anthropomorphized Bean Fighting Deer), deer were
often depicted bound by their wrist, stripped with genitals bared, and sitting cross-legged, a
position of submissiveness. One quality of deer is that they can easily be taken, tamed, and
habituated to live with humans. By being depicted as a pet, the deer is shown as being at the
mercy and reliant of the owner. (Bourget 2001) In this case, the owner is the Moche state, and the
deer are the enemy warriors, further propagating the idea that enemy warriors were worse than
Moche warriors.

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Much like how the sea lion and deer had different representations in Moche culture, the
two animals were hunted for different reasons. The Moche performed ritualistic hunting of the
sea lion as a form of human sacrifice. As previously mentioned, the Moche considered the sea
lion as a representation of the Moche people. Therefore, hunting the sea lions would be
analogous to human sacrifice. Furthermore, because the sea lion was believed to have special
powers because of its liminality, sea lion hunting had more significance than the hunting of other
animals and was therefore better able to be associated with something as important as human
sacrifice for the Moche. Depictions of the sea lion hunt, such as Figure 4 (Representation of Sea
Lion Hunt), show that the sea lions were beaten with clubs. This act is significant because
humans were also beaten with clubs during human sacrifices. The depiction draws another
parallel between the sacrifice of both creatures and gives credence to the idea that sea lion
hunting was analogous to human sacrifice. In Figure 4 (Representation of Sea Lion Hunt),
multiple small, round objects seem to be coming out of the sea lion in the bottom, left corner.
These objects were also depicted in Figure 1 (Sea Lion Effigy), as the sea lion seems to have two
round objects near its mouth. These circular objects are actually small beach pebbles and stones
the sea lions would cough up during the sea lion hunting. (Park 2001) Moche shaman believed
these stones possessed powerful medicinal properties. This idea comes from the reasoning that
since the sea lion was similar to humans and was a liminal creature, and the sea lions often ate
pebbles, that the pebbles must have special powers. (Park 2001) This idea could be a reason why
stones of sea lions and body parts of sea lions were discovered in the Moche burial grounds.
While digging at Sipn, archaeologist Steve Bourget found the canine tooth of a sea lion pup
resting on the sternum of an individual in Tomb 1 who also had a stone inserted into his pelvis.
(Bourget 2001) The canine looked like it had been intentionally deposited on the body. Next to

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the individual was a clay effigy with an image of a sea lion painted on its chest. On Platform II,
near Tomb 1, the vertebra of an adult sea lion was found. (Bourget 2001) Since the Moche
disfigured the human sacrifices before burying them and also seem to disfigure or at least
remove some body parts of sea lions after the ritualistic hunt, it is reasonable to believe that sea
lion hunting was in some way associated with the victims of the human sacrifice. It is evident
that the sea lion parts were placed in the burial sites on purpose and with careful consideration.
Therefore, the idea that sea lions were linked to humans and that sea lion hunting was similar to
human sacrifice is plausible.
Deer hunting, on the other hand, was often performed in order to show the supremacy of
the Moche state. The deer represented enemy warriors, so it is logical to interpret deer hunting as
a form of human combat to emphasize that Moche warriors were better. (Verano 2001) Although
deer are often depicted on Moche vessels, they did not play a large part in the Moche diet.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the consumption of deer was rampant up until around 100
CE. At that time, the deer population in Peru dwindled because of overhunting, forcing humans
to consume camelid meat as an alternative. Since Moche did not establish itself until around 200
CE, it is safe to assume that the Moche art depicted a deer hunt for religious or ceremonial
reasons, not to portray for important deer meat was to the diet of the Moche. (Shimada 1994)
Deer hunting was probably, then, a social act performed by high ranking individuals. In Figure 5
(Deer Hunt Scene), the largest figures seem to be wearing clothing that is unsuited for hunting.
The figure shows two large, elaborately attired persons with spear throwers, smaller figures
holding clubs and chasing the deer, and even smaller figures that seem to be holding up a net to
prevent the deer from escaping. (Shimada 1994) The most appropriate attire for this occasion
would be something that allows quick movement and blends in with the surroundings. However,

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the large figures seem to be wearing ornate, heavy attire. The most likely explanation for this
attire is that the deer hunting was a organized hunt, possibly a part of a ceremony. If the deer
hunt was part of a ceremony, it is more likely that upper class individuals were doing the hunting
in the elaborate attire than a regular warrior. Although there is no written account of a Moche
deer hunt, the best account of a deer hunt was recorded by Francisco Pizarro around 1536 of a
hunt held by the Inca ruler, Manco Inca.
On that occasion, 10,000 Indians formed a ring around an area 30 to 60 miles in
circumference. They then closed toward the center, driving all the [deer] in the area
before them, and forming several concentric rings as their circle grew smaller. When the
circle was small enough, designated hunters entered it and killed as many animals as was
desired. (Shimada 1994)
The act of hunting deer by means of nets is one of the oldest themes on Andean art, including
vessels from around 2000 BCE depicting the practice. Since the description matches the imagery
of Figure 5 (Deer Hunt Scene), it is safe to assume that the way the ritual was performed by the
Inca was similar to the way it was performed by the Moche. However, one key difference might
be that the Moche did not kill the deer during the hunt itself. Very few of the depictions of the
hunt show the deer in a deceased state: most of the images are of deer with tongues on the side of
their mouths. The reason why the Moche could have depicted the deer in this state is because
they wanted to emphasize that the deer was not killed. When deer run, they often have their
tongues hanging out the sides of their mouth. They also stick out their tongue when they are
winded or tired in order to intake more oxygen. (Werness 2004) The Moche artists may have
intended to show the deer with their tongues out to emphasize that the Moche do not actually kill
the deer during the hunt but injure and exhaust the deer so much that it gives up. No other animal

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in Moche art is depicted with its tongue out like the deer. Depictions of deer hunting and
depictions of human combat on Moche vessels are similar in many ways. The Moche depicted
deer being gathered by nets and then attacked by spear throwers and bludgeoned with clubs.
(Bourget and Jones 2008) Although the Moche used spear throwers against the deer, the
depictions of the hunt have the deer in close proximity to the hunters. Similarly, combat with
enemy warriors is presented as almost a face-toface encounter in Moche iconography between
opponents who fight with close-ranged weapons such as clubs. In fact, some combat scenes show
slings and other long range weapons lying on the ground not being used near figures engaged in
close combat. However, very rarely were either the deer or the enemy warriors depicted as dead.
In fact, killing did not seem like the primary goal of combat for the Moche. Instead, the Moche
wanted to capture enemies for ritual sacrifice in order to emphasize the power of the Moche
state. Therefore, it makes sense that there is an abundance of depictions of captured deer. The
deer were frequently shown with open mouth, rope ties, exposure of sexual organs, and spots on
the body such as with Figure 3 (Deer-Headed Warrior). All of these features are similar to the
treatment of captured human enemies. Human capture is typically shown in Moche iconography
by the overpowering or stunning of an enemy warrior. In much the same way, deer from the hunt
could be considered overpowered and exhausted to a point that they are easily captured and
taken captive, thereby, adding credence to the idea that deer represented enemy warriors.
Although it is not exactly known what happened to the deer after they were captured, it is
reasonable to believe that the deer were used for a ritual sacrifice later on. A ritual sacrifice was
commonly the fate of captured enemy warriors; therefore, it seems plausible that deer were also
used for sacrifice later on. In fact, in some visuals of the mountain sacrifice scene, young deer
are carried like children by some individuals, probably to be sacrificed later. By killing off the

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deer later in a ritual sacrifice, the elites are able to emphasize the power of the Moche and assert
Moche dominance. The capturing of the deer and the stance the captured deer are depicted in
show the population that the Moche are able to capture even something as physically able to
fight as a deer. The deer is has the physical tools to be one of the best fights in the forests, yet it
is easily captured by Moche elites. To further emphasize this point, the depictions show close
combat, which means the capturing of the deer was a feat of strength. By depicting the fight as a
close distanced fight, the Moche remove the idea that the deer were captured through sly
methods such as surprise attacks and was instead defeated head to head. This idea emphasizes
the fact that Moche are better fights than enemies. Furthermore, once the deer is captured, the
stance of the deer is one of complete humiliation and vulnerability as the deer is completely at
the whim of the Moche by being tied up and nude. This act, therefore, signifies that the Moche
have the ability to conquer and control enemies and that everyone is powerless against them.
Both the sea lion and the deer were important to Moche mythology, but they had different
meaning in terms of associations. Although sea lions were often depicted as a representation of
the Moche people, and therefore sea lion hunting was a representation of human sacrifice, deer
were often depicted as enemy warriors, and deer hunting was therefore a representation of
Moche dominance over other civilizations. The fact that the sea lion and deer were the two most
represented animals means they were important figures in mythology, especially considering the
Moche placed a great emphasis on its ceramics and attention to detail. The sea lion might have
been partly represented because it was an important food source during times of El Nio when
food was scarce; however, the deer was probably not an important food source, so it was most
likely depicted solely for its semblance to enemy warriors. Nonetheless, the fact that the sea lion
was more often depicted coughing pebbles and in not in confinement means that the Moche

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culture viewed the sea lion as special in terms of power and held it in higher regard. Meanwhile,
the deer was often represented in a state of submissiveness and frailty, suggesting that it was held
in lower regard. However, it is important to remember that new data of Moche culture is being
found every year, and beliefs held one year might be disproved the next year. Current evidence of
the meaning of sea lions and deer is inadequate and the two animals meaning could change as
archaeologists continue to learn about the Moche. However, at this point, given the current
research on the two animals, it is safe to conclude that the sea lion represented the Moche and the
deer represented the enemy.

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References
Benson, Elizabeth P.
1997 Birds and Beasts of Ancient Latin America University of Florida Press, Gainesville: 34-37
Benson, Elizabeth P.
2012 The Worlds of the Moche on the North Coast of Peru University of Texas Press, Austin: 2-3
Bourget, Steve
2001 Rituals of Sacrifice: Its Practice at Huaca De La Luna and Its Representation in Moche
Iconography Symposium Paper XL: 91-104
Bourget, Steve, and Kimberly L. Jones
2008 The Art and Archaeology of the Moche: An Ancient Andean Society of the Peruvian North
Coast University of Texas Press: 222-223
Park, Yumi
2001 Mirrors of Clay: Reflections of Ancient Andean Life in Ceramics from the Sam Olden
Collection Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi: 55
Quilter, Jeffrey
2010 The Moche of Ancient Peru: Media and Messages Peabody Museum, Cambridge, MA:
49-50,100
Shimada, Izumi
1994 Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture University of Texas Press, Austin: 26, 100
Verano, John
2001 War and Death in the Moche World: Osteological Evidence and Visual Discourse
Symposium Papers XL: 111-116
Werness, Hope B.
2004 The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in Art Continuum, New York: 362-363

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Figures
Figure 1:

Sea Lion Effigy

Peru (Moche)
Ceramic
100-700 CE
Location Unknown

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Figure 2:

Anthropomorphized Bean Fighting Deer

Peru (Moche)
Ceramic
600 CE
University of California, Museum of Culture History, Los Angeles.

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Figure 3:

Deer-Headed Warrior
Peru (Moche)
Ceramic
450-550 CE
Museo Larco, Lima

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Figure 4:

Representation of Sea Lion Hunt

Peru (Moche)
Ceramic
500-600 CE
Linden- Museum, Stuttgart

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Figure 5:

Deer Hunt Scene

Peru (Moche)
Ceramic
200-600 CE
University of California at Los Angeles, Fowler Museum