Kristian .

M | 23rd |

Coral

Geography Course Work

#1
CORAL REEF DESTRUCTION

Destruction

Reef

The Destruction of Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are being destroyed by anthropogenic fluxes in their environment. These
fluxes are caused both directly by people who have physical contact with the reefs and by
all other people who contribute to earths pollution.

Causes Of Coral Reef Destruction

Direct Contact: Fishing
Humans destroy coral reefs directly through unfriendly fishing habits. Many coral reefs
are overfished, destroying their sustainability. In other areas, practices like cyanide
fishing and blast fishing destroy reefs. Cyanide fishing is a method in which divers squirt
cyanide into reef crevices and onto fish, stunning them and making them easy to catch.
Small organisms, especially coral polyps, are killed by the cyanide in this process. Blast
fishing, in which explosives or gun shots are sent into the reefs, can completely destroy
the reef structure. Unsafe Fishing Practices result in the death of coral and other
organisms that live in the reef.
Direct Contact: Tourist Economies

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Tourism has caused severe damage to the reefs. Corals are often removed from their
habitat to be sold as souvenirs. Also, in some coastal areas with rapidly growing
populations and development, piers and docks have been built right on top of coral reefs.
Careless divers often inadvertently destroy coral reefs by kicking them or dropping
anchors from their boats directly onto the coral. In poorer countries, septic waste from
resorts often leaks out into the ocean, killing off the fragile corals. However, much of
the destruction of coral reefs is caused by people who have never even seen a reef. The
pollution which has adversely affected the earth over the last century has had a dramatic
effect on the health of the reefs.
Pollution: Global Warming and Ozone Depletion
Global warming has translated into oceanic warming, the rising temperature of earths
oceans. This process, combined with the depletion of earths ozone and subsequent
increases in ultraviolet radiation, has lead to what is known as coral bleaching. Coral
bleaching occurs when the coral polyps, stressed by changes in temperature or UV
radiation, expel the zooxanthellae which are necessary for their survival. This not only
bleaches them and causes them to lose their color, it often leads to their death.
Pollution: Increased CO2
Increases in the amounts of carbon dioxide found in water have had an adverse effect on
coral. The Carbon Dioxide seems to be dissolving the coral skeletons and making them
much weaker. The process has been compared to osteoporosis in humans, and is leaving
the fragile coral structures weak and even more vulnerable to anthropogenic fluxes.
Pollution: Water Contamination

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Oil spills, waste dumping, and other byproducts of human advances have resulted in the
contamination of the oceans. When the homoeostasis of the reef area is lost, there is an
overgrowth of algae. When too much algae grows on the reef, the coral cannot get
enough oxygen and is the reef is effectively smothered by Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide.
This chart represents the bleached,

damage and unaffected corals from the year 1998 to 2002.

This shows that snorklers step on corals

carelessly

Sedimentation

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Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in
which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion
through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to
gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism. Sedimentation due to terrestrial
runoff or from large storms like tsunamis can have drastic affects on corals, leading in
many cases to "rapid coral death by deadly chain reaction" if the sediment is not removed

promptly.

Some corals are lucky in that they can actually unbury themselves when covered with
sediment. Fungiid corals, for example, can actively shed sediment buildup by inflating
and deflating repeatedly.Other corals, like Pocillopora spp., house symbiotic shrimps and
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crabs that will help remove sediment buildup as well. If the coral is not lucky enough to
have the ability to either shed sediment through inflation or by symbionts, it's in for a
world of hurt -- especially if it grows on a reef close to populated areas where river or
terrestrial runoff can foul the sediment with sewage and other organic material. In their
paper "Mechanisms of damage to corals exposed to sedimentation. Coral that are covered
with sediment that is organic rich will much more quickly succumb to tissue loss and
death than coral that are situated far away from populated areas.

This diagram shows 1-3 days of exposure

Research showed that when covered with organic rich sediment, corals would succumb in
as little as one day. Corals that were covered with sediment that contained no organic
material were shown to last six days with no lasting effect.The organic rich sediments
covering the coral contained higher bacteria levels and these bacteria used up the
surrounding oxygen during metabolism. Metabolism of the organic material in the
sediment then caused a local pH drop. This pH drop in combination with oxygen poor
conditions and hydrogen sulfide buildup hit the coral with a "triple-whammy" which
caused localized tissue death and eventual coral death as well.

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Phase 1: When a two millimetre layer of sediment enriched with organic compounds
covers the corals, the algae will stop photosynthesis, as the light is blocked.
Phase 2: If the sediments are organically enriched, then digestion of the organic material
by microbial activity reduces oxygen concentrations underneath the sediment film to
zero. Other microbes take over digesting larger carbon compounds via fermentation and
hydrolysis thereby lowering the pH.
Phase 3: Lack of oxygen and acidic conditions harm small areas of coral tissue
irreversibly. The dead material is digested by microbes producing hydrogen sulfide, a
compound that is highly toxic for the remaining corals. The process gains momentum and
the remainder of the sediment-covered coral surface is killed in less than 24 hours.

Sewage Pollution Tourism On Coral Reefs

Destruction
Coral reefs are under threat, suffering from decline and degradation due to a combination
of natural and anthropogenic factors. The scientific community is in agreement about it
and the press talks about it. Fifty-eight percent of the world's reefs are potentially
threatened by human activity. Overexploitation and coastal development pose the greatest
potential threat (WRI, Bryant et al. 1998). Assessments made in late 2000 show that 27%
of the world's reefs have been effectively lost, with the largest single cause being the

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massive climate-related coral bleaching event of 1998. This destroyed about 16% of the
coral reefs of the world in 9 months during the largest El Nio and La Nia climate
events ever recorded. Some of the man-made damage is related to tourism. At the same
time, tourism is of great economic importance to countries with significant areas of coral
reef, such as the Caribbean states and territories. For some smaller island territories,
tourism is the mainstay of the local economy.

Because tourism in the Caribbean is dependent almost entirely on coastal resources, most
development takes place in the coastal zone and most of the impacts occur in the coastal
zone. Impacts from tourism activities include both direct physical impacts (such as diver
damage and anchor damage), as well as indirect impacts from resort development and
operation, and development of tourism infrastructure in general. Impacts from tourism
can often be reduced by raising awareness and changing behaviour among both tourists
and local tourism industry workers. The tourism-related impacts on coral reefs in the
Caribbean are typical of those occurring worldwide. The tourism sector is of major
economic importance in the Caribbean region, both for foreign exchange earnings and for
employment. Since Caribbean tourism is primarily associated with beaches and the sea,

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there have been - and continue to be - impacts from tourism on the coastal environment,
including the coral reefs.
Tourism has both direct and indirect impacts on

coral reefs. Snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs, and
fishing and collecting can contribute to over-exploitation of reef species and threaten
local survival of endangered species. Indirect impacts relate to the development,
construction and operation of tourism infrastructure as a whole (resorts, marinas, ports,
airports) Direct physical damage from snorkeling and diving has been the subject of
extensive study and is well documented. The damage inflicted by divers and snorkelers
consists mostly of breaking fragile, branched corals or causing lesions to massive corals.
Most divers and snorkelers cause little damage; only a few cause severe or widespread
damage. Research indicates that reef degradation and change of reef community structure
occurs once a certain level of use by divers and snorkelers is exceeded. As a rule of
thumb it is recommended that the level of 5,000 to 6,000 dives per sites per year should
not be exceeded. Training and briefing of divers and snorkelers will greatly help to
reduce negative impacts. Physical damage from anchors and especially boat groundings
can be severe. Anchor damage is proportional to the size of the boat (i.e. weight of the

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anchor and length of anchor chain) and is further dependent on the type of coral
community.
Recovery of coral damage from boat groundings is slow.

Anchor damage can be avoided to a large extent by installing permanent moorings,

designating anchorages and providing adequate information on anchoring and mooring.
Although fishing has caused declines in reef fish stocks throughout the Caribbean, the
direct role of tourism in fishing-related decline is most likely not significant. Indirectly,
however, tourism increases the demand for seafood and does have an impact of on reef
fish resources. Collecting of marine souvenirs by tourists is probably insignificant but
there still is a market for marine curiosities in response to a certain tourist demand. This
demand can definitely be decreased by increased awareness. Tourism-related sources of
sewage pollution include resorts and, to a much lesser extent, recreational vessels. There
is evidence that a very large percentage of the sewage generated by hotels is discharged
in coastal waters without adequate treatment. The main impact of sewage pollution is
nutrient enrichment, which favours certain species (algae in particular) at the expense of
corals. The impacts of nutrient enrichment from sewage pollution on corals in general
have been well studied, but those specifically from sewage pollution from HOTELS
AND recreational vessels have not been quantified. The studies indicate that the impact

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of sewage pollution depends on the level of treatment before discharge and the degree of
natural flushing by tides and currents at the point of discharge. Tourism is not generally a
source of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution, other than on a small scale when oil or fuel
spills from recreational vessels and marinas occur.
The effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on corals has

been studied for quite some time, producing evidence that chronic oil pollution is more
harmful than a single exposure, and that dispersants and emulsifiers used to combat spills
are more toxic to corals than oil alone. Coastal development and the construction and
operation of related tourism infrastructure cause increased runoff and sedimentation.
Sedimentation is one of the main reasons for reef degradation. Increased sediment
loading of coastal waters increases turbidity, reduces light levels and leads to stress on
corals, usually expressed by "bleaching" of corals. Heavy sediment loading may also
cause corals to suffocate and die. Other documented impacts of sedimentation on corals
include lower growth rates, reduced productivity and reduced recruitment.

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Tourism is obviously a source of large amounts

of solid waste, the impacts of which depend very much on the method of disposal. If
disposed of inappropriately, leaching of toxic substances may harm corals. Of particular
concern is the "accidental" waste - plastics in particular - that is blown into the ocean
from beaches or vessels and has a detrimental effect on corals and other marine life.
Tourism-related impacts on coral reefs are significant, but they are also compounded by
other impacts that are not easily distinguished from those of tourism. This does not mean
that we must disregard the impacts of tourism activities. On the contrary, the tourism
sector and government agencies involved in tourism development must try to eliminate or
reduce those impacts that can be controlled, even if there is no 100% proof that a certain
impact is directly related to a tourist activity.
Heres a Table with activities with direct impacts actual and/or potential impacts.
Activities with direct impacts

Actual and/or potential impacts

Snorkeling

Physical damage (breakage, lesions)

Kicking up sediment
Physical damage (breakage, lesions)
Physical damage from anchoring
Physical damage from boat groundings
Contribute to over-exploitation of reef fish stocks
Compete with local fishers
Threatening local survival of rare species
Contributing to over-exploitation and competing
with local fishers

SCUBA diving
Motor boating and yachting
Fishing
Collecting (shells, lobsters,
conch, coral)

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Activities with indirect impacts

Actual and/or potential impacts

Resort development and

construction
Resort operation Sewage disposal
Fertilizer runof
Irrigation
Solid waste
disposal

Increased sedimentation

Seafood consumption
Demand for marine curiosities
Construction of artificial beaches
and beach replenishment
Airport construction or extension
Marina construction
Marina operation
Motor boating and yachting
Cruise ships

Nutrient enrichment
Leaching of toxic substances from inappropriate
waste disposal
Litter (especially plastics)
Over-exploitation of high-priced resource species
(snapper, grouper, spiny lobster, conch)
Exploitation of rare/ endangered/ vulnerable
species such as shells, black coral, turtles
Increased sedimentation (from sand removal or
from beach instability)
Increased sedimentation from dredging and
infilling
Increased sedimentation from dredging
Pollution from inappropriate disposal of oils and
paint residues
Pollution from fueling
Nutrient enrichment from sewage disposal
Pollution from fueling
Nutrient enrichment from illegal sewage
disposal
Litter from illegal or accidental solid waste
disposal

Consequences Of Coral Reef Destruction

Coral reefs protect the land from storm and tidal surges, so when they are all destroyed
frequent coastal flooding occurs which means destruction of people homes and cars etc.
Coral reefs are probable sources of medicines to cure the diseases that currently run
rampant across the earth. Chemicals found in reefs have been used to treat ulcers, heart
disease, leukemia and more so meaning that if corals reefs are destroyed it would be
difficult to cure diseases and to help the sick with no medicine because corals are nutrient
importance. Coral reefs absorb carbon dioxide and use it to form their shells if they are

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no more coral reefs then there would be more carbon dioxide in the ocean and our
atmosphere and that will cause global warming which will lead to other vast destruction.

Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion is a natural occurrence, but is a steadily advancing threat to coastal areas
because of climate change and human activities.

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At beaches, tides regularly sweep rocks and sand along the coast, but coastal
development can interrupt the process and slowly destroy them. As climate change
occurs, rocky coastlines are increasingly threatened by extreme weather such as storms
and higher water marks due to warming temperatures. Coastal erosion impacts humanity
and the environment in various ways.

Property Loss

Property along the coast is at high risk of damage or destruction.

Property along the coast is at high risk of damage or destruction.

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The most visible impact of coastal erosion is property loss. As the coastline is remapped
by erosion, coastal properties are put at risk. A 2002 BBC special report gives the history
of Hall sands, a coastal village that was destroyed overnight in 1917. The erosion process
was accelerated by shingle dredging until a storm swept the entire village away. Modern
structures are just as susceptible. As of 2010, the National Ocean and Atmospheric
Administration estimates that 155 million people and over three trillion dollars of real
estate in the U.S. are endangered by coastal erosion.

Tourism
The tourism industry can be heavily impacted by coastal erosion. Many communities rely
on revenue from summer tourism. When beaches are swept away, these communities can
be financially devastated.

The Florida Department of Environmental Protection reports that many Florida beaches
are eroding. Usually, coastal currents drag in sand that replaces what they sweep away,
but coastal development has halted the cycle in some areas. Structures that are built along
the coast collect the sand that comes in with the tide, preventing currents from sweeping

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it to beaches down current. Over time, this has swept away large strands of beach,
affecting Florida's tourism and economy.

Historic Landmarks
Some properties that are destroyed by coastal erosion are priceless historic landmarks.
The website Live Science records a study by Benjamin Jones from the U.S. Geological
Survey, which found that several Alaskan historical landmarks have been swept away or
are in high danger of being destroyed. These include sites such as an abandoned Inupiaq
Eskimo village; these sites are significant, culturally, and to researchers like historians

and anthropologists.

Famous Alaska

Landmark Million Dollar Bridge

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Industrial Development

Coastal erosion in Alaska has hurt the state's growing oil industry.Coastal erosion puts
some industrial sites at risk. When industrial sites are damaged, waste can potentially
leach into the environment, and lost productivity can harm the economy. For example,
Bloomberg reports the oil-rich state of Alaska has seen record coastal erosion over the
past several years as rising temperatures weaken the permafrost. In addition to
threatening locals and cultural landmarks, this also endangers oil exploration. At risk are
several test wells, which were designed to test the soils composition, not to pump oil. One
test well has even been destroyed, making the industry hesitant to expand.

Environmental Degradation

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Coastal erosion occurs naturally, and the slow

wearing away of coasts can have ecological benefits. According to NC Beaches, erosion
has created inlets and feeding grounds for aquatic communities over millennia. However,
unnatural processes driven by human action, including climate change, speed erosion and
harm the environment. For example, the U.S. Geological Survey reports that Louisiana's
coastal wetlands lose 75 square kilometers per year due to human actions like dredging
and draining. This worsens as barrier islands off the Louisiana coast erode, opening
wetlands to tides and the full force of coastal storms.

Measures Used to Reduce The Coral Reef

Degradation
Reducing threats to coral reefs measured to reduce impact

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Coral degradation

Coral reefs are natural fish farms wave breakers and leisure areas and provide many
economic benefits as well as protecting shores. Coral degradation affects tourism as it
results in the loss of beaches and good quality snorkeling and diving areas. It may result
in coastal erosion coastal properties suffer from reduced natural protection.
Coral degradation can be combated by:

Banning commercial harvesting (Some authorities such as in the Great Barrier

Reef in Australia have imposed a phased ban on commercial coral harvesting to

assure its survival.)

Controlling coral and sand mining. The practice of coral mining needs to be
addressed. One suggested possibility is to mine one reef rather than several reefs,

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thereby reducing physical damage to corals and the destruction of habitats. The

reef could be selected to provide all the necessary building materials.

Reducing siltation. To prevent siltation, silt curtains and mechanical aids can be
used to isolate work sites and prevent sediments from escaping into adjacent
reefs.

Measures Used To Reduce The Impact In One

Caribbean Territory.

Tobago territory: educating the public

The protection of coral reefs cannot be brought about unless the public understand the
importance of coral.

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People need to be educated about the value of coral reefs and the need to protect the
biodiversity of coral reefs. Public awareness campaigns are needed involving local
communities who live off the rich natural resources of coral reef systems.

Community involvement in St. Lucia.

In St. Lucia a wide range of people have been involved in reef awareness and in action to
conserve corals. Management of marine and coastal resources involves fishermen dive
operators and local people such as charcoal burners, taxi drivers and tourist shop owners.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) aims to prevent damage to reefs and minimize
the cost and effort required to cure problems.

Pollution

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As sewage pollution is a major cause of damage to reefs, urgent measures are needed to
control sewage disposal. Local and national authorities need to use their powers to
control sewage discharges into rivers and all coastal areas. Sewage outfalls should be
extended further out to sea, or should be diverted away from reefs. Treatment plants need
to be installed or improved. Authorities should promote pollution control measures such
as mandatory treatment of sewage water and stricter controls on coastal development so
as to reduce destruction to the coral habitat. Treatment of sewage effluent from hotels can
be undertaken by using wetlands which rely on the purifying power of reeds and other
plants. Sewage from boats contributes to reef degradation. This should be prevented
through the use of on board holding tanks readily accessible disposal facilities and stricter
regulations and enforcement.

Fishing

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As fishing can have such a strong influence on the health of coral reefs fishermen need to
be made aware of the damage they can cause, and how to fish in a sustainable way.
Warning should be displayed explaining local fishing regulations and banning the use of
dynamite, poison and spear fishing.
Local fishermen must cease dynamite fishing the use of

poison by collectors working for the aquarium trade must also be ended.

Recreational Fishing

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Check where and when are allowed to fish on some reefs fishing is prohibited or
restricted to certain areas. Finding out what gear is permitted many countries prohibit
spear fishing. There may be other restrictions such as the number of hooks allowed on
each line. Where fishing is permitted never take more than you need and always comply
with regulations covering the weight of your catch and the minimum sizes of certain
types of fish.

Tourism

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Tourism is usually vital to countries with reefs. The industry need not be destructive to
the coral reef environments.

Benefits of tourism
Once the local community is involved and committed reef tourism can help in coral
preservation. Currency earned from tourism can be spent on coral preservation.

Prevention of reef damage associated with tourism

Persuade swimmers with masks

ad snorkels to keep near the surface to avoid damage to coral growths. Ask divers to put

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on their equipment such as scuba tanks and fins away from the reefs where they will not
cause damage. Encourage divers to Take only pictures leave only bubbles.
Encourage tourists not to buy coral or coral artifacts as the collection of coral often
accelerates coral degradation. Install permanent mooring buoys so that fishing, diving
and tourist boats do not need to anchor on reefs.

Conclusion
Coral reefs are a very important to many different species of sea life. The reefs cover only
about 1% of the earths surface, yet contain of all of the earths species pf fish.
Amongst the reefs are complex food webs, and prey relationships. Algae growing on the
coral is food for many herbivores. The coral itself is food to many species. The butterfly
fish eats individual coral polyps, while the Crown-of-thorns starfish eats entire colonies.
A number of species are predators. With all of the dangers of predators in the reefs, there
are many different methods of defense, one of which being camouflage. Camouflage is
the ability for organisms to change color and appearance to match the environment which
they are in, so they are hard to distinguish from their surroundings. Other organisms have
distinct coloration that is used as warning predators. Even some species use chemicals to

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distract predators. These include chemicals that are toxic, and some that have just a
distinctly foul odor that distracts other organisms. Ways to prevent destruction is
Conserve water: The less water you use, the less runoff and wastewater will pollute our
oceans, help reduce pollution: Walk, bike or ride the bus. Fossil fuel emissions from cars
and industry raise lead to ocean warming which causes mass-bleaching of corals and can
lead to widespread destruction of reefs, use only ecological or organic fertilizers:
although you may live thousands of miles from a coral reef ecosystem, these products
flow into the water system, pollute the ocean, and can harm coral reefs and marine life ,
planting a tree: Trees reduce runoff into the oceans. You will also contribute to reversing
the warming of our planet and the rising temperatures of our oceans. Help us Plant a
Billion, practicing safe and responsible diving and snorkeling: do not touch the reef or
anchor your boat on the reef. Contact with the coral will damage the delicate coral
animals, and anchoring on the reef can kill it, so look for sandy bottom or use moorings if
available. Also contacting your government representatives: Demand they take action to
protect coral reefs, stop sewage pollution of our oceans, expand marine protected areas
and take steps to reverse global warming. Spread the word: Remember your own
excitement at learning how important the planet's coral reefs are to us and the intricate
global ecosystem. Share this excitement and encourage others to get involved.
Coral reefs are one of the most interesting things on earth. It is a shame that people
know so little about them and that they arent taken care of near as well as they should be.
They are fascinating to learn about how what they are and what all they do for our
environment. There is still some that is unknown about them to us today, and it seems

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that the best way to find out all that we can about them, is to make it a priority to protect
them so they will continue to be around long enough to study.

Bibliography

http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/coralreefs/ways-to-help-

coral-reefs/index.htm
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/sep/10/caribbean-coral-reefs-

collapse-environment
http://www.ehow.com/list_6533767_consequences-coastal-erosion_.html
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_protect.html
http://www.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_effects_of_the_destruction_of_cor

al_reefs
http://aquatek-california.com/coral-reef-destruction/
http://www.advancedaquarist.com/blog/how-sediment-kills-corals

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http://plaza.ufl.edu/bettie/coralreef.html
http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/
Activities/WorkThematicAreas/EcosystemManagement/CoralReefs/Tourisms

ImpactonReefs/tabid/78799/Default.aspx
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/coral_t
hreats/

Table of Contents

Coral Reef Destruction...1-1

Causes Of Coral Reef Destruction.1-3
Sedimentation and Sewage Pollution Tourism On Coral Reefs
Destruction4-12

Consequences Of Coral Reef Destruction ( Coastal Erosion Decline in Fish Stock)

..12-16
Measures Used To Reduce Coral Reef Degradation..17-18
Measures To Reduce The Impact In One Caribbean Territory. 18-23
Conclusion..24-25
Bibliography...26

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