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Graphic of a wave packet representing the fastest possible communications medium, a photon.

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  is a process of transferring information from one entity to another. Communication processes
are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a „
„„ of signs and   rules.
Communication is commonly defined as "the 

 or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by
speech, writing, or signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way communication, communication can be
perceived better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or
ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information).[1]

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and imparted by a
sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback.
All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and a receiver. Communication requires that all
parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and tone
of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye
contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing.

c 

[hide]

OV 1 Information communication revolutions

OV w Types of communication
‘V w.1 Nonverbal communication
‘V w.w Visual communication
‘V w.3 Understanding the Field of Communication
OV 3 Oral communication
OV  Communication modeling
OV ˜ Communication noise
OV ¯ Nonhuman communication
‘V ¯.1 Plants and fungi
OV Æ Communication as academic discipline
OV Ý See also
OV ô Notes
OV 10 References



 

 
  

Over time, technology has progressed and has created new forms of and ideas about communication. The newer
advances include media and communications psychology. Media psychology is an emerging field of study.
These technological advances revolutionized the processes of communication. Researchers have divided how
communication was transformed into three revolutionary stages:

In the 1st Information Communication Revolution, the first written communication began, with pictographs.
These writings were made on stone, which were too heavy to transfer. During this era, written communication
was not mobile, but nonetheless existed.

In the wnd Information Communication Revolution, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc.
Common alphabets were introduced, allowing the uniformity of language across large distances. Much later the
Gutenberg printing-press was invented. Gutenberg created this printing-press after a long period of time in the
1˜th century.

In the 3rd Information Communication Revolution, information can now be transferred via controlled waves
and electronic signals.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared
understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing,
listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through communication that
collaboration and cooperation occur.[w]

There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are
 
  (when
a person receives too many messages at the same time), and

.[3] Communication is a
continuous process. The psychology of media communications is an emerging area of increasing attention and
study.

  

 

Albert Mehrabian (UCLA, 1ô¯Æ)[] identified three major parts that convey meaning in human face to face
communication: body language, voice tonality, and words. He conducted research to determine how people
make meaning when a speaker says one thing but means another. If the speaker is sending a mixed message the
listener will rely on the following cues to determine true meaning:[˜]

OV ˜˜ of impact is determined by body language²postures, gestures, and eye contact,

OV 3Ý by the tone of voice, and
OV Æ by the content or the words spoken.

Mehrabian says this only applies in situations where the speaker is talking about feelings or attitudes.

Although the exact percentage of influence may differ due to variables such as the perceptions or biases of the
listener and the speaker, communication as a whole is meant to convey meaning and thus, in some cases, can be
universal. A system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols can
communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language employs communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures,
or written symbols, can animal communications be considered to be a language? Animals do not have a written
form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, animal communication
can be considered as a separate language.

Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes)
and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to
common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use
patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are
thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties
have exceptions.

There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich is credited as saying
that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming
languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by
human languages.

Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1ôÆ0, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and
psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1ôôÝ, the American Association of Psychology,
Media Psychology Division ¯ Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and
communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication.

 


 

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye
contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as
well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays
a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.

Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and
speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have
nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. A
portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of
symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.

Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to
person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely
be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way[¯] without body
language, voice tonality or words.

c
 
 G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:

 This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of
touch, sense of smell, and body motions.

! This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing
instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.

 This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the w1-gun salute,
horns, and sirens.


 . This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

 


" The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is
a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

#
  People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back.
For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.

 
 Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that
convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a
degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.

c . Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey
messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

"
 


$
  A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial
expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is
evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.

%
 One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people
use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal
meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
g  A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or
finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.

&

 

Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas
and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it
includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely
relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with
text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information
through visual form.

The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic
or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a
variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on
the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual
presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused
on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in
their professional practice.

'
  c

 

The field of communication is typically broken into three distinct camps: human communication, mass
communications, and communication disorders [Æ]

Human Communication or Communication Studies is the study of how individuals communicate. Some
examples of the distinct areas that human communication scholars study are:

OV Interpersonal Communication
OV Organizational Communication
OV Oral Communication
OV Small Group Communication
OV Intercultural Communication
OV Nonviolent Communication
OV Conflict
OV Rhetoric
OV Public Speaking
OV Media and Communications Psychology

Examples of Mass Communications include:

OV Mass communication
OV Graphic communication
OV Science communication
OV Strategic Communication
OV Superluminal communication
OV Technical communication
OV Public relations
OV Broadcast Media
OV Journalism
OV Media and Communications Psychology
Examples of Communication Disorders include:

OV Facilitated Communication
OV Impairment of Language Modality
OV Speech Disorders

#


 

Oral communication is a process whereby information is transferred from a sender to receiver usually by a
verbal means but visual aid can support the process.. The receiver could be an individual person, a group of
persons or even an audience. There are a few of oral communication types: discussion, speeches, presentations,
etc. However, often when you communicate face to face the body language and your voice tonality has a bigger
impact than the actual words that you are saying.

A widely cited and widely mis-interpreted figure, used to emphasize the importance of delivery, is that
"communication is ˜˜ body language, 3Ý tone of voice, Æ content of words", the so-called "Æ -3Ý -˜˜
rule".[Ý] This is not however what the cited research shows ± rather, when conveying  if body language,
tone of voice, and words
„ then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than
words.[ô][ „

] For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to meet you" while mumbling, hunched
over, and looking away will be interpreted as insincere. „ „
  „ „„ 
 

You can notice that the content or the word that you are using is not the determining part of a good
communication. The ³how you say it´ has a major impact on the receiver. You have to capture the attention of
the audience and connect with them. For example, two persons saying the same joke, one of them could make
the audience die laughing related to his good body language and tone of voice. However, the second person that
has the exact same words could make the audience stare at one another.[

]

In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide more precise information.
Often enough, we use a presentation program in presentations related to our speech to facilitate or enhance the
communication process. Although, we cannot communicate by providing only visual content because we would
not be talking about oral communication anymore.

c

 


Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Communication major dimensions scheme

Communication code scheme

Linear Communication Model

Interactional Model of Communication

Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication

Transactional Model of Communication

The first major model for communication came in 1ôô by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories [10] The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies.
Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a
telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone
where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information
or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/
sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views
communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity,
generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model
based on the following elements:

1.V An information source, which produces a message.

w.V A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3.V A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
.V A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
˜.V A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.

The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.

 No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1ô¯0, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver¶s (1ôô) linear model of communication and created
the SMCR Model of Communication [11]. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication
separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are
communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which
medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1ô˜) also
indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target
of the message [1w]. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give
advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of
communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication
content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person
or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic
rules:

1.V Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

w.V Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3.V Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of
signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rules in some sense ignores autocommunication,
including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the
primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (w00Ý) proposed a transactional model of communication [13]. The basic
premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the
sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of
communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual
communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed
as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information
becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act.
The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional
traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of
"communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be
faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-
receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each
possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if
not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the
model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a
discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different
types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape
and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1ôôÆ). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and
looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus.
Papyrus is what he called ' (). it made possible the transmission of written orders across space,
empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone
and '
(), through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation
to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie
1ôôÆ).

The Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has pioneered a new branch of
agricultural communication called Creative Extension.

c

  

In every communication models, noise is anything that interferes with the decoding of messages sent over the
channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:

$

 * Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud speakers at
a party, or a construction site next to a classroom making it hard to hear the professor.

  +


 * physical maladies that prevent effective communication, such as actual
deafness or blindness preventing messages from being received correctly.


 * different interpretations of the meanings of certain words, like how the word "weed" can be
interpreted as both an undesirable plant in your yard or marijuana, or how "LOL" is easily recognizable by most
teens, but complete gibberish to older readers.

 * mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb tense
during a sentence, or differing sentence structures between different cultures.

#
,  * poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from accurate interpretations,
like unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even more lost, or how unfocused and
disorganized lectures by professors are extremely hard for students to understand.

c
 * stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally offending
Jews by wishing them a "Merry Christmas,´ or how Democrats and Republicans alike are bigoted about the
other party¶s policies.

   * certain attitudes can make communication difficult, like when great anger or sadness
causes someone to lose focus on the present, or how more serious psychological diseases like autism severely
hamper effective communication.[1]

 


 

See also: Biocommunication (science) and Interspecies communication

Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every information exchange
between living organisms ² i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver ² can be
considered a form of communication.[1˜] Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which
encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Also very primitive animals such as corals are competent to
communicate.[1¯] On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical
communication between primitive organisms like bacteria,[1Æ] and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of
these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations.

Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future
behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of
animal communication. The study of animal communication, called 9  (distinguishable from
anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of
ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to
communicate with animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses. However, these animals
have to learn a special means of communication. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the
animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the w1st century so far, many prior
understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture
and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized.



Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant
cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in
the root zone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizome bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil.
This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are
possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in
Greek is "vegetable fiber" and as recent research shows, most of the intraorganismic plant communication
processes are neuronal-like.[1Ý] Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to
warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these
herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert
to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.[1ô]

This article
 

-

 
- ).
, as
section. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions.  „„

Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of
mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with
nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular
eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal
organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a
part of biotic messages doesn¶t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent
to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far
five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns
such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such
substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic
message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even ³noise´, i.e., similar molecules without biotic
content-[w0]

c

 
 

Main article: Communication theory

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"[w1] relates to all the ways we
communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both
verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in
textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of
studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most
beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to
communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of
communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that
animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including
human beings within the different parameters of human symbolic interaction.

 

OV Telecommunication

 

1.V × Schwartz, Gary E.; Simon, William L.; Carmona, Richard (w00Ý).    „!   "
„ .
Simon & Schuster. p. 1wô. ISBN 0Ɓ3wôw3ôô.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ljÆCUO¯uoYC&pg=PA1wô&dq=Communication w0two-
way w0process&f=false. "All communication is a process of exchanging energy and exchanging
information."