Study of health effect of Air pollution

exposure on Bus drivers in Hanoi,

Vietnam
Report

Prepared by
PHAM NGOC HOA
March, 2015

Table of content
List of acronyms and abbreviations......................................................................................................... iii
Preface .................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.

2.

3.

4.

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.

Background.............................................................................................................................. 6

1.2.

Scope of Study ......................................................................................................................... 7

1.3.

Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 7

Methodology................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.

Questionnaire survey................................................................................................................ 8

2.2.

Lung function test .................................................................................................................... 8

2.3.

Air quality monitoring.............................................................................................................. 8

2.4.

Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 10

Routes study ................................................................................................................................. 11

3.1.

Bus route No.16 (Urban through route) .................................................................................. 11

3.2.

Bus route No.18 (Round old city route) .................................................................................. 12

3.3.

Minibus route No.23 (Round old city route) ........................................................................... 13

Results and discussion ................................................................................................................. 14

4.1.

4.1.1.

PM2.5................................................................................................................................. 14

4.1.2.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) ................................................................................. 24

4.2.

5.

In vehicle air quality............................................................................................................ 14

Health Impact of bus drivers................................................................................................... 31

4.2.1.

General characteristics of bus drivers each sample route and CEMs staffs ....................... 31

4.2.2.

Past health condition of bus drivers and CEMs staffs ....................................................... 33

4.2.3.

Lung function of bus drivers and CEMs staffs .................................................................. 33

4.2.4.

Comparison of actual lung function with predicted value................................................... 35

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 41

Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 42
Appendix............................................................................................................................................... 43

List of Tables
Table.1. Interpretation of lung function test results................................................................................... 8
Table.2. The technical characteristics of the TSI DUSTTRAK ............................................................. 9
Table.3. Period and weather of survey of PM 2.5 on each bus of route No.16 ........................................... 16
Table.4. Period and weather of survey of PM 2.5 on each bus of route No.18 ........................................... 18
Table.5. Period and weather of survey of PM 2.5 on each bus of route No.23 ........................................... 19
Table.6. Summary statistics of in-vehicle PM2.5 concentrations in three routes ....................................... 20
Table.7. Period and weather of survey of VOCs samples inside the buses each route.............................. 26
Table.8. Average BTEX ratios relative to Ethylbenzene ......................................................................... 28
Table.9. Average BTEX ratios relative to ethylbenzene drivers in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal ................. 29
Table.10. Number of bus drivers selected from each route and the CEMs staffs .................................... 31
Table.11. Age of bus drivers and the CEMs staffs................................................................................. 31
Table.12. The height and weight of bus drivers each route and CEMs staffs.......................................... 31
Table.13. Smoking behavior of the bus drivers and CEMs staffs ........................................................... 32
Table.14. Years of driving of bus drivers each route .............................................................................. 33
Table.15. Past health record of bus drivers and CEMs staffs in last 12 months ...................................... 33
Table.16. One way ANOVA test for mean FVC .................................................................................... 34
Table.17. One way ANOVA test for mean FEV1 ................................................................................... 35
Table.18. the comparison of FVC and predicted FVC ............................................................................ 35
Table.19. the comparison of FEV1 and predicted FEV1 ......................................................................... 36
Table 20: Ratio of FEV1/FVC % of sample bus drivers/ CEM ............................................................... 36
Table.21. the statistical on the pollutions and lung function test. ............................................................ 37
Table.22. shown out the relationship between PM 2.5 and Benzene with FVC/Predicted FVC ratio .......... 39
Table.23. the lung function results of the bus drivers/CEMs staffs and the students ............................... 40

ii

List of Figures
Figure.1. the TSI DUSTTRAK Aerosol Monitor Model 8520 .............................................................. 9
Figure.2. the canister ............................................................................................................................. 10
Figure.3. Roadmap of three bus routes ................................................................................................... 11
Figure.4. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.16 .................................................................................. 12
Figure.5. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.18 .................................................................................. 13
Figure.6. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.23 .................................................................................. 14
Figure.7. Time series plot of PM2.5 concentration in Route No.16 samples ........................................... 15
Figure.8. Time series plot of PM 2.5 concentration in Route No.18 samples ............................................. 17
Figure.9. Time series plot of PM2.5 concentration in Route No.23 samples.............................................. 18
Figure.10. Mean PM2.5 concentrations in the public buses of three routes, reference line represent
WHOs standard IT-1 (75 g/m3) .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure.11. The mean PM2.5 concentration of different age group of buses each routes ............................. 22
Figure.12. Correlation between Mean PM 2.5 concentration and the age of buses ..................................... 22
Figure.13. Mean PM2.5 concentration with maintenance period of bus routes .......................................... 23
Figure.14. Mean PM2.5 concentration inside 10 schools and 3 bus routes ................................................ 24
Figure.15. Mean BTEX concentrations in the public buses of three routes.............................................. 25
Figure.16. Mean Benzene concentrations in the public buses of three routes, reference line represent HKs
Indoor Air Quality Standard (Good class) .............................................................................................. 27
Figure.17. Mean Benzene concentration with the average age of the bus routes ...................................... 28
Figure.18. Mean Benzene and Toluene inside 10 schools and 9 buses .................................................... 30
Figure.19. Mean FVC of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs. .............................................................. 34
Figure.20. Mean FEV1 of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs ............................................................. 35
Figure.21. Mean FEV1/FVC of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs ..................................................... 37

iii

List of acronyms and abbreviations

BMI

Body Mass Index

BTEX

Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylene

FEV1

Forced Expiratory Volume in first 1 second

FVC

Forced Vital Capacity

HKG

Hong Kong

IAQ

Indoor Air Quality

PM

Particulate Matter

VOC

Volatile Organic Compounds

WHO

World Health Organizatio

iv

Preface
This health effect assessment study was conducted by staffs of the Centre for
Environmental Monitoring (CEM), Vietnam Environmental Administration (VEA)
and the participant of the Vietnam Clean Air Partnership (VCAP) under the
auspices of VCAP with the technical support of The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University and funded by FK Norway. FK Norway is a Norwegian governmental
funding body under the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign affairs and funds this Clean
Air for ASIA south-south exchange program aiming at improving Air Quality in
Asian countries.
I am grateful to Fredskorpset (FK) Norway for funding this research. Thanks
have to go to the Clean Air for Asia for initiating this partnership which provides
the Vietnamese participant the chance to gain experience from Hong Kong and
others Asian countries in Air quality management.
I am profoundly thankful to Associate Prof. Dr. Wing-tat Hung and Prof. Dr.
Shun-Cheng Lee, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong
Polytechnic University for providing supervision and guidance to conduct this
study. Special thanks go to The Hong Kong Polytechnic University for providing
all the technical support for the study.
I am very grateful to the strong supports of CEM, VCAP and the Hanoi
Transfer Service Corporation as well as management departments of the three bus
routes, i.e., Route No.16, Route No.18 and route No.23 for this study.

PHAM NGOC HOA

FK exchange participant, Vietnam Clean Air Partnership.
Visiting Research Assistant, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.
March, 2015

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Air pollution is a form of environmental degradation which has become
widespread regarding economic and population growth. Such environmental
degradation leads to public health consequences, thereby causing diseases
impairing community welfare. Air pollution is a generally recognized health
hazard. Increased morbidity and mortality rates for respiratory and pulmonary
diseases have been reported following severe air pollution episodes.
Epidemiological studies have established that urban air pollution causes acute toxic
effects to exposed populations, even at levels within the range currently considered
acceptable (Jess A. Estvez-Garca, 2013).
Air pollution has been implicated as a major risk factor for the development
of chronic lung disorders such as chronic obstructive lung disease, which may
enhance the risk of lung cancer and also exacerbate bronchial asthma in sensitive
individuals (Cohen and Pope, 1997; Mannio et al., 1997; Peters et al., 1997)
(Suresh.Y, 2000).
A major component which contributes to the air pollution is the exhaust from
the vehicles. In Vietnam, especially in major cities, exhaust(s) coming from the
vehicular traffic is known to be a major contributor to air pollution. This is, at least,
in part due to the widespread use of unleaded petrol and diesel. It is known that
some of the important components of this pollution are oxides of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide and suspended particulate matter.
Exposure to various components of the atmospheric pollutants such as
ozone, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide can induce inflammation in the lungs
accompanied by release of increased levels of inflammatory mediators such as
prostaglandin E2, platelet activating factor, cytokines, histamine, proteins secreted
by eosinophils, proteases, etc., and infiltration of the polymorph nuclear leucocytes,
and eosinophils (Masse, 1997; Peden, 1997; Peters et al., 1997). Further, air
pollution can exacerbate the manifestations of asthma both in children and adults
(Masse, 1997; Peters et al., 1997; Gold et al., 1999) (Suresh.Y, 2000).
In this study, air quality inside public buses and its health impacts on drivers
were monitored. Lung function of drivers was used as proxy of health impacts
because it has been found well associated with different air pollutants (Chang et al.
6

2012, Liu and Zhang 2009, Salvi 2007) and abnormalities in lung function due to
exposure to air pollutants is common (Salvi 2007). The study will provide a
scenario of in-vehicle air quality in public buses in Hanoi.
1.2.

Scope of Study

Air pollution due to transport activities has become a serious problem in

urban areas such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in recent years. As stated above,
air pollution imposes severe impacts on human health, especially on respiratory
functions. Studies were carried out in Vietnam which showed that air pollution
weakens human health, speeded up the aging process, weakened the lung function
leading to asthma, bronchitis, cancer, cardiovascular diseases and reduced the
average human life span. Until the end of 2010, a study conducted by Ministry of
Health showed Hanoi had a higher ratio of people who had respiratory diseases
than Ho Chi Minh city and one of the main reasons was air quality (Study on health
and economic effect assessment of air pollution, Department of Health, Ministry of
Transportation) (Environment, 2007).
This study was evaluates the impact of the quality of the environment on bus
drivers, in particular inside public buses, by using monitoring equipment field
sampling and spirometer which measure the drivers lung function.
1.3. Objectives
1.3.1. Overall objective
To assess the health effects of exposure to air pollution on bus drivers in
Hanoi, Vietnam.
1.3.2. Specific objectives
a. To monitor PM2.5 and VOC inside public buses.
b. To test the lung function of public bus drivers.
c. To test the associations between in-vehicle air quality and lung disorders of
drivers.
2. Methodology
In order to link air quality and health, it is necessary to collect health data
and air quality data. As such, this study comprises three major components:

a) A questionnaire survey to collect health record of bus drivers and their

living environment;
b) A lung function test to confirm their health status; and
c) The air quality inside public bus in normal operation.
2.1. Questionnaire survey
The drivers of sample vehicles and sample routes were interviewed for
general personal information, health history, current health problems related to air
pollution, vehicle age, fuel etc. The information collected was used for the analysis
of air quality data and lung function data.
2.2. Lung function test
Drivers of each sample vehicle were tested for their lung function by using
spirometer (MIR Spirobank G) combined with PC software WinspiroPRO (MIR).
Forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)
were used for analyzing the normal or abnormal lung function. The measured
values were compared with predicted values based on age, height and weight using
the database of the Hong Kong Thoracic Society (Table 1). Undefined ethnic
group was used for all drivers for prediction of FVC and FEV1 because specific
ethnic group of drivers of sample vehicles was not available in the database of
software. Information on health background and working environment of drivers
were collected by interview.
Table.1. Interpretation of lung function test results
Parameters

Normal

FVC and FEV1

80% of predicted
value

FEV1/FVC

70%

Abnormal
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Mild
Moderate
Severe

70-79%
60-69%
<60%
60-69%
50-59%
<50%

2.3. Air quality monitoring

Air quality sampling was performed inside bus vehicles using the gas sample
canister during its running from starting point to end point from 11 th to 25th March,
2015.
8

- The parameters sampled include PM 2.5 and VOCs.

- Total samples of each route: PM2.5 on 9 buses and VOCs on 3 buses.
- Sampling during vehicle runs from starting point to end point, around 45
80 minutes.
a. PM2.5 monitor
The TSI DUSTTRAK Aerosol Monitor Model 8520 was used for real time
monitoring of PM2.5. The logging interval was set as 1 minute during monitoring
time.

Figure.1. the TSI DUSTTRAK Aerosol Monitor Model 8520

Table.2. The technical characteristics of the TSI DUSTTRAK
External Dimensions

8.7 in. x 5.9 in. x 3.4 in.(221 mm x 150 mm x 87 mm)

Instrument Weight

3.3 pounds with batteries (1.5 kg)

Sensor Type

90 light scattering

Range

0.001 to 100 mg/m3 (Calibrated to ISO12103-1, A1 test

dust)

Resolution

0.1% of reading or 0.001 mg/m3, whichever is greater

Flow Rate

Adjustable 1.4 to 2.4 l/min (1.7 nominally)

Temperature
Coefficient

+0.001 mg/m3 per C (for variations from temperature at

which the DUSTTRAK was zeroed)
9

Operating
Temperature

32 F to 120 F (0C to 50C)

Storage Temperature -4 F to 140 F (-20C to 60C)

Operating Humidity

0 to 95% rh (non-condensing)

Time constant:

Adjustable from 1 to 60 seconds.

Data Logging

31,000 data points (21 days of logging once/minute)

b. Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) monitors

The canisters were cleaned and evacuated before sampling by using Canister
Cleaning System in the laboratory of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and
were shipped to Hanoi for sampling. The flow rate was adjusted to fill the canisters
up to atmospheric pressure in 60 minutes. Canister samples were shipped back to
Hong Kong for analysis. The air samples were analyzed in the laboratory for
different VOCs by using a system of a cryogenic concentrator (Nutech, Model
3550A), a gas chromatography (GS) (Hewlett Packard, 6890) and a mass selective
detector (MSD) (Hewlett Packard, 5973). Retention time and mass spectra were
used for identification of compounds. Analysis of VOCs was done in accordance
with the USEPA Method TO-14.
Figure.2. The canister

2.4. Data Analysis

All the air quality data, data obtained from the questionnaire and pulmonary
function data were analyzed by SPSS software and MS Excel. The quality data of
different routes were tested to identify any significant differences of pollutant level
10

among the routes. Correlations between the lung function and air quality inside the
public buses were then identified.
3. Routes study
The study was conducted in three different public bus routes in Hanoi City.
Three bus routes in urban busy roads were selected in which the Route No.18 and
Route No.23 run around the ring roads, while the Route No.16 runs through the city
centre. The map of study area is shown in Figure.3. The details of each route are
given in the following sections.

Figure.3. Roadmap of three bus routes

3.1.

Bus route No.16 (Urban through route)

This route connects two big coach stations of Hanoi City (My Dinh coach
station and Giap Bat coach station) with a length of 15km and running time about
55 minutes to 70 minutes from terminal to terminal. The buses have average speed
around 15km/h to 20km/h. Many people ride on this bus route to go in and out of
the city centre. Therefore the number of passenger using this bus route is always
11

high. This route passes through Xuan Thuy Cau Giat Street which has some
constructions sites such as Metro rail construction and overhead road construction.
These activities generate dusts in the surrounding area. Besides that, this route is
characterized by high traffic density, traffic congestion and low traffic speed.
Heavy trucks are not allowed in the major section of this route (Giai Phong
road Truong Chinh road Lang road Cau Giay road Xuan Thuy road) during
day time. Traffic composition is dominated by motorbikes, minibuses, buses and
private vehicles. Major emission sources are presumably vehicles and construction
sites as there is no major industry in the vicinity of this route.

Figure.4. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.16

3.2.

Bus route No.18 (Round old city route)

This route is a circular trip, started from the National Economic University,
passes through streets nearby the Hoan Kiem Lake, Long Bien Bridge and then
come back to the National Economic University with a length of 25km and running
time about 60 minutes to 70 minutes. These buses have an average speed around 20
km/h to 25 km/h. This route is characterized by average traffic density and average
12

flow traffic, except during peak traffic hours. Heavy trucks are not allowed in the
major section of this route for full day. Traffic composition is dominated by
motorbikes, microbuses, buses and private vehicles. Specially, there is no
construction site or industry zone nearby the vicinity of road, therefore major
emission sources are from vehicles.

Figure.5. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.18

3.3.

Minibus route No.23 (Round old city route)

Route No.23 is similar to Route No.18, and is a circular trip round the city
centre. The minibuses of this route started from the No.32, Nguyen Cong Tru Street
(where executive office of the Hanoi Bus Transfer Service Corporation) passes
through streets nearby the Hoan Kiem Lake, Long Bien Bridge and then come back
to the No.32, Nguyen Cong Tru Street with a length of 27km and running time
13

about 65 minutes to 75 minutes. These minibuses have average speed around 20

km/h to 25 km/h.
This route is characterized by average traffic density and average flow
traffic, except during peak traffic hours. Traffic composition is dominated by
motorbikes, microbuses, buses and private vehicles. Besides, there is no
construction site or industry zone nearby the vicinity of road; therefore major
emission sources are from vehicles similar the route No.18.

Figure.6. Roadmap and bus stops of Route No.23

4. Results and discussion
4.1. In vehicle air quality
4.1.1. PM2.5
All the tested buses used diesel as fuel. Diesel vehicles are one of the largest
sources of PM (EPA 1990). PM is a primary emission from diesel engines, and at
14

times diesel engines may emit 10 to 100 times more PM mass than gasoline
engines (Vallero 2008; Wayne et al. 2004; Kittelson 1998).
The time series plot of PM2.5 of Route No.16 is shown in Figure 7. No
consistent pattern can be seen in the figure, the mean PM2.5 concentrations of most
buses are low. PM2.5 concentration of the bus number 5 is the highest, while PM2.5
concentration of the bus number 6 is the lowest.

Concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3)

250
Bus 1

Route No.16

Bus 2

200

Bus 3
150

Bus 4

Bus 5

100

Bus 6
50

Bus 7

Bus 8

0
1

11

21

31

41

51

61

Bus 9

Time (Min)

Figure.7. Time series plot of PM2.5 concentration in bus along Route No.16
Air quality at urban background sites is strongly influenced by road traffic
emissions, being the most important emission source contributing to ambient PM
levels. The daily evolution of aerosol levels is in general influenced by road traffic
emissions and this influence may be observed in the evolution of levels of all the
aerosol grain size ranges (ultrafine, fine, or coarse aerosols) and all the monitoring
parameters, such as number concentration (N), black carbon concentration (BC), or
mass concentrations (PM10, PM2.5, and PM1, Harrison et al. 2000; Rodriguez et
al. 2008).
The weather pattern of all the survey days of bus route No.16 is shown in
table 3. In Hanoi, the peak hour of traffic is around 7:00 to 8:00 in the morning and
around 17:00 to 18:00 in the evening. In the figure 7, it can be seen a few peaks
around 10 minutes and 45 minutes shows out the high PM2.5 concentrations of these
buses number 1, 3, 4 and number 9. Because of some main reasons such as: 1)
These high concentrations of PM 2.5 might be of door open of the bus, 2) The period
15

of survey on those buses were coinciding with peak hours of traffic (in table 3),
3) Few peaks around 10 minutes and 50 minutes represent the construction area
where is building the Metro rail in Xuan Thuy Cau Giay street. Buses number 6
and 7 has low PM2.5 concentration; the reason being light rain during the survey of
PM2.5 (in table 3).
Table.3. Period and weather of survey of PM2.5 on each bus of route No.16
Day
Sample
Temperature
(o C)

1
2

7:08
to
8:10

Weather

Cloudy

33.0

11:00
to
11:55

16:25
to
17:28

33.4

3
8

16o C - 21o C

Cloudy Cloudy

22.6

2
5

14o C to 18o C

Time

Average PM2.5
Concentration
(g/m3)

18o C - 24o C

7:18
to
8:25

12:38
to
1:30

17:15
to
18:25

7:25
to
8:25

10:35
to
11:25

16:35
to
17:30

Cloudy

Cloudy

Light
rain

Light
rain

Cloudy

Cloudy

33.1

26.0

46.0

56.8

9.3

17.2

The time series plot of mean PM 2.5 concentration of Route No.18 is shown in
Figure 8. All buses of Route No.18 are old; the in-vehicle PM2.5 concentrations
were found to be high probably because the engine and the air conditioners were
old. The PM2.5 concentrations have considerable differences between the buses.
PM2.5 concentration of the bus number 7 is the highest, while PM2.5 concentration of
the bus number 3 is the lowest. For all the buses, it can be seen in figure 8 that the
concentrations of PM2.5 dropped and stabilized at later part of the route.

16

250

Bus 1

Concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3)

Route No.18

Bus 2

200

Bus 3
150

Bus 4
Bus 5

100

Bus 6
50

Bus 7
Bus 8

0
1

11

21

31

Time (min)

41

51

61

Bus 9

Figure.8. Time series plot of PM2.5 concentration in Route No.18 samples

A number of sources have attributed varying contributions from mobile
sources to the current ambient PM2.5 levels. PM2.5 emissions from mobile sources
are generated from three general processes: 1) it is directly emitted from the
tailpipes of cars, trucks and other on-road vehicles, 2) it is re-entrained from
materials found on the roadway (typically known as fugitive dust), and 3) it is
created by secondary formation from precursor emissions such as sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ammonia
(NH3). Items 1 and 2 are generally known as primary emissions of PM 2.5.
Secondary formation occurs due to chemical reaction in the atmosphere generally
downwind some distance from the original emission source. Primary emissions can
be solid, liquid or gaseous. Solid or liquid particles that are directly emitted are
considered primary as are particles that are formed solely due to cooling after
release into the atmosphere (these types of particles are also known as
condensable). Secondary particles are formed exclusively from gases that react in
the atmosphere.
Table 4 shows the weather pattern of all the survey days of bus route No18.
Comparing figure 8 with table 4 it can be seen that there are some peaks around 11
minutes and around 20 minutes to 30 minutes with high PM2.5 concentration in the
buses number 5, 7 and 9. The high PM concentration is observed during the peak
hour due to very high vehicle count. And, these peaks represent the bus stops very
17

near the crossroads, during peak hours and at the red traffic light areas a lot of
vehicles waiting there.
Table.4. Period and weather of survey of PM2.5 on each bus of route No.18
Day

Temperature
(o C)

23o C - 30o C

23o C - 31o C

23o C - 27o C

Sample

1
7:05
to
8:10

Time

Weather
Average
Concentration
(g/m3)

2
13:50
to
14:55

Cloudy Sunny

74.4

88.5

3
15:45
to
17:10

4
7:10
to
8:15

5
10:30
to
11:25

Cloudy Cloudy Sunny

72.7

107.4

137.5

6
17:05
to
18:10

7
7:20
to
8:30

Cloudy Cloudy

95.1

111.6

8
11:30
to
12:40

9
17:30
to
18:40

Sunny

Cloudy

101.2

112.8

The time series plot of PM2.5 concentration of Route No.23 is shown in

Figure 9. All the buses of Route No.23 are minibus and too old; the in-vehicle
PM2.5 concentrations was high because of old engine and faulty air conditioners.
PM2.5 concentration of the bus number 1 is the highest, while PM2.5 concentration of
the bus number 6 is the lowest. Most of bus stops of the route No.18 coincide with
the bus stops of the route No.23.

Concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3)

350
Bus 1

Route No.23
300

Bus 2

250

Bus 3

200

Bus 4

150

Bus 5

100

Bus 6

50

Bus 7

Bus 8
1

11

21

31

41

Time (min)

51

61

71

Bus 9

Figure.9. Time series plot of PM2.5 concentration in Route No.23 samples

18

Concerning the tailpipe emissions from diesel and gasoline engines, tests
have shown that almost all primary particles emitted from these engines are less
than 2.0m in diameter. This means that they are less than 2.5m, and in the size
range of concern regarding PM2.5 national air quality standard. In fact, concerning
diesel exhaust from mobile sources, 90% of the total numbers of particles are in a
median size range of about 0.02m. Most of the mass in diesel exhaust is
represented by a median particle size of about 0.25m. These statistics concerning
diesel engine emissions refer to diesel particulate matter, which is generally
considered to be primary particulate. Diesel emitted organic gases generally refers
to precursor compounds that have not yet formed particulate matter. Diesel emitted
organic gases components can condense after cooling, and form particulate matter
likely in the size range of <0.1m. (Baldauf, et. al.)
Table 5 shows the weather pattern of all the survey days of bus route No 23.
Comparing figure 9 with table 5 it can be seen that there are some peaks around 11
minutes, 40 minutes and 55 minutes with high PM2.5 concentration in the buses
number 1, 7 and 9; because of the period of survey on these buses coincident with
the peak hours. Also, these peaks represent the bus stops very nearby the
crossroads. During peak hours and at the red traffic light areas a lot of vehicles
waiting made to worsen the air quality, especially with the high PM2.5
concentration.
Table.5. Period and weather of survey of PM2.5 on each bus of route No.23
Day

Temperature
(o C)
Sample
Time

Weather
Average
Concentration
(g/m3)

2
o

20 C - 25 C
1
7:05
to
8:13

2
10:25
to
11:38

Cloudy Sunny

158.5

118.1

3
o

18 C - 21o C

19 C - 22 C
3
17:30
to
18:40

4
7:00
to
8:15

5
10:30
to
11:35

Cloudy Cloudy Sunny

91.4

81.4

98.8

6
16:40
to
17:50

7
7:10
to
8:15

Cloudy Cloudy

70.4

89.6

8
13:20
to
14:30

9
17:20
to
18:30

Light
sunny

Cloudy

74.3

103.6

Descriptive statistics of in-vehicle PM2.5 concentrations are presented in

Table 6. Mean PM2.5 concentrations for Route No.16, Route No.18 and Route
19

No.23 were ranged from 9.3g/m3 to 56.8g/m3, 72.7g/m3 to 137.5g/m3 and

70.4g/m3 to 158.5g/m3 respectively (Table 1).
Table.6. Summary statistics of in-vehicle PM2.5 concentrations in three routes
(All concentrations are in g/m3)
Parameters
Min
Mean
95%CI of mean
Median
Standard Deviation
Max
Parameters
Min
Mean
95%CI of mean
Median
Standard Deviation
Max
Parameters
Min
Mean
95%CI of mean
Median
Standard Deviation
Max

Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3

18
14
18
33.0
22.6
33.4
3.0
1.3
3.6
28
21.5
27
11.7
4.6
14.4
62

35

71

Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3

57
53
53
74.4
88.5
72.7
2.7
5.0
3.5
72.5
89
70
10.9
20.0
12.8
110
145
103
Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3
87
85
56
158.5 118.1
91.4
12.7
5.1
5.2
138
114
89
52.3
22.0
21.7
309

181

141

Route No.16
Bus 4
Bus 5
Bus 6
Bus 7 Bus 8 Bus 9
15
40
1
2
23
7
46.0
56.8
9.3
17.2
33.1
26.0
9.4
2.7
1.1
4.4
3.5
3.1
29
56
9
10.5
29
23
38.4
9.9
4.6
17.1
12.0
11.3
215
84
17
67
75
79
Route No.18
Bus 4
Bus 5
Bus 6
Bus 7 Bus 8 Bus 9
28
78
70
78
77
47
107.4
137.5
95.1 111.6 101.2
112.8
11.5
7.3
4.8
5.9
5.4
7.2
98
135
88
104
84
122.5
45.6
23.7
19.7
24.5
22.6
29.8
232
186
149
186
133
177
Route No.23
Bus 4 Bus 5
Bus 6
Bus 7 Bus 8 Bus 9
58
69
49
52
53
64
81.4
98.8
70.4
89.6
74.3
103.6
3.2
4.0
3.0
6.6
3.3
8.9
77
100
69
87
72
86
13.9
15.9
12.6
26.8
13.6
36.6
125

145

105

158

108

235

The mean PM2.5 concentrations in the public buses of three routes are shown
in Figure 10. Most of buses of route No.18 and route No.23 show very high PM2.5
concentration and exceed the WHOs standard IT-1 (75 g/m3), while all the buses
of route No.16 show PM2.5 concentration less than the WHOs standard IT-1 (75
g/m3). The buses of three routes are running on the main street and in central area
of Hanoi city. As recorded during data collection time, the traffic density of Route
No.16 is higher than the traffic density of Route No.18 and Route No.23. Therefore
the main cause that makes the PM2.5 concentration of Route No16 lower than the
20

PM2.5 concentration of Route No.18 and Route No.23 is that all buses of route
No.16 are new and the all of buses of route No.18 and route No.23 are old.
The mean PM2.5 concentration of the bus 1 of route No.23 is highest
(158.575g/m3) in all of the sample buses, it is more than twice that of WHOs
standard (IT-1, 75g/m3). The major possible reasons for the high PM2.5
concentration in bus 1 of route No.23 are; firstly, this bus is too old; secondly, the
sampling point very close to the bus door; thirdly, the time interval between two
consecutive stop is around 5 minutes to 10 minutes which lead to frequent opening
of the bus door allowing the outside dirty air to enter and mix with the air inside
bus very fast.
g/m3
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Route No.16

Route No.18

Route No.23

Figure.10. Mean PM2.5 concentrations in the public buses of three routes,

reference line represent WHOs standard IT-1 (75 g/m3)
The relationship between PM2.5 concentration and age of sample buses is
statistically positive and significant. The difference in PM2.5 concentration between
different ages of the sample buses was examined and analyzed. The figure 11
illustrates the variation in PM2.5 concentration caused by the age of bus.
Considering the comparison between the age and mean PM 2.5 concentration of three
bus routes, the age of bus route No.16 is the lowest as well as the mean PM 2.5
concentration of bus route No.16 is the lowest; in contrary to route No.16, the age
of bus route No.23 is the highest as well as the mean PM2.5 concentration of bus
21

route No.23 is highest. It means that the ages of the bus influence on the PM 2.5
concentration inside the buses.
g/m3

Average Concentration of PM 2.5

120.0

98.4

98.0

100.0
80.0
60.0
35.9

40.0
20.0

0.0
Route No.16

Route No.18

Route No.23

Figure.11. The mean PM2.5 concentration of different age group of buses each
routes
The correlation between the PM 2.5 concentration and the mean age of buses
of each route was observed and the test revealed that there is a significant positive
correlation (R2 =0.65) (figure.12).
g/m3 180.0
y = 6.536x + 10.39
R = 0.645

Mean PM2.5 Concentration

160.0
140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0

60.0
40.0

20.0
0.0
0

10

15

20

Age of buses

Figure.12. Correlation between Mean PM2.5 concentration and the age of buses
22

The maintenance of the buses of each sample route was performed every
month, every three months, every six months and every year with different
maintenance levels. The mean PM2.5 concentration on the buses received having the
maintenance service about one month ago showed lower PM2.5 level than the other
buses received having the maintenance service about 3 months ago (Figure 13).
The buses of route No.16 received maintenance most recently and the mean PM 2.5
concentration were the lowest (30.8 g/m3). In the contrary to route No.16, the
buses of route No.23 received farthest maintenance and the mean PM2.5
concentration was the highest (98.4g/m3).
g/m3
Mean PM2.5 Concentration

120.0
100.0

98.0

98.4

Route No.18
(Last 3 months)

Route No.23
(Last 3 months)

80.0
60.0
40.0

35.9

20.0
0.0
Route No.16
(Last 2 months)

Recent maintenance time

Figure.13. Mean PM2.5 concentration with maintenance period of bus routes

In 2012, the study Health effect assessment of air pollution exposure on the
children in Hanoi, Vietnam (*) was conducted in 10 schools in Hanoi City with the
similar objective such as to assess the health effects of exposure to air pollution on
primary school children in Hanoi.
According to the study of health effect assessment of air pollution exposure
on children in Hanoi (2012), PM2.5 was also collected. The mean PM2.5
concentrations of 10 schools are shown in figure 14. Comparing the mean PM2.5
level of buses and schools are similar. The upper and lower bounds of mean PM2.5
concentration are similar.

( )

* The study Health effect assessment of air pollution exposure on the children in Hanoi, Vietnam was
conducted by Mrs. Vu Quynh Linh the FKs participant was exchanged from Vietnam to Hong Kong in
the FK Phase 5.
23

100

100

93
76

80

86

83

91

98

98.4

62

55

60

86

Route No.23

120

Route No.18

g/m3

41

35.9

40
20

10 schools

Route No.16

Kim Giang

Dang Tran Con A

Phuong Liet

Thinh Hao

Quang Trung

Ly Thuong Kiet

To Vinh Dien

Nghia Do

Trung Hoa

Quan Hoa

3 bus routes

Figure.14. Mean PM2.5 concentration inside 10 schools and 3 bus routes

4.1.2. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
The sources of VOCs inside the vehicle are the materials used to equip the
passenger compartment. The concentration of different VOCs may vary over time
and are dependent on the interior temperature, humidity, ventilation, the age of the
vehicle and other parameters. The increasing temperature encourages higher
emissions of VOCs from interior materials. The VOC concentration will also
increase with an increasing vehicle mileage (Faber, 2013).
Total 9 VOCs samples analyzed in the CEEs laboratory. Among these 9
compounds, a total of 9 compounds were detected in samples. Concentrations of
these 9 VOCs were further analyzed for their relative proportions and it was found
that BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene) were dominant
compounds.
The mean BTEX concentrations in the public buses of three routes are shown
in figure 15. Among BTEX, toluene had the highest concentration. The same like
PM2.5 parameter, the mean B-T-X concentration inside the buses of Route No.16
showed similar result like PM2.5. It is lower than the mean B-T-X concentrations of
Route No.18 and Route No.23. For Ethylbenzene, the mean Ethylbenzene
concentration inside the buses of Route No.16 is higher than the mean
Ethylbenzene concentrations inside the buses of Route No.18 and Route No.23.
24

25

20

Benzene

ppb

15

Toluene

10

Ethylbenzene
5
p-Xylene
0
Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Route No. 16

Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Route No.18

Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Route No. 23

o-Xylene

Buses/ Route

Figure.15. Mean BTEX concentrations in the public buses of three routes

VOCs emissions not only comprise a broad spectrum of volatile species, but
also are produced by a wide variety of sources. The main sources of VOCs
emission to the atmosphere are road transport, combustion of solid fuels in small
furnaces, use of organic solvents, disposal of organic waste on landfills, and
ruminant husbandry (Obermeier et al., 1995). The concentration of VOCs in the air
is determined by such processes as emissions, evaporation, deposition, and
photochemical reactions under the sunlight. Among traffic related VOCs, aromatic
compounds, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and isomers of xylene
(BTEX), namely m-, o-, and p-xylene, have public health importance. In urban
regions, these aromatic VOCs are mainly released from traffic vehicles. Especially,
during the rush hours of traffic in the urban areas.
The period and weather of survey of VOCs samples inside the buses each
route is shown in table 7 below. Different time of a day was selected for sample
collection and 9 VOCs samples in total were collected inside the buses of three
routes. 6 samples were collected during rush hours and 3 samples were collected
during non-peak hours. From the table 7, it can be seen the BTEX concentrations of

25

the sample 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 collected during rush hour of traffic were higher than
sample 2, 4 and 9 collected during normal traffic time. Clearly, the traffic activity
during rush hours is the main reason leading to the high VOCs level.
Quantification of VOCs in the ambient air is important for air quality
assessment and for understanding the photochemical formation of smog. One of the
main constituents of photochemical smog is ozone (O 3) which has adverse effects
on human health at high concentrations. O3 is formed by a complex atmospheric
reactions between nitrogen (NOx) and VOCs in the presence of sunlight and under
favorable meteorological conditions. (Carla Fanizza, 2014). This study conducted
during the spring time, the weather during survey time has not the strong sunlight,
only during collected the 9 th sample has light sunny. There is also a secondary
cause leading to the high VOCs level.
Table.7. Period and weather of survey of VOCs samples inside the buses each
route
Route
Day
Sample

1
1

No.16
2
2

4
4

No.18
5
5

3
3

6
6

14o C
to
18o C

16o C
to
21o C

18o C
to
24o C

23o C
to
30o C

23o C
to
31o C

Benzene

07:08
to
08:10
No
Rain
6.6

12:38
to
13:30
No
Rain
2.4

16:35
to
17:30
No
Rain
3.4

07:05
to
8:10
No
rain
8.6

Toluene

11.16

3.01

5.58

Ethylbenzene

4.49

1.23

p - Xylene

2.9

o - Xylene

1.58

Temperature
(o C)

Time
Weather
Average
BTEX
Concentration
(ppb)

7
7

No.23
8
8

9
9

23o C
to
27o C

20o C
to
25o C

19o C
to
22o C

18o C
to
21o C

10:30
to
11:25
No
Rain
5.3

17:30
to
18:40
No
rain
7.0

07:05
to
8:13
No
rain
10.1

7:10
to
8:15
No
rain
9.1

12:30
to
14:30
Light
sunny
5.4

16.85

11.22

13.98

21.09

17.67

8.27

3.48

2.21

1.19

1.65

3.25

2.53

0.63

0.69

1.57

3.88

2.13

2.85

5.02

4.59

1.3

0.33

0.83

1.89

1.03

1.43

2.54

2.25

0.51

26

ppb

Benzene

Good class (HK's IAQS)

12.0
10.1
10.0
8.0

9.1

8.6

7.0

6.6

5.4

5.3

6.0
3.4

4.0
2.4
2.0
0.0
Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Bus 1

Bus 2

Bus 3

Figure.16. Mean Benzene concentrations in the public buses of three routes,

reference line represent HKs Indoor Air Quality Objective (Good class)
Benzene is known as carcinogenic volatile organic compound and found in
stored fuels and exhaust from vehicles. For those vehicles consuming diesel,
benzene is emitted only from the exhaust as a product of incomplete combustion.
As show in figure 16, most of the buses were mean Benzene concentration exceed
the Hong Kongs Indoor Air Quality Standard (Good class), except for two buses
of Route No.16.
The figure 17 illustrates the mean benzene level with the average age of the
buses of different routes. The highest mean benzene concentration was observed in
busses of sample route No.23 while the lowest concentration was observed in buses
of route No.16. Similar the PM2.5, the mean benzene concentration of buses of route
No.23 is the highest (8.2 ppb exceeded the good class lever of the Hong Kong
Indoor Air Quality standard); the average age is the highest as well. And, the mean
benzene concentration of buses of route No.16 is the lowest (4.2 ppb below the
good class lever of the Hong Kong Indoor Air Quality standard); the average age is
the lowest as well. The old buses might have incomplete combustion of fuel due to
the poor maintenance. Therefore, the major reason caused the benzene
concentration inside the bus increasing is the age of the bus.

27

ppb

The mean Benzen concentration of the bus routes

12.0
10.0
8.0

6.0

Good class (HK's IAQS)

4.0
2.0

4.2

7.0

8.2

Route No. 16
(4 years)

Route No. 18
(11 years)

Route No. 23
(15 years)

0.0

Figure.17. Mean Benzene concentration with the average age of the bus routes
BTEX ratios
BTEX were calculated to compare the VOCs emission among the sampling
of three bus routes. The BTEX ratios relative to Ethylbenzene of the bus route
No.16, bus route No.18 and bus route No.23 were (1.4:2.1:1.0:0.9),
(4.2:8.3:1.0:2.6) and (3.8:7.3:1.0:2.5), respectively (table 8). The BTEX ratios
reported in other study on roadside BTEX level affected by emission source at
three sampling sites in Hanoi city were (4.3:4.1:1.0:4.3), (3.3:4.2:1.0:4.3) and
(5.1:3.6:1.0:3.6), respectively (Vo Thi Quynh Truc, 2007), while the previous study
in the air ambient of Mong Kok and Causeway Bay (Hong Kong) the BTEX ratios
were (1.3:11.5:1.0:3.1) and (1.4:6.1:1.0:2.6), respectively (S.C. Lee, 2002). The
BTEX ratios in present study were different to these ratios of BTEX in roadsides
air of Hanoi and were similar these BTEX ratios in ambient air of Hong Kong
when has presence of high Toluene level.
Table.8. Average BTEX ratios relative to Ethylbenzene
Sites

Route No.16

1.4

2.1

1.0

0.9

Route No.18

4.2

8.3

1.0

2.6

Route No.23

3.8

7.3

1.0

2.5

All samples

2.8

5.3

1.0

1.8

28

In 2014, The average BTEX ratio reported in a similar study on in-vehicle air
quality and pulmonary health status of public transport drivers in Kathmandu
Valley, Nepal (**) was (1.8:6.2:1.0:2.7) (table 9) (Dhital, 2014). Compare the ratio
of BTEX between this study and Nepals study indicated the similar BTEX ratios.
Table.9. Average BTEX ratios relative to ethylbenzene drivers in Kathmandu
Valley, Nepal
Sites

Sajha

1.6

6.1

1.0

2.7

Ring Road

2.2

6.8

1.0

2.7

Godawari

1.9

6.0

1.0

2.7

All samples

1.8

6.2

1.0

2.7

Toluene to Benzene ratios

Toluene to benzene ratio (T/B) is usually reported by researches besides
BTEX ratios. T/B ratio ranged from 2 to 10 in Hong Kong. T/B ratios in Kwai
Chung, Mong Kok, Causeway Bay, Yuen Long and Hok Tsui were 10.0, 9.1, 7.1,
4.4 and 1.9, respectively (S.C. Lee, 2002). While, the T/B ratios reported in other
study on roadside BTEX level affected by emission source at three sampling sites
in Hanoi city were 0.95, 1.27 and 0.71, respectively (Vo Thi Quynh Truc, 2007).
The T/B ratios of the bus route No.16, bus route No.18 and bus route No.23 were
1.5, 1.98 and 1.92, respectively. Comparison with two studies above, this study has
the T/B ratios very close to the T/B ratios at three roadside sites in Hanoi, and very
less than the T/B ratios at five sites in Hong Kong.
In a similar study in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal; the T/B ratios inside three
bus routes Sajha, Ring Road and Godawari were 3.8, 3.1 and 3.3, respectively
(Dhital, 2014). Comparing with the study in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal; this study
has the T/B ratios less than the T/B ratios in the study in Kathmandu Valley about
twice.

**) The study on in-vehicle air quality and pulmonary health state of public transport drivers in
Kathmandu Valley was conducted by Mr. Narayan Babu Dhital the FKs participant was exchanged
from Nepal to Hong Kong in the FK Round 2.
29

ppb

Benzene

Benzene

ppb

Toluene

25

25

Toluene
21.1

20

20

15

15

10

10

10.1
7.1

2.8

1.4

2.4

3.1

0.6

0
Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3
Route No. 16

Schools

Route No.18

Route No. 23

Buses/ Route

Figure.18. Mean Benzene and Toluene inside 10 schools and 9 buses

Comparison on mean Benzene concentration between 10 schools and 9 buses
has significant different, the mean Benzene concentration inside the buses is higher
than the mean Benzene concentration inside the schools (figure 18). Thinh Hao
Schools is the highest Benzene concentration (2.8 ppb) and the bus 1 of route
No.23 is the highest Benzene concentration (10.1 ppb) but the Benzene
concentration inside the bus 1 of route No.23 is higher than the Benzene
concentration inside Thinh Hao School almost 4 times. Also with the lowest
Benzene concentration case, the Benzene concentration inside the bus 2 of route
No.16 (2.4 ppb) is higher than the Benzene concentration inside Phuong Liet
School (0.6 ppb) 4 times.
As same like the Benzene, the mean Toluene concentration inside the buses
is higher than the mean Toluene concentration inside the schools around 3 times.

30

4.2. Health Impact of bus drivers

4.2.1. General characteristics of bus drivers each sample route and CEMs
staffs
The table 10 shows number of bus drivers selected from each route (No.16,
No.18 and No.23) and the CEMs staffs for the survey. Table 11 shows the age of
bus drivers of these routes and the CEMs staffs, almost 50% of bus drivers
between 31-40 years old. The table 12 shows the height and weight of bus drivers
selected and CEMs staffs from each route. The height of bus drivers was ranging
from 160cm to 180cm and their weight was ranging from 52kg to 94kg, while the
height of CEMs staffs was ranging from 159cm to 173cm and their weight was
ranging from 55kg to 80kg.
Table.10. Number of bus drivers selected from each route and the CEMs staffs
Number of drivers/ CEMs staffs
16
16
19
9
60

Route number/CEM
16
18
23
CEM
Total

Table.11. Age of bus drivers and the CEMs staffs

Route number

Age group
31-40
41-50
62.5%
25%
50%
25%
36.8%
26.3%
33.3%
0%
49.0%
25.5%

20-30
6.25%
25%
5.3%
66.7%
11.8%

16
18
23
CEM
Total

51-60
6.25%
0%
31.6%
0%
13.7%

Table.12. The height and weight of bus drivers each route and CEMs staffs
Route No. 16
No.

Route No.18

Route No.23

CEM

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

164

52

170

65

170

55

167

65

168

64

170

65

168

94

167

61

172

70

169

57

164

66

172

70

170

60

168

63

178

60

159

64

162

60

162

60

172

63

172

78

31

Route No. 16
No.

Route No.18

Route No.23

CEM

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

Height

Weight

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

(cm)

(kg)

173

63

174

68

174

70

163

55

169

75

176

78

165

70

166

60

170

60

165

65

163

65

167

67

180

60

170

65

160

54

173

80

10

160

54

172

80

168

66

11

163

60

172

80

170

65

12

170

65

165

65

170

76

13

180

80

164

74

170

67

14

170

53

166

65

170

55

15

170

65

170

70

160

64

16

163

53

161

63

170

60

17

165

67

18

167

65

19

170

65

168.1

65.6

167.3

66.7

Average

169.0

62.1

168.4

67.7

The table 13 shows the smoking behavior of bus drivers selected from each
route and CEMs staffs for this survey, the total around 46.7% of the bus drivers
and CEMs staffs were smokers. Most of them smokes about 5-10 cigarettes daily
while the remaining smokes about 10-15 cigarettes daily. The table 14 shows years
of driving of bus drivers each route. Most of the drivers have been a bus driver for
about 6 years to 10 years.
Table.13. Smoking behavior of the bus drivers and CEMs staffs
Route No.
16
18
23
CEM
Total

Smokers
56.3%
50.0%
47.4%
22.2%
46.7%

32

Non - smokers
43.8%
50.0%
52.6%
77.8%
53.3%

Table.14. Years of driving of bus drivers each route

Route
No.

How many years been a bus driver

Years of driving the sample route

1-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

above

1-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

above

year

year

year

year

20 year

year

year

year

year

20 year

16

12.5% 50.0% 31.2%

0.0%

6.3%

62.5% 31.2%

6.3%

0.0%

0.0%

18

18.8% 50.0%

6.2%

25.0%

0.0%

37.5% 43.7% 18.8%

0.0%

0.0%

23

5.2%

31.6% 15.8%

15.8%

31.6%

21.1% 52.6% 26.3%

0.0%

0.0%

4.2.2. Past health condition of bus drivers and CEMs staffs

The respiratory illness of bus drivers and CEMs staffs in last 12 months is
shown in table 15. The all of the bus drivers of three routes have never been
respiratory illness such as Asthma, Allergic rhinitis, Pneumonia, Wheezing and
Phlegm on most days. But the 100% of the bus drivers of three routes have ever
been light respiration problem such as Night cough and the felt Uncomfortable of
throat in last 12 months.
Table.15. Past health record of bus drivers and CEMs staffs in last 12 months
Route
No.

Asthma

Allergic
rhinitis

Pneumonia Wheezing

Night

Phlegm on Uncomfortable

cough

most days

of throat

16

0%

0%

0%

0%

100%

0%

100%

18

0%

0%

0%

0%

100%

0%

100%

23

0%

0%

0%

0%

100%

0%

100%

CEM

0%

0%

0%

0%

100%

0%

100%

4.2.3. Lung function of bus drivers and CEMs staffs

4.2.3.1. Forced vital capacity (FVC)
FVC is the total amount of air that can forcibly be blown out after full
inspiration, measured in liters. Since Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases
(COPD) causes the air in your lungs to be exhaled at a slower rate and in a smaller
amount compared to a normal, healthy person, measuring how well you can
forcibly exhale air can provide indication on the presence of COPD. The mean
FVC of the drivers of different sample routes is illustrated in figure 19. The lowest
of mean FVC was be found in CEMs staffs while the highest mean FVC found in
drivers of route No.16. Since the FVC data was normally distributed one way
Anova test was used to test the significant difference of mean FVC between the
33

drivers of different routes and the CEMs staffs (table 16). The test revealed that
there is no significant difference of mean FVC at least a pair of sample (P>0.05).
Liter
7.00
6.00

Mean FVC

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

3.44

3.23

3.14

3.11

Route No.16

Route No.18

Route No.23

CEM

0.00

Figure.19. Mean FVC of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs.
Table.16. One way ANOVA test for mean FVC
Source of Variation

SS

df

MS

2.981

0.993

Within Groups

103.982

178

0.584

Total

106.963

181

Between Groups

F P-value
1.701

0.17

F crit
2.655

4.2.3.2. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1)

FEV1 is the amount of air that you can forcibly blow out in one second,
measured in liters. The figure 20 illustrates the mean FEV1 of the drivers of
different routes. The lowest of FEV1 found in drivers of the route No.23 the
highest of FEV1 found in drivers of the route No.18. The one way Anova test
revealed that there is no significant difference of mean FEV1 of the sample routes
(table 17, P>0.05).

34

Liter
6.00

Mean FEV1

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

3.14

3.18

3.04

3.10

Route No.16

Route No.18

Route No.23

CEM

0.00

Figure.20. Mean FEV1 of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs
Table.17. One way ANOVA test for mean FEV1
Source of Variation

SS

df

MS

P-value

F crit

0.579

0.193

0.443

0.722

2.656

Within Groups

75.840

174

0.435

Total

76.419

177

Between Groups

4.2.4. Comparison of actual lung function with predicted value

4.2.4.1. The ratio between FVC and predicted FVC
The comparison of FVC and predicted FVC is shown in table 18. The
comparison of actual collected lung function data with predicted values shows was
53.3% of bus drivers and CEMs staffs have normal FVC while 45.1% remaining
to have abnormal FVC which is quite a high percentage.
Table.18. the comparison of FVC and predicted FVC
Route
No/CEM
16
18
23
CEM
Total

Comparison of FVC and predicted FVC

Normal
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Count Row N% Count Row N% Count Row N% Count Row N%
10
62.5
1
6.25
3
18.75
2
12.5
9
56.25
4
25
2
12.5
1
6.25
9
47.4
6
31.6
1
5.3
3
15.8
4
44.4
2
22.2
2
22.2
1
11.2
32
53.3
13
21.7
8
13.3
7
11.7
35

4.2.4.2. The ratio between FEV1 and predicted FEV1

The comparison of FEV1 and predicted FEV1 is shown in table 19. The
comparison of actual collected lung function data with predicted values shows was
73.3% of bus drivers and CEMs staffs have normal FEV1 while 26.7% remaining
to have abnormal FEV1 which is quite a low percentage.
Table.19. the comparison of FEV1 and predicted FEV1
Comparison of FEV1 and predicted FEV1
Route
No

Normal

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Count Row N% Count Row N% Count Row N% Count Row N%

16

10

62.5

12.5

12.5

12.5

18

13

81.25

12.5

6.25

0.0

23

15

78.9

10.5

5.3

5.3

CEM

66.7

22.2

11.1

0.0

Total

44

73.3

13.3

8.3

5.0

4.2.4.3. The ratio between FVC and FEV1

The results of lung function of bus drivers are presented in the table 20. Most
of the drivers of three routes and CEMs staffs had normal FEV1/FVC and 2.22%
(only one driver) of the drivers in route No.16 had mild FEV1/FVC as per the
database presented by Hong Kong thoracic society. The figure 21 illustrates the
mean FEV1/FVC ratio percentage of the drivers in different routes. It was found
that the all the drivers had normal FEV1 to FVC.
Table 20: Ratio of FEV1/FVC % of sample bus drivers/ CEM
FEV1/FVC %

Sample routes/ CEM

Normal

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Route No.16

97.78

2.22

Route No.18

100

Route No.23

100

CEM

100

36

120.0

FEV1/FVC

100.0
80.0
60.0

Normal 70%

40.0

Severe < 50%

20.0

95.0

99.4

97.5

99.4

Route No.16

Route No.18

Route No.23

CEM

0.0

Figure.21. Mean FEV1/FVC of the bus drivers and the CEMs staffs
4.2.4.4. The relationship between lung function data of drivers and
pollutions
The statistical on the pollutions and lung function test are shown in table 21.
The mean PM2.5 and Benzene concentration inside the buses of route No.18 and
route No.23 were exceeded the standards; however the lung function data of drivers
of these routes found out that the drivers health are normal. And the mean PM 2.5
and Benzene concentration inside the buses of route No.16 is lower than the
standards, but one of the drivers has mild health.
Table.21. the statistical on the pollutions and lung function test.
No.
1.
1.1

1.2

Parameters

Routes
Route
No.16

Pollutions
Mean PM2.5 concentration/ WHOs Standard
(IT1 - 75g/m3)
Mean

Benzene

concentration/

HKs

IAQ

Route
No.18

Route
No.23

30.8

98.0

98.4

4.1

7.0

8.3

standard (good class - 5ppb)

1.3

Mean Toluene concentration (ppb)

6.6

14

1.4

Mean Ethyl benzene concentration (ppb)

3.1

1.7

2.1

1.5

Mean O - Xylene (ppb)

1.7

3.0

3.6

37

1.6

Mean M Xylene (ppb)

2.

FVC/ Predicted FVC

2.1
2.2

3.
3.1
3.2

4.
4.1

4.2

2.7
Route
No.16

The percentages of drivers have Normal FVC

( 80%)
The percentages of drivers have Abnormal FVC
(< 80%)

The percentages of drivers have Normal FEV1

( 80%)
The percentages of drivers have Abnormal FEV1
(< 80%)

The

percentages

of

drivers

have

Normal

FEV1/FVC ( 70%)
The percentages of drivers have Abnormal
FEV1/FVC (<70%)

Route
No.23

56.25%

47.4%

37.5%

43.75%

52.6%

Route
No.18

Route
No.23

62.5%

81.25%

78.9%

37.5%

18.75%

21.5%

Route
No.16

FEV1/FVC%

Route
No.18

1.8

62.5%

Route
No.16

FEV1/ Predicted FEV1

1.4

Route
No.18

Route
No.23

97.78%

100%

100%

2.22%

0%

0%

Particles in the PM2.5 size range are able to travel deeply into the respiratory
tract, reaching the lungs. Exposure to fine particles can cause short-term health
effects such as eye, nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose
and shortness of breath. Exposure to fine particles can also affect lung function and
worsen medical conditions such as asthma and heart disease. Scientific studies have
linked increases in daily PM 2.5 exposure with increased respiratory and
cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency department visits and deaths.
Studies also suggest that long term exposure to fine particulate matter may be
associated with increased rates of chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function and
increased mortality from lung cancer and heart disease. (Department of health of
New York State).
Short-term exposure to high levels of some VOCs especially Benzene,
Toluene can cause headaches, dizziness, light-headedness, drowsiness, nausea, and
eye and respiratory irritation. These effects usually go away after the exposure
stops. In laboratory animals, long-term exposure to high levels of some VOCs has
caused cancer and affected the liver, kidney and nervous system. (Department of
health of New York State).

38

According to the table 22 below, the pollutions data specifically with PM 2.5
and Benzene and the FVC/ Predicted FVC ratio (the percentages of drivers have
Abnormal FVC (< 80%)) of bus drivers had shown out the positive correlation. The
mean PM2.5 and Benzene concentration of route No.16 is the lowest and the mean
PM2.5 and Benzene concentration of route No.23 is the highest, the percentages of
drivers have Abnormal FVC is the lowest in route No.16 and the highest in route
No.23 as well. Thus, exposures to ambient PM2.5 and Benzene have been associated
with reduced lung function of the bus drivers.
Table.22. shown out the relationship between PM2.5 and Benzene with
FVC/Predicted FVC ratio
Parameters
FVC/Predicted FVC
PM2.5
Benzene The percentages of drivers
(ppb)
have
Abnormal
FVC
(g/m3)
Routes
(< 80%)
Route No.16
Route No.18
Route No.23

30.8
98.0
98.4

4.1
7.0
8.3

37.5%
43.75%
52.6%

4.2.4.5. Comparison on lung function results between the bus drivers/

CEMs staffs and the students
As mentioned above, in 2012, the study Health effect assessment of air
pollution exposure on the children in Hanoi, Vietnam (*) was conducted in 10
schools in Hanoi City with the similar objective such as assessment the health
effects of exposure to air pollution on primary school children in Hanoi. In this
study, the school childrens lung function in 10 schools was tested.
The present study also conducted the lung function test of CEMs staffs.
With purpose of comparing the lung function results of CEMs staffs with that of
the drivers. Because, CEMs staffs are office workers, they work in where has a
better air quality than the bus drivers. And, the working environment in CEM is
undisturbed same as the environment inside bus.

( )

* The study Health effect assessment of air pollution exposure on the children in Hanoi, Vietnam was
conducted by Mrs. Vu Quynh Linh the FKs participant was exchanged from Vietnam to Hong Kong in
the FK Phase 5.

39

Compared the lung function results between the bus drivers/ CEMs staffs
and the students of 10 schools (table 23) the clear differences can be seen. The
mean FVC value and mean FEV1 value of the students are lower than the bus
drivers and CEMs staffs, because of the age of students is less; they are in the
process of development therefore their lung volume is lower than the bus drivers
and CEMs staffs. It can also be seen that the normal FVE1% and FVC% values of
the bus drivers and CEMs staffs are less than the students normal FVE1% and
FVC% values. Some reasons to explain this can be that probably the work
environment of the bus driver is too bad due to the presence of high the PM 2.5
concentration and high Benzene, Toluene level. Probably due the CEMs staffs and
bus drivers often use the motorbike to move therefore they are being exposure by
air pollutions by the traffic operations, especially with high traffic density in Hanoi
daily.
Table.23. the lung function results of the bus drivers/CEMs staffs and the
students
10 schools

3 routes/ CEM

Schools

Mean
FVC(L)

Quan Hoa

2.01

1.9

84.5%

71.2%

62.5%

62.5%

3.14

3.44

Bus
routes
/CEM
No.16

Trung Hoa

1.78

1.73

84.1%

61.4%

56.25%

81.25%

3.18

3.23

No.18

Nghia Do

1.86

1.78

94.2%

73.1%

47.4%

78.9%

3.04

3.14

No.23

To Vinh Dien
Ly Thuong
Kiet

1.75

1.71

77.8%

68.9%

44.4%

66.7%

3.1

3.11

CEM

1.73

1.69

84.5%

63.2%

Quang Trung

2.06

1.9

86.5%

78.8%

Thinh Hao

2.23

1.97

87.7%

73.7%

Phuong Liet
Dang Tran
Con A

2.02

1.9

84.5%

69.0%

2.06

1.92

86.4%

89.8%

Kim Giang

1.93

1.83

90.4%

71.2%

Average

1.94

1.83

86.06%

72.03%

52.64%

72.34%

3.12

3.23

Average

Mean
Normal
FEV1(L) FEV1%

Normal
FVC%

Normal
FVC%

Normal
FEV1%

Mean
FEV1(L)

Mean
FVC(L)

40

5. Conclusion
In the study three public bus routes of Hanoi public route system were
selected. Total of 9 buses from each bus route were selected to collect in vehicle
air quality data. The air quality parameters monitored inside the buses were PM2.5
and VOCs. The pulmonary health statuses of public bus drivers were also studied
based on pulmonary function test.
The pollutions inside the buses of route No.16 is lowest while it is highest
with the buses of route No.23. PM2.5 and Benzene levels were found as a major
problem as they frequently exceeded the guidelines with route No.18 and route
No.23. Because all buses of route No.18 and route No.23 are old bus. In opposition,
the all buses of route No.16 are newest among all sample routes. Therefore, mean
PM2.5 and Benzene concentration inside the bus of route No.16 were still within the
relevant guidelines.
The lung function test of the bus drives was tested by using the MIR
Spirobank G equipment; the test result did not show a big problem on the
pulmonary health with most of the bus drivers. They only suffer from some small
problems when the weather changes such a night cough and uncomfortable of
throat. The highest percentages of normal FVC for the bus drivers in route No.18 is
81.25% and the highest percentages of bus drivers with abnormal FVC in route
No.16 is 37.5%.
Evidently, the presence of air pollutions inside the bus will cause adverse
impact to the bus driver health; and the initial observation shows that has the
positive correlation relationship between the pulmonary health status of public bus
drivers and pollutions on this study. In generally, the health of drives of three
routes is still good.

41

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and respiratory symptoms affecting traffic-police in Bogot. Rev. salud pblica , 889-992.
Linh, V. Q. (2012). Health effect assessment of air pollution exposure on children in Hanoi, Vietnam.
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42

Appendix
Appendix 1. Photos of buses and streets along the route No.16

One of the buses of route No 16

43

Inside one of the buses of route No 16

Xuan Thuy Cau Giay road where the route No16 passing on peak hour and
middle of the road has construction.
44

Appendix 2. Photos of buses and streets along the route No.18

One of the buses of route No 18

45

Inside one of the buses of route No.18 during sampling time

46

Appendix 3. Photos of buses and streets along the route No.23

One of the buses of route No.23

47

Inside one of the buses of route No.23 during sampling time

48

Inside one of the buses of route No.23

49