BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering, Architecture & Fine Arts

Gov. Pablo Borbon Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City, Philippines 4200
www.batstate-u.edu.ph
Telefax: (043) 300-4404 locs. 106-118

CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Storage Tanks and Pressure

Vessels Design

Group Members:
Chavez, Froilan Angelo D.
De Guzman, Jerwin D.
De Torres, Angelica M.

ChE-4302

INTRODUCTION
According to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Code
Section VIII, pressure vessels are containers for the containment of pressure,
either internal or external. This pressure may be obtained from an external
source or by the application of heat from a direct or indirect source as a result
of a process, or any combination thereof. The ASME Code is the construction
code for pressure vessels and contains mandatory requirements, specific
prohibitions, and non-mandatory guidance for pressure vessel materials,
design, fabrication, examination, inspection, testing and certification.
A storage tank or vessel is a container that can be characterized as
one of two types. Either "open" where the total volume changes, via a
changing wall like in a piston or in piping. Or "closed" in which the total
volume is fixed by solid wall connections like in a tank or cylinder. The
container walls can be characterized as either thick or thin.
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes
made of sections of spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A
common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are
frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More complicated
shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and
are usually far more difficult to construct. Theoretically, a sphere would be
the best shape of a pressure vessel. Unhappily, a spherical shape is tough to
manufacture, therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are
cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller
pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers. A disadvantage
of these vessels is that greater breadths are more expensive.
Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in both industry
and the private sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial compressed
air receivers and domestic hot water storage tanks. Other examples of
pressure vessels are diving cylinders, recompression chambers, distillation
towers, autoclaves, and many other vessels in mining operations, oil
refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels, submarine and
space ship habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under
pressure, rail vehicle airbrake reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and
storage vessels for liquified gases such as ammonia, chlorine, propane,
butane and LPG.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
The following learning outcomes are expected to be acquired by the
students after discussing the topic:
1. Display an understanding of the principles of process equipment
design, the mechanical aspects of the design and operation of storage
tank and pressure vessel, including safety considerations.
2. Gain information on advantages and disadvantages of storage tank
and pressure vessel and how the process equipments are fabricated
considering the safety and cost.
3. Apply the different formulas given in solving problems regarding
storage tank and pressure vessel.

STORAGE TANK AND PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN

Storage Tank
These tanks can be used for storage, mixing, or as vessels for chemical
processes.

Figure 1. Storage Tank

Table 1. Types of Storage Tank

Types of
Storage
Tank
Undergroun
d

Abovegrou
nd

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Underground

tanks do not
require
much
insulation. Need
to be stronger,
requiring more
materials,
and
they may need
special,
noncorrosive
outer coats.

Underground
storage tanks
allow more
flexibility in
placement
location.
Lower
production
costs
compared to
other tanks.

Need

secondary
outer insulation
layers.

Aboveground
storage tanks
are
simpler
and cheaper
to construct.

Aboveground
storage tanks
have a lower
monitoring
and
record-

Underground
storage
tanks
may
contaminate
the land as
leaks
in
these system
are hard to
find.
High
maintenance
needed due
to
a
susceptibility
to corrosion.

Aboveground
storage
tanks have a
high risk of
fire.
Corrosion of
tank
can
have
expensive
environment
al

Image

keeping cost.

consequence
s.

Less
demanding
storage
conditions
lead to a wide
choice
of
structural
materials.

Spherical tanks are particularly useful in high pressure applications,

and they can also be insulated and refrigerated to allow for higher pressures.
Settling tanks
Settling tanks are specially designed to settling and separate
materials. It is designed to account for minimum slurry turbulence and rapid,
constant settling of materials. A conveyor belt is used to remove sludge from
a mixture. All settling tanks are also equipped with pumps to recirculate the
liquid component of the mixture, and filters to keep solids out of the
recirculating pumps.
Settling tanks are used primarily to separate solids from a solid-liquid
mixture. These tanks are equipped with conveyor belts that lift settled solids
in the sludge mixture from the bottom of the tank and dump it over the side,
as shown in the diagram.

Figure 2. Settling Tank with Conveyor Belt

The picture below shows a settling tank with a multiple weir design.
This design makes it possible for the tank to more efficiently remove solids.
Both the settling and clean storage tank have continuous conveyor and weir
systems to remove settled deposits and discharge them into sludge bins.

Figure 3. Settling Tank with Multiple Weir Design

Commercial uses for settling tanks include:

Primary dewatering of salvageable materials from a solid-liquid mixture

Quick quenching and efficient handling of hot materials
As an alternative to more expensive filtration systems
Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Settling Tank

Settling Tank

Advantages

Disadvantages

Applications with slow

sludge
build-up
allow
continuous operation of
tank.

Use limited to mixtures

that are not hazardous
when exposed to the
atmosphere.

Transport and Storage Of Materials

Principal means used for the transport and storage of process materials:

Gases
Liquids
Solids

GASES

The type of equipment best suited for the pumping of gases in

pipelines depends on the flow-rate, the differential pressure required, and the
operating pressure.
Fans are used where the pressure drop is small, <35 cm H2O (0.03
bar)
Axial flow compressors for high flow-rates and moderate differential
pressures.
Centrifugal compressors for high flow-rates and, by staging, high
differential pressures.
Reciprocating compressors can be used over a wide range of
pressures and capacities, but are normally only specified in preference to
centrifugal compressors where high pressures are requiredat relatively low
flow-rates.
Storage
Gases are stored at low pressure in gas holders similar to those used
for town gas, which are a familiar sight in any town.
Liquid sealed type are most commonly used. These consist of a
number of telescopic sections (lifts) which rise and fall as gas is added to or
withdrawn from the holder.
Dry sealed type is used where the gas must be kept dry. In this type
the gas is contained by a piston moving in a large vertical cylindrical vessel.

Gases are stored at high pressures where this is a process requirement

and to reduce
the storage volume.
Cylindrical and spherical vessels are used.
LIQUIDS
Pump shaft power
The power required for pumping an incompressible fluid is given by:
eq. (10.12)

Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical

Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 480
Note: The efficiency of reciprocating pumps is usually around 90 per cent.
Storage
Liquids are usually stored in bulk in vertical cylindrical steel tanks.
Fixed and floating-roof tanks are used.
Fixed-roof tanks require vents to prevent pressure changes which
would otherwise result from temperature changes and withdrawal or addition
of liquid.

Floating-roof tanks are used to eliminate evaporation losses and, for

flammable liquids, to obviate the need for inert gas blanketing to prevent an
explosive mixture forming above the liquid, as would be the situation with a
fixed-roof tank. Floatating roofs must have a seal between the roof and the
tank shell. If not protected by a fixed roof, they must have drains for the
removal of water, and the tank shell must have a wind girder to avoid
distortion.
Horizontal cylindrical tanks and rectangular tanks are also used
for storing liquids, usually for relatively small quantities.

Calculation of Tank Volume

A tank may be a single geometrical element, such as a cylinder, a
sphere, or an ellipsoid. It may also have a compound form, such as a cylinder
with hemispherical ends or a combination of a toroid and a sphere. To
determine the volume, each geometrical element usually must be calculated
separately. Calculations for a full tank are usually simple, but calculations for
partially filled tanks may be complicated.
To calculate the volume of a partially filled horizontal cylinder refer
to Fig. 10-183 (Perrys, 7th ed.), Fig.10-188 (Perrys, 8th ed.). Calculate the
angle in degrees. Any units of length can be used, but they must be the
same for H, R, and L. The liquid volume

eq. (10-109)
Reference: Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th edition, pp.10-139
Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8 th edition, pp.10-144
This formula may be used for any depth of liquid between zero and the
full tank, provided the algebraic signs are observed. If H is greater than R, sin
cos will be negative and thus will add numerically to /57.30. Table 10-64
(Perrys, 7th ed.), Table 10-59 (Perrys, 8th ed.) gives liquid volume, for a
partially filled horizontal cylinder, as a fraction of the total volume, for the
dimensionless ratio H/D or H/2R.

( Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook,

th

7 edition)
SOLIDS

The best equipment to use will depend on a number of factors:

1.
2.
3.
4.

The throughput.
Length of travel.
Change in elevation.
Nature of the solids: size, bulk density, angle of repose, abrasiveness,
corrosiveness, wet or dry.

Belt conveyors are the most commonly used type of equipment for
the continuous transport of solids. They can carry a wide range of materials
economically over long and short distances; both horizontally or at an
appreciable angle, depending on the angle of respose of the solids.
Screw conveyors, also called worm conveyors, are used for
materials that are free flowing. The modern conveyor consists of a helical
screw rotating in a U-shaped trough. They can be used horizontally or, with
some loss of capacity, at an incline to lift materials.
Bucket elevator, most widely used equipment where a vertical lift is
required. It can handle a wide range of solids, from heavy lumps to fine
powders, and are suitable for use with wet solids and slurries.
Storage
The simplest way to store solids is to pile them on the ground in the
open air. This is satisfactory for the long-term storage of materials that do not
deteriorate on exposure to the elements.
Overhead bunkers, also called bins or hoppers, are normally used for the
short-term storage of materials that must be readily available for the process.
They are arranged so that the material can be withdrawn at a steady rate
from the base of the bunker on to a suitable conveyor.
Mechanical Design of Process Equipment
The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:
1. Vessel function.
2. Process materials and services.
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Vessel dimensions and orientation.
6. Type of vessel heads to be used.
7. Openings and connections required.
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
9. Type of agitator.
10. Specification of internal fittings.
Table 3. Types of Process Equipment

Pressure Vessels

Description
Tanks used to store
and
transport
highly pressurized
materials.
Pressurizing

Advantages
Disadvantages
By using high Materials used to
construct vessels
pressures,
are often brittle
greater
and
the
quantities
of
possibility
of
gases or fluids

materials
to
a
minimum
volume
and using pressure
vessels is a highly
efficient
and
economical way to
store materials.

Expansion Tanks

Designed
to
allow space for a
fluid to expand
in a system. A
properly
implemented
and maintained
tank will allow
the
system
equipment in the
system to have a
longer life span,
be
safer
to
operate, and be
simpler
to
maintain.

The
expansion
tank is normally
placed in the
system at its
highest
point.
This allows for a
positive pressure
difference
to
make
pumping
easier and allows
for
simple
venting.

They
normally
used in heattransfer systems
where fluids will
expand as they
are heated.

can be stored in
the same space
as in storage
tanks.

Allows
for
thermal
expansion
of
the fluid.
Extends
equipment life
Make operations
safer.
Allows for easier
maintenance.

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS

brittle
fracture
increases
with
wall thickness.
Regulatory codes
limit
use
by
allowing
only
specific materials
to
be
stored
under a specific
range
of
conditions.
Oxidation
can
make the fluid
more acidic and
corrode the tank.

Design pressure
For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is
normally taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will
normally be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal working pressure, to avoid
spurious operation during minor process upsets.
Vessels subject to external pressure likely to be subjected to
vacuum should be designed for a full negative pressure of 1 bar, unless fitted
with an effective, and reliable, vacuum breaker.

Design temperature
The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should
be taken as the maximum working temperature of the material, with due
allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures.
Materials
Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steels, low and high
alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced plastics.
The pressure vessel design codes and standards include lists of
acceptable materials; in accordance with the appropriate material standards.

THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE

Cylinders and spherical shells
For a cylindrical shell the minimum thickness required to resist internal
pressure can be determined from equation 13.7; the cylindrical stress will be
the greater of the two principal stresses.

eq. (13.7)
Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 802

If Di is internal diameter and e the minimum thickness required, the mean

diameter will be (Di +e); substituting this for D in equation 13.7 gives:

where f is the design stress and Pi the internal pressure. Rearranging gives:
eq. (13.39)
Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 815

An equation for the minimum thickness of a sphere can be obtained from

equation 13.9:

eq. (13.9)
Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 802

If a welded joint factor is used equations will be:

eq. (13.39a)
eq. (13.40b)
where J is the joint factor.
Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 815
Heads and closures
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The
principal types used are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Flat plates and formed flat heads;

Hemispherical heads; Figure 13.10a.
Ellipsoidal heads; Figure 13.10b.
Torispherical heads; Figure 13.10c.

Figure 4. Principal Types of Heads

Hemispherical,
ellipsoidal
and
torispherical
heads
are
collectively referred to as domed heads. They are formed by pressing or

spinning; large diameters are fabricated from formed sections. Torispherical

heads are often referred to as dished ends.
Choice of closure
Flat plates are used as covers for manways, and as the channel
covers of heat exchangers. Formed flat ends, known as flange-only ends,
are manufactured by turning over a flange with a small radius on a flat plate.
Flange-only heads are the cheapest type of formed head to
manufacture, but their use is limited to low-pressure and small-diameter
vessels.
Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most
commonly used end closure for vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar.
They can be used for higher pressures, but above 10 bar their cost should be
compared with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head.
Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will usually prove to be the most
economical closure to use.
A hemispherical head is the strongest shape; capable of resisting
about twice the pressure of a torispherical head of the same thickness.
Design of flat ends
Though the fabrication cost is low, flat ends are not a structurally
efficient form, and very thick plates would be required for high pressures or
large diameters.
The design equations used to determine the thickness of flat ends are
based on the analysis of stresses in flat plates.
The thickness required will depend on the degree of constraint at the
plate periphery.
The minimum thickness required is given by:

eq. (13.42)

Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical

Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 818
Design of domed ends
1. Hemispherical heads
It can be seen by examination of equations 13.7 and 13.9, that for
equal stress in the cylindrical section and hemispherical head of a vessel the
thickness of the head need only be half that of the cylinder.
2. Ellipsoidal heads

Most standard ellipsoidal heads are manufactured with a major and

minor axis ratio of 2 : 1. For this ratio, the following equation can be used to
calculate the minimum thickness required:
eq. (13.43)
Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 819

3. Torispherical heads
There are two junctions in a torispherical end closure: that between the
cylindrical section and the head, and that at the junction of the crown and the
knuckle radii. One approach taken is to use the basic equation for a
hemisphere and to introduce a stress concentration, or shape, factor to allow
for the increased stress due to the discontinuity. The stress concentration
factor is a function of the knuckle and crown radii.
Eq. (13.44)

Reference: Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical

Engineering: Chemical Engineering design, Vol. 6, 4 th edition, pp. 819
The ratio of the knuckle to crown radii should not be less than 0.06, to
avoid buckling; and the crown radius should not be greater than the diameter
of the cylindrical section. For formed heads (no joints in the head) the joint
factor J is taken as 1.0.

Sample Problem No. 1

Estimate the thickness required for the component parts of the vessel shown
in the diagram. The vessel is to operate at a pressure of 14 bar (absolute)
and temperature of 3000C. The material of construction will be plain carbon
steel. Welds will be fully radiographed. A corrosion allowance of 2 mm should
be used.

Solution:
Design pressure, take as 10 per cent above operating pressure,

Design temperature 3000C.

Typical design stress = 85 N/mm2.
Cylindrical section

Domed head
(i) Try a standard dished head (torisphere):

A head of this size would be formed by pressing: no joints, so J =1.

(ii) Try a standard ellipsoidal head, ratio major : minor axes = 2 : 1

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical. Take as same

thickness as wall 15 mm.

Problem Sets
1. The wall thickness of a 4ft diameter spherical tank is 5/6 inch.
Calculate the allowable internal pressure if the pressure is limited to
8000 psi.

2. Determine the thickness of a 5 meter inside diameter spherical tank

for handling a corrosive liquid at a design pressure and temperature of
300KPa and 27F, respectively. The material of construction is made of
carbon steel. (Design stress = 94500 kPa).
Given:
Design Pressure = 300kPa
Design stress = 94500 kPa
Di = 5m
J=1
Solution:

e=

( 300000 Pa ) ( 5 m )
=3.972 mm
( 4 )( 94500000 Pa )1.2 ( 300000 )

3.972 mm+ 2 mm for corrosion allowance=5.972 mm6 mm

3. A horizontal, cylingdrical tank with hemispherical ends, is used to store

liquid chlrorine at 10bar. The vessel is 4m internal diameter and 20m
long. Estimate the minimum wall thickness required to resist this
pressure, for the cylindrical section and the heads. Take the design
pressure as 12 bar and the allowable design stress for the material as
110 MN/m2
Given:
Tank with hemispherical ends
Di = 4m
H= 20m long
Pi= 12 bars

f= 110MPa
Solution:

e=

1.2 x 4000
=22 mm plate
2 ( 110 )1.2

For hemispherical head

The optimum thickness ratio is normally taken as 0.6
e=13.2

4. A spherical carbon-steel storage tank has an inside diameter of 30ft.

All joints are butt-welded with backing srip. If the tank is to be used at
a working pressure of 30psig and a temperature of 80F, estimate the
necessary wall thickness. No corrosion allowance is necessary.
Given:
Di=30ft = 9282mm
Pi= 30x1.1 = 33psig = 227.4643kPa
f = 135N/mm2
Solution:

e=

0.2275 ( 9282 )
=6.522mm7 mm
4 ( 0.6 )( 135 ) 1.2 ( 0.2275 )

REFERENCES:
Green, Don W., Robert H. Perry, and James O. Maloney, 2007. Perrys
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th edition, McGraw Hill Books.
Green, Don W., Robert H. Perry, and James O. Maloney, 2001. Perrys
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th edition, McGraw Hill Books.
Peters, Max S., and Klaus D. Timmerhaus, 1991. Plant Design and
Economics for Chemical Engineers, McGraw Hill Book Co., Singapore.
Sinnott, R.K., 2005, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering:
Chemical Engineering Design, Vol. 6, 4th edition.