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Microprocessor

A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a


central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small
components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Microprocessors help
to do everything from writing to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by
lots of precise instructions, and microprocessors carry out these instructions at incredible speed
many millions of times a second. Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in
embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars,
military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small
and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting
cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used
in personal computers.
A microprocessor is one of the most central parts of a modern personal computer or, in fact, any
advanced computer device. It integrates the functions of a central processing unit, the portion of
a computer responsible for carrying out programmed instructions, onto a single integrated circuit
that couples the important thinking devices of the machine with the electrical infrastructure
needed to support them. Microprocessor design is able to incorporate a tremendous amount of
processing power in a very small space. Perhaps more than any other component of the modern
computer, the microprocessor has a long and storied history, and an almost mythological status
thanks to its great importance. Each step of the way to modern microprocessing has spurred more
triumphs, innovations, and competition.

History of the Microprocessor


1.
2.
3.
4.

4-Bit Microprocessors
8-Bit Microprocessors
16-Bit Microprocessors
32-Bit Microprocessors
5. 64-Bit Microprocessors
6.

4-Bit Chips
Though IBM was a titan in the early huge-scale computing race, it was Intel, founded in 1968,
that provided much of the pioneering work associated with first-generation microprocessor
technology. The power of a given microprocessor was, and still is, measured in bits. Put simply,
this refers to the most basic unit of coded instructions, expressed in a string of binary 1s and 0s,
which the computer interprets to carry out tasks. The more powerful the processor, the more
instructions it can carry out at one time, leading to faster processing and more effectiveness at

complex tasks. Though 4-bit chips were fairly simple, they gave weight to the prophetic
prediction known as Moores Law, predicting that the capacity of integrated circuits (and thus, of
computers) would double every two years.
8-Bit Chips
Intel remained a forerunner in early microprocessor technology, releasing its first 8-bit
microprocessor, the 8008, in 1972. Many of the same engineers involved with the original 4-bit
models contributed ideas and design specifications to this new generation of chips, which had
taken only about four years to develop. By this time, other companies were becoming
increasingly interested in the microprocessor field, thanks largely to Intels own evangelization
of the potential benefits. By the middle of the decade, Intels new 8080 microprocessor made
major inroads in catching the eye of computer developers and engineers and the ascent of
microprocessors was only beginning.
16-Bit Chips
In the mid-1970s, National Semiconductor entered the field of microprocessor development,
enticed by the fast pace of breakthroughs at Intel. Unfortunately, the era of 16-bit chips was
short, even by the standards of such an industry. 16-bit microprocessors including National
Semiconductors PACE were relatively slow, though more advanced iterations like the Motorola
6800 found their way into early Macintosh systems and others. By the time 16-bit chips were
living up to their potential, the 32-bit era had already begun to arrive and 16-bit technology was
destined to be eclipsed by the next big thing a foretaste of things to come in an industry where
research never ends.
32-Bit Chips
By the late 1970s, development of 32-bit microprocessors was in full swing and they began to
appear on the mass market in the 1980s, courtesy of National Semiconductor and HewlettPackard. Desktop engineering devices entered a new phase with the inception of 32-bit
processing. 32-bit microprocessors were relatively advanced and can be looked upon as the
forerunner of modern microprocessors.
64-Bit Chips

64-bit chips have been available since 1992, and are now in the mainstream of computer use.
Much of the 64-bit microprocessor era has been dominated by the battle between Intel and AMD.
The latter company was founded in 1969 and rose to prominence after inking a deal with IBM
and Intel by which AMD would become the second source manufacturer of Intel-designed
processors. From that humble agreement, prompted by IBMs internal policies at the time, was
born legal controversy, corporate intrigue, and ultimately, the development of a vigorous
microprocessing market with two major superpowers and the potential for many more as
technology develops.
RISC Chips
RISC, standing for Reduced Instruction Set Computer, derives from an IBM research project
dating back to the second half of the 1970s. RISC chips were intended to streamline computer
programming by omitting the most complex instructions and relying more effectively upon the
simpler, more common instructions that could be processed and acted upon more quickly. Such
chips are still used today and have developed into a spectrum of full-fledged computing
architectures in competition with CISC methods of development, which makes full use of
complex instructions. RISC architecture is widely used in devices such as cellular phones and
certain types of travel PCs.
Microprocessors Today
Todays microprocessors are immensely powerful, capable of executing complex instructions at a
faster rate than ever before. As computers grow ever more sophisticated, engineering science
begins to run up against puzzling challenges. The continued forward march of microprocessor
technology depends as much on pure computing research as it does on cutting edge
developments in other fields of science. The engine of microprocessor development in the 21st
century may well be the creation of new forms of miniaturization or new semi conductive alloys
that permit ever more transistors to be placed on a microchip. Though it is not known if Moores
Law can stand up against these unprecedented technical challenges, it is indisputable that todays
microprocessors are more powerful than anything that could have been imagined at the dawn of
the computing age over half a century ago. As increasingly globalized societies demand better
computing technology, more great advances are sure to be made.

Applications of Microprocessor
The wide range of application area of the microprocessor can be broadly classified into two
groups: general purpose application and special purpose application.
1. General purpose application
i) Single board micro computers
Single board microcomputers are simple and cheaper. They have the minimum possible software
and hardware configuration. They are used to train the students. They are also used to build small
computer based systems.
ii) Personal Computers
The home computer made up of a 8 bit microprocessor are used for playing video games and
learning simple programs. The 16 bit computers are used for word processing, payroll, business
accounts, etc.
iii) Super Minis and CAD
32 bit processors are used to build powerful microcomputers. Their performance is better than
mainframe and mini-computers. These systems are used in Engineering side as computer aided
design machines.
2. Special purpose application.
i) Instrumentation
The microprocessor based instrument can be made intelligent using feature programmability.
Microprocessors can be used as controllers in various instruments. They are also used in medical
instruments to measure blood pressure and temperature.
ii) Control
Microprocessor controllers are now available in home appliances such as microwave oven,
washing machine. In industry, microprocessors are used in controlling various process
parameters such as speed, temperature, moisture and pressure.
iii) Communication
In the telephone industry, microprocessors are used in digital telephone sets, telephone
exchanges and modems. They are also used in railway reservation system at the national level
and air reservation system at international level. Satellite communication systems, mobile phones
and televisions are also using microprocessors.

iv) Office Automation and Publication


With the availability of inexpensive and user friendly microcomputers along with wide range of
software packages, office works are computerized. Microcomputers are used in office to perform
word processing, spreadsheet operations, storage and retrieval of huge information. In publishing
houses microprocessor based systems are used for making automatic photo copies.
Microprocessor based LASER printers are used to achieve good speed in printing.

8085 MICROPROCESSOR
8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor with a 40 pin dual in line package. The address
and data bus are multiplexed in this processor which helps in providing more control signals.
8085 microprocessor has 1 Non-maskable interrupt and 3 maskable interrupts. It provides serial
interfacing with serial input data (SID) and serial output data (SOD).
It has a set of registers for performing various operations. The various registers include
Accumulator (register A)
Registers: B, C, D, E, H and L
Stack pointer
Program Counter
Temporary register
Instruction register

Architechture of 8085
This is the functional block diagram of the 8085 Microprocessor.

It is a 8-bit register which is used to perform airthmetical and logical operation. It stores the output of any
operation. It also works as registers for i/o accesses.

Temporary Register
It is a 8-bit register which is used to hold the data on which the acumulator is computing
operation. It is also called as operand register because it provides operands to ALU.
Registers
These are general purposes registers. Microprocessor consists 6 general purpose registers of 8-bit
each named as B,C,D,E,H and L. Generally theses registers are not used for storing the data
permanently. It carries the 8-bits data. These are used only during the execution of the
instructions.
These registers can also be used to carry the 16 bits data by making the pair of 2 registers. The
valid register pairs available are BC,DE HL. We can not use other pairs except BC,DEand HL.
These registers are programmed by user.
ALU
ALU performs the airthmetic operations and logical operation.
Flag Registers
It consists of 5 flip flop which changes its status according to the result stored in an accumulator.
It is also known as status registers. It is connected to the ALU.
There are five flip-flops in the flag register are as follows:
1. Sign(S)
2. zero(z)

3. Auxiliary carry(AC)
4. Parity(P)
5. Carry(C)
The bit position of the flip flop in flag register is:
D7

D6

D5

D4
AC

D3

D2

D1

All of the three flip flop set and reset according to the stored result in the accumulator.

1. SignIf D7 of the result is 1 then sign flag is set otherwise reset. As we know that a number on the D7
always decides the sign of the number. if D7 is 1: the number is negative. if D7 is 0: the number
is positive.
2.Zeros(Z)If the result stored in an accumulator is zero then this flip flop is set otherwise it is reset.
3.Auxiliary carry(AC)If any carry goes from D3 to D4 in the output then it is set otherwise it is reset.
4.Parity(P)If the no of 1's is even in the output stored in the accumulator then it is set otherwise it is reset
for the odd.
5.Carry(C)If the result stored in an accumulator generates a carry in its final output then it is set otherwise it
is reset.
Instruction registers(IR)
It is a 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in this register.
Instruction Decoder

D0
CY

Instruction decoder identifies the instructions. It takes the informations from instruction register
and decodes the instruction to be performed.
Program Counter
It is a 16 bit register used as memory pointer. It stores the memory address of the next instruction
to be executed. So we can say that this register is used to sequencing the program. Generally the
memory have 16 bit addresses so that it has 16 bit memory. The program counter is set to
0000H.
Stack Pointer
It is also a 16 bit register used as memory pointer. It points to the memory location called stack.
Generally stack is a reserved portion of memory where information can be stores or taken back
together.
Timing and Control Unit
It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform the various operation.It
has three control signal. It controls all external and internal circuits. It operates with reference to
clock signal.It synchronizes all the data transfers.
There are three control signal:
1. ALE-Airthmetic Latch Enable, It provides control signal to synchronize the components
of microprocessor.
2. RD- This is active low used for reading operation.
3. WR-This is active low used for writing operation.
There are three status signal used in microprocessor S0, S1 and IO/M. It changes its status
according the provided input to these pins.
Serial Input Output ControlThere are two pins in this unit. This unit is used for serial data communication.
Interrupt Unit
There are 6 interrupt pins in this unit. Generally an external hardware is connected to these pins.
These pins provide interrupt signal sent by external hardware to microprocessor and
microprocessor sends acknowledgement for receiving the interrupt signal. Generally INTA is
used for acknowledgement.

Register Section
Many registers has been used in microprocessor. PIPO shift register It consists of PIPO(Parallel
Input Parallel Output) register.

Pin Diagram and Pin description of 8085

8085 is a 40 pin IC, The signals from the pins can be grouped as follows
1. Power supply and clock signals
2. Address bus
3. Data bus
4. Control and status signals
5. Interrupts and externally initiated signals
6. Serial I/O ports
1. Power supply and Clock frequency signals:
Vcc: + 5 volt power supply
Vss: Ground
X1, X2 : Crystal or R/C network or LC network connections to set the frequency of internal
clock generator. The frequency is internally divided by two. Since the basic operating timing
frequency is 3 MHz, a 6 MHz crystal is connected externally. CLK (output)-Clock Output is

used as the system clock for peripheral and devices interfaced with the microprocessor.
2. Address Bus:
A8 - A15: (output; 3-state)
It carries the most significant 8 bits of the memory address or the 8 bits of the I/O address.
3. Data bus:
AD0 - AD7 (input/output; 3-state)
These multiplexed set of lines used to carry the lower order 8 bit address as well as data bus.

During the opcode fetch operation, in the first clock cycle, the lines deliver the lower
order address A0 - A7.

In the subsequent IO / memory, read / write clock cycle the lines are used as data bus.

The CPU may read or write out data through these lines.

4. Control and Status signals:


ALE (output) - Address Latch Enable.

It is an output signal used to give information of AD0-AD7 contents.

It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by uP.

When pulse goes high it indicates that AD0-AD7 are address.

When it is low it indicates that the contents are data.

RD (output 3-state, active low)

Read memory or IO device.

This indicates that the selected memory location or I/O device is to be read and that the
data bus is ready for accepting data from the memory or I/O device

WR (output 3-state, active low)


Write memory or IO device.
This indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into the selected memory location
or I/O device.
IO/M (output) - Select memory or an IO device.

This status signal indicates that the read / write operation relates to whether the memory
or I/O device.

It goes high to indicate an I/O operation.

It goes low for memory operations.

5. Status Signals:
S1: S2:
It is used to know the type of current operation of the microprocessor.
IO/M

S1

S0

OPERATION

Opcode fetch

Memory read

Memory write

I/O read

I/O write

Interrupt acknowledge

Halt

Hold

Reset

6. Interrupts and Externally initiated operations:


They are the signals initiated by an external device to request the microprocessor to do a
particular task or work.
There are five hardware interrupts called,TRAP
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
RST 5.5
INTA
On receipt of an interrupt, the microprocessor acknowledges the interrupt by the active low
INTA (Interrupt Acknowledge) signal.

Reset In (input, active low)


This signal is used to reset the microprocessor.
The program counter inside the microprocessor is set to zero.
The buses are tri-stated.
Reset Out (Output)
It indicates CPU is being reset.
Used to reset all the connected devices when the microprocessor is reset.
7. Direct Memory Access (DMA): Tri state devices:
When 2 or more devices are connected to a common bus, to prevent the devices from
interfering with each other, the tristate gates are used to disconnect all devices except the one that
is communicating at a given instant.
The CPU controls the data transfer operation between memory and I/O device. Direct
Memory Access operation is used for large volume data transfer between memory and an I/O
device directly.

The CPU is disabled by tri-stating its buses and the transfer is effected directly by external
control circuits.
HOLD signal is generated by the DMA controller circuit. On receipt of this signal, the
microprocessor acknowledges the request by sending out HLDA signal and leaves out the
control of the buses. After the HLDA signal the DMA controller starts the direct transfer of data.
READY (input)
Memory and I/O devices will have slower response compared to microprocessors.
Before completing the present job such a slow peripheral may not be able to handle further
data or control signal from CPU.
The processor sets the READY signal after completing the present job to access the data.
The microprocessor enters into WAIT state while the READY pin is disabled.
8. Single Bit Serial I/O ports:
SID (input) Serial input data line
SOD (output) Serial output data line
These signals are used for serial communication.

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