MECT 3331

Applied Thermodynamics

Chapter 6 - Processes
Michel LeBlanc, Lecturer

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Goals
Use thermodynamic models and data available for the
properties of a simple compressible pure substance to
determine work transfers, heat transfers, and changes in
internal energy and enthalpy in ideal (reversible) processes
that are commonly encountered in the analysis of basic
engineering cycles
Define isentropic efficiency for turbines, compressors/pumps,
and nozzles as a measure of internal irreversibilities in these
devices
Describe the (irreversible) throttling process

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Common Reversible Processes in Engineering Cycle Analysis
Constant-Pressure (Isobaric): ideal (neglecting pressure drops)
heat addition and rejection flow processes are modeled as constantpressure processes (e.g., combustors, boilers, condensers, and
other heat exchangers)
Constant-Volume (Isochoric): An important example is the ideal
heat addition process in the Otto cycle (reciprocating IC engines)
Adiabatic/Polytropic: Ideal Expansion/compression processes
(turbines, compressors, pumps, reciprocating IC engines)
Constant-Temperature (Isothermal): Important examples are heat
addition/rejection processes involving a change of phase at constant
pressure (e.g. boilers, condensers, evaporators)

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
1. Constant-Pressure (Isobaric)
p = constant and V1/V2=T1/T2 or v1/v2 =T1/T2
For reversible processes, work and heat transfers (for both closed systems
and control volumes with steady flow), and changes in internal energy and
enthalpy are summarized in Table 6-4
Problem 1: Air flows through a chamber at 2-atm pressure, with no change in
velocity. If the density of the gas increases by a factor of 2.5 between inlet
and exit, and the inlet temperature is 650oC, determine the work, the exhaust
temperature, and the heat transfer per kg of air.
Problem 2: Five pounds-mass of nitrogen are contained in a piston-cylinder at
100 psig and 80oF. The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psia, and the nitrogen
temperature is increased to 90oF. Determine the final volume of the nitrogen if
the pressure is to remain at 100 psig at all times during the process.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
2. Constant-Volume (Isochoric)
v = constant and p1/p2=T1/T2
For reversible processes, work and heat transfers (for both closed systems
and control volumes with steady flow), and changes in internal energy and
enthalpy are summarized in Table 6-4
Problem 3: Heat is added to a piston-cylinder containing air at 1800 kPa and
650K while the volume is held constant. The amount of heat is such that the
final pressure is 3200 kPa. Determine the final temperature and the amount
of heat added.
Problem 4: Inside the closed chamber of a piston-cylinder device, fuel and air
burn at constant volume, releasing 3.5 kJ of energy. If the volume is 1000
cm3, the temperature is 280oC before burning, and the pressure is 600kPa,
determine the temperature and pressure of the gases after burning if the
gases behave like air.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
3. Constant-Temperature (Isothermal)
T = constant and p1/p2=V2/V1 = v2/v1
For reversible processes, work and heat transfers (for both closed systems
and control volumes with steady flow), and changes in internal energy and
enthalpy are summarized in Table 6-4
Problem 5: During the expansion of a perfect gas from 1200-kPa pressure and a
specific volume of 1.1 m3/kg to 101-kPa pressure, the temperature remains
constant. Determine the constant C in the process equation pv = C describing
the process, and determine the final specific volume.
Problem 6: Refrigerant-12 (Freon-12) is compressed from 100 psig to 200 psig
at 1000oF in a steady-flow device. Determine the minimum work required and
the heat transferred per unit mass during the compression. Assume that the
atmospheric pressure is 14.6 psia.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
4. Polytropic processes
pvn = constant (where n is referred to as the polytropic exponent)
For reversible processes, work and heat transfers (for both closed systems
and control volumes with steady flow), and changes in internal energy and
enthalpy are summarized in Table 6-4. Also listed in the table are the
relationships between the pressure ratio and volume and temperature ratios.
Problem 7: Air is polytropically expanded through a reversible turbine from 1500
kPa to 100 kPa. The inlet temperature is 1200K, the mass flow rate is 1.0
kg/s, and the polytropic exponent n is 1.5. Determine the power produced and
the rate of heat transfer.
Problem 8: During a reversible polytropic compression of an ideal gas, the
following data are found: p1 = 14.7 psia, v1=14.5 ft3/lbm, p2 = 165 psia, and v2
= 2.42 ft3/lbm. Determine the polytropic exponent n.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
5. Adiabatic Processes

Q=0
It can be shown that the process equation for an ideal gas (with constant k =cp/cv)
undergoing a reversible adiabatic process is pvk = constant (polytropic with n=k)
For reversible processes, work and heat transfers (for both closed systems and control
volumes with steady flow), and changes in internal energy and enthalpy are summarized
in Table 6-4.
Reversible adiabatic processes are constant entropy processes (see Chapter 7.)
Therefore, these processes are isentropic.
When a turbine or compressor/pump may be assumed to be adiabatic (i.e., operating
with negligible heat transfers), an isentropic efficiency may be defined as a measure of
internal irrevesibilities. The isentropic efficiency ,s, is a ratio that compares the actual
work done by/on the system to the work that would be produced/consumed in a
reversible adiabatic expansion/compression starting at the same initial state and
having the same final pressure as the actual process.

s = wkact/wkrev
s = wkrev/wkact

(power-producing devices, i.e. turbines)

(power-consuming devices, i.e., compressors/pumps)

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Ideal Gas Processes
5. Adiabatic Processes
A similar isentropic efficiency may be defined for a nozzle (which is an
adiabatic device) by comparing the actual kinetic energy leaving the nozzle,
to the kinetic energy for a reversible adiabatic process between the same
inlet state and exhaust pressure.
Note that the efficiency of a device involves a comparison of the actual
performance to that of a related well-defined ideal process. As another
example, the performance of a cooled compressor may be compared to that
of a reversible isothermal process using an isothermal efficiency.
Problem 9: An adiabatic compressor is used to compress argon gas from 15
psia to 160 psia, and its isentropic efficiency is 85% under these conditions. If
the argon is at 70oF at the low-pressure state, determine the work done by
the compressor per unit mass of argon flowing through it. Also determine the
temperature of the argon at the high pressure.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Processes of Real Gases
We limit ourselves to pvT relationships as given by the principle of
corresponding states. However, note that this principle may also
be used to construct generalized correction charts (deviations
from ideal gas values) for the enthalpy and other thermodynamic
properties.
Problem 10: Methane gas at 5000 kPa and -20oC is heated to 10oC
at constant pressure. Determine the density of the methane after
being heated.
Problem 11: Heat is added to benzene in a constant-volume
process such that the final temperature is 1400oR. The initial
pressure is 600 psia and the temperature is 1000oR. Assuming
that the benzene remains chemically inert, determine the final
pressure.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Processes of Incompressible Liquids
The first law for a closed system reduces to
Q = U = mc T

For a steady flow process through a control volume

The reversible work reduces to wkos = -v p
The macroscopic energy equation reduces to the so-called mechanical
energy equation which is frequently used for analyzing pipe flows.

where the friction head Ploss

,hL, may
be identified
with the following group
P 1
1
WK
V1 2 gz1 2 V22 gz 2
ghL
2
2
m
1

u 2 u1
m

hL

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Processes of Incompressible Liquids

Problem 12: A water pump, operating under steady-flow conditions, moves water at
78oF from a region of low pressure (15 psia) to a region of high pressure (250
psia). Determine the reversible work done per pound-mass of water and the
minimum power required if the water is supplied at 20 lbm/s.
Problem 13: Ethylene glycol flows through a radiator at 10 kg/s while its temperature
changes from 92oC to 60oC. The pressure of the rasiator is 20 kPa gage, or 120
kPa, because the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Determine the heat
transferred from the ethylene glycol in the radiator in kilowatts.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Processes Requiring the use of Thermodynamic Tables/Charts for Pure
Substances
Problem 14: A 1-m3 rigid container holds 2 kg of water at 120oC. It is then heated to
240oC and finally cooled to 80oC. Determine the conditions of the three states and
the heat and work involved in the two processes.
Problem 15: An evaporation coil of a refrigerator allows 30 kg/s of Refrigerant-12 to
flow through it from a saturation mixture at -23oC (250 K) and 25% quality to
saturated vapor at the exit. The tube has an inside diameter of 1.0 cm, and it is
uniform throughout the evaporator. Determine the rate of heat addition to the R-12
and the velocity change of the R-12 in the evaporator.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
The Throttling Process

A throttle is a steady-flow device that decreases the pressure of a flowing fluid without work and with nearly no heat. Any narrow
constriction in a flow can be effective as a throttle. In practice, valves, porous plugs, and fine capillary tubes are used.
The pressure drop occurs because of viscous dissipation. Therefore, a throttling process is inherently irreversible.
Applications include refrigeration systems (throttles are used to expand the refrigerant from the pressure of the condenser to that of the
evaporator), gas liquefaction (Joule-Kelvin effect), load control in SI engines, steam quality measurements with throttling
calorimeters, and pressure regulators on gas tanks.
Assuming heat transfer across the control surface to be negligible, and changes in kinetic and potential energy to be negligible as well, the
macroscopic energy equation for a throttling process reduces to
h1 = h2
Problem 16: Steam under a pressure of 150 psia enters a throttling calorimeter and emerges as superheated steam at atmospheric
pressure with a temperature of 300oF. What is the quality of the wet steam?
Problem 17: Nitrogen is contained in a steel tank at 170 atm and room temperature (298 K) A pressure regulator (throttle) is used to
reduce the pressure to 2 atm as N2 flows from the tank. Assuming the process is adiabatic, determine the temperature of N 2
downstream of the regulator. Use real-gas properties (NIST website). Compare this result to that obtained with ideal gas behavior.
(Add to homework.)

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Practice Problems
Problem 18: A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains 0.5 kg
of steam at 0.4 MPa. Heat is transferred to the steam until the temperature is
300oC, while the pressure remains constant. Determine the heat transfer and the
work for this process.
Problem 19: The mass rate of flow into a steam turbine is 1.5 kg/s and the heat
transfer from the turbine is 8.5 kW. The following data are known for the steam
entering and leaving the turbine. Determine the power output of the turbine.
Assume g=9.81 m/s2.
Pressure: 2 MPa (Inlet) and 0.1 MPa (Exit)
Temperature: 350oC (Inlet)
Quality: 100% (Exit)
Velocity: 50 m/s (Inlet) and 200 m/s (Exit)
Elevation: 6m (Inlet) and 3m (Exit)

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Practice Problems
Problem 20: The centrifugal air compressor of a gas turbine
receives air from the ambient atmosphere where the pressure is 1
bar and the temperature is 300 K. At the discharge of the
compressor the pressure is 4 bar , the temperature is 480 K and
the velocity is 100 m/s. The mass rate of flow into the compressor
is 15 kg/s. Determine the power required to drive the compressor
using (a) constant specific heats and (b) the Air Table (B-6)
Problem 21: Ammonia enters the expansion valve of a vaporcompression refrigeration cycle at p = 1.5 MPa and T = 32oC. The
pressure on leaving the expansion valve is 268 kPa. Calculate
the quality of the ammonia leaving the expansion valve.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Practice Problems
Problem 22: A steam turbine receives steam at
a pressure of 1 MPa and temperature 300oC.
The steam leaves the turbine at 15 kPa. The
work output of the turbine is measured and is
found to be 600 kJ/kg of steam flowing through
the turbine. Determine the isentropic efficiency
of the turbine and define the actual exit state.

Chapter 6
Process Equations - Applications
Homework
(Due 3/6/14)
Chapter 6 Problems 6-14, 6-20, 6-24, 6-32, 6-35, 6-42,
6-44, 6-54, 6-60, and 6-62
(Answer to 6-35: 963.99oR)