Western Cape Provincial Administration Chapter06 Revision 3.0 Latest

F
Volume 2
Chapter 6
Revision 3.0
Materials Selection, Constraints

and Design Procedures
Surfacing
Base
Subbase
Selected
Subgrade
Materials Manual
Western Cape Provincial Administration
Department of Transport and Public Works
Roads Infrastructure Branch
Materials Manual
First Edition
Chapter 6
Materials Selection, Constraints
and Design Procedures

Department of Transport and Public Works
Roads Infrastructure Branch

2004 by the Western Cape Provincial Administration. All right reserved
First Edition published 2004
2008 by the Western Cape Provincial Administration. All right reserved.
First Edition revision 3.0 published 2008
Printed in the Republic of South Africa
SET: ISBN 0-620-29823-5

CHAPTER: ISBN 1-920158-07-3
WCPA Transport and Public Works Department
Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6
MATERIALS SELECTION, CONSTRAINTS AND

DESIGN PROCEDURES
Contents
page 6-
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................6-1
DESIGN CONCEPTS .......................................................................................6-2
SPECIAL PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE MINERAL CONTENT OF GRANULAR
MATERIALS ..................................................................................................6-4
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 6-4
Micaceous Material.............................................................................................................................. 6-4
ROADBED .....................................................................................................6-5
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 6-5
Remedial Measures............................................................................................................................. 6-5
Expansive Materials.................................................................................................................................. 6-5
Collapsible Materials................................................................................................................................. 6-6
Settlement Of Compressible Soils ............................................................................................................ 6-8
Flaws In The Structural Support ............................................................................................................... 6-8
Non-Uniform Support................................................................................................................................ 6-8
Soluble Salts............................................................................................................................................. 6-8
Highly Resilient Soils ................................................................................................................................ 6-9
Biological Activity ...................................................................................................................................... 6-9
Other Problems ................................................................................................................................. 6-10
CHEMICAL STABILIZATION............................................................................6-11
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-11
Modification............................................................................................................................................. 6-11
Cementation ........................................................................................................................................... 6-12
Objectives Of Stabilization ................................................................................................................ 6-12

Improvement Of Sub-Standard Materials......................................................................................... 6-13
Cemented Materials .......................................................................................................................... 6-13
Strength .................................................................................................................................................. 6-13
Cracking ................................................................................................................................................. 6-14
Erodibility ................................................................................................................................................ 6-16
Durability................................................................................................................................................. 6-17
BITUMEN EMULSION TREATMENT ..................................................................6-20

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-20
Modification............................................................................................................................................. 6-20
Stabilization ............................................................................................................................................ 6-21
Objectives Of Emulsion Treatment.................................................................................................... 6-21

Improvement Of Sub-Standard Materials By Modification ............................................................... 6-22
Improvement Of Materials By Stabilization ....................................................................................... 6-22
HOT-MIX ASPHALT BASE .............................................................................6-23

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-23
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-23
SURFACING ................................................................................................6-25
General ..........................................................................................................................6-25
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-25
Reseal Needs .................................................................................................................................... 6-25
Binder Selection ................................................................................................................................ 6-25
6 Selection, constraints & design procedures
June 19, 2008
page 6-i
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Compatibility Of Bituminous Binders With Various Aggregates .............................................................. 6-25

Bitumen-Rubber ..................................................................................................................................... 6-26
Aggregate Selection .......................................................................................................................... 6-29

Precoating ......................................................................................................................................... 6-29
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-29
Skid Resistance...................................................................................................................................... 6-29
Conversion Factors ................................................................................................................................ 6-31
Computation Of Average Least Dimension............................................................................................. 6-33
General Constraints .......................................................................................................................... 6-33

Geometry................................................................................................................................................ 6-33
Absorptive Behaviour Of Aggregates ..................................................................................................... 6-33
Limiting Hot Gross Spray Rates ............................................................................................................. 6-33
Application Of Second Spray.................................................................................................................. 6-33
Dilutions Of Emulsions............................................................................................................................ 6-33
Soluble Salts........................................................................................................................................... 6-34
Weather Limitations........................................................................................................................... 6-34

Crack Activity..................................................................................................................................... 6-35
Prime Coat .....................................................................................................................6-37

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-37
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-37
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-37
Spray Rate.............................................................................................................................................. 6-37
Tack Coat.......................................................................................................................6-38
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-38
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-38
Spray Rate.............................................................................................................................................. 6-38
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Otta Seals ......................................................................................................................6-39

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-39
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-39
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-39
Binder Spray Rates ................................................................................................................................ 6-39
Aggregate Grading Selection.................................................................................................................. 6-40
Aggregate Application Rates .................................................................................................................. 6-41
Special Considerations For Double Otta Seal And Combination Seals .................................................. 6-41
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Sand Seal ......................................................................................................................6-42

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-42
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-42
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-42
Spray Rate.............................................................................................................................................. 6-42
Spread Rate ........................................................................................................................................... 6-42
Single Seal Of 6,7 mm Chips .........................................................................................6-43

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-43
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-43
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-43
Spray Rates............................................................................................................................................ 6-43
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-43
Single Seal Of 9,5 mm Chips Plus Sand Blind...............................................................6-44

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-44
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-44
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-44
Spray Rates............................................................................................................................................ 6-44
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-44
Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips .......................................................................................6-46

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-46
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-46
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-46
Spray Rates............................................................................................................................................ 6-46
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-46
Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips Plus Sand Blind............................................................6-47

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-47
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-47
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-47
Spray Rates............................................................................................................................................ 6-47
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-47
Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips Plus Grit ........................................................................6-48

page 6-ii
June 19, 2008
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-48
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-48
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-48
Spray Rates ............................................................................................................................................ 6-48
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-48
Double Seal Of 13,2 mm & 6,7 mm Chips .....................................................................6-49

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-49
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-49
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-49
Spray Rates ............................................................................................................................................ 6-49
Spread Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 6-50
Cape Seal ......................................................................................................................6-51

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-51
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-51
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-51
Spray Rates ............................................................................................................................................ 6-51
Spread Rate............................................................................................................................................ 6-53
Design Sheet ..................................................................................................................................... 6-53

Slurry Mix Composition ..................................................................................................................... 6-53
Conventional Slow Setting Anionic Coarse Slurry .........................................................6-54

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-54
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-54
Job Mix .............................................................................................................................................. 6-54
Rapid Setting Rubber Modified Coarse Slurry ..............................................................6-56

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-56
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-56
Job Mix .............................................................................................................................................. 6-56
HOT-MIX ASPHALT SURFACING ....................................................................6-58

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-58
General Framework For A Comprehensive System ......................................................................... 6-59
Aggregate Selection Subsystem ....................................................................................................... 6-60
Binder Selection Subsystem ............................................................................................................. 6-60
Physical Properties ................................................................................................................................. 6-60
Initial Mix Design ............................................................................................................................... 6-62
Asphalt With Conventional Binder .................................................................................6-64

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-64
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-64
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-64
Continuously Graded Asphalt ................................................................................................................. 6-65
Semi-Gap Graded Asphalt...................................................................................................................... 6-66
Bitumen-Rubber Asphalt................................................................................................6-68
Continuously Graded Asphalt............................................................................................................ 6-68
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6-68
Design .................................................................................................................................................... 6-69
Material Preparation ............................................................................................................................... 6-69
Interpretation Of Test Data ..................................................................................................................... 6-71
Quality Control ........................................................................................................................................ 6-71
Porous Bitumen-Rubber Asphalt....................................................................................................... 6-72

Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6-72
Design .................................................................................................................................................... 6-74
Minimum Binder...................................................................................................................................... 6-74
Maximum Binder..................................................................................................................................... 6-75
FRICTION COURSES.....................................................................................6-76
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-76
Design .................................................................................................................................................... 6-77
Optimum Field Voids and Binder Contents............................................................................................. 6-77
Minimum Aggregate Strength and Durability .......................................................................................... 6-78
Minimum Binder...................................................................................................................................... 6-78
Maximum Binder and Inherent Mix Stability............................................................................................ 6-78
Minimum and Maximum Tack Application .............................................................................................. 6-79
June 19, 2008
page 6-iii
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CONCRETE ................................................................................................ 6-80

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-80
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 6-80
Aggregate ............................................................................................................................................... 6-80
Cement................................................................................................................................................... 6-80
Water...................................................................................................................................................... 6-81
Admixtures.............................................................................................................................................. 6-81
Design Criteria................................................................................................................................... 6-81

Mix Design Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 6-82
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6-82
Design Of A Trial Mix.............................................................................................................................. 6-82
Remarks On Design Procedure.............................................................................................................. 6-83
Durability............................................................................................................................................ 6-85
Aggressive Environments ....................................................................................................................... 6-85
Water In Contact With Concrete ............................................................................................................. 6-86
Analytical Tests Required ....................................................................................................................... 6-87
Assessment Of Analytical Results And Recommended Countermeasures ............................................ 6-89
Soils In Contact With Concrete............................................................................................................... 6-90
Analytical Tests Required ....................................................................................................................... 6-90
Recommended Countermeasures.......................................................................................................... 6-92
SEGMENTAL PAVING BLOCKS...................................................................... 6-93

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6-93
Design ............................................................................................................................................... 6-93
Constraints ........................................................................................................................................ 6-93
Junction Of Asphalt And Concrete Block Paving Surfacing.................................................................... 6-93
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CONSTRUCTION WATER .............................................................................. 6-95

Determining Quality And Suitability ................................................................................................... 6-95
Analysis Of Water Results For Roadworks............................................................................................. 6-95
Analysis Of Water Results For Concrete ................................................................................................ 6-96
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REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 6-97

Journals ............................................................................................................................................. 6-97
Manuals And Specifications .............................................................................................................. 6-99
FIGURES
Figure 6-1: Layout of the Materials Manual ................................................................................................... 6-1
Figure 6-2: Proposed crushing curve .......................................................................................................... 6-16
Figure 6-3: Summary of relationships between erosion index and relative density of four types of
material ...................................................................................................................................... 6-18
Figure 6-4: Grading of coarse graded asphalt base.................................................................................... 6-24
Figure 6-5: Bitumen-rubber blend characteristics for 78% 80/100 pen bitumen with 20% rubber crumb
and 2% extender oil at different reaction temperatures of 180C, 200C and 220C ............... 6-28
Figure 6-6: Effect of surface properties on skid resistance ......................................................................... 6-30
Figure 6-7: Crack Movement for a typical cemented base.......................................................................... 6-36
Figure 6-8: Determination of M50 and CMSt from CMS data ....................................................................... 6-36
Figure 6-9: WCPA spread rate curve .......................................................................................................... 6-45
Figure 6-10: Radius of curvature versus asphalt strain............................................................................... 6-58
Figure 6-11: Surface Curvature Index (SCI) to maximum horizontal strain ................................................ 6-58
Figure 6-12: Granular base elastic modulus (EB) versus deflection basin parameters............................... 6-59
Figure 6-13: Comprehensive design system for asphalt with or without modified bitumen ........................ 6-61
Figure 6-14: Aggregate selection subsystem .............................................................................................. 6-63
Figure 6-15: Binder selection subsystem .................................................................................................... 6-63
Figure 6-16: Average dynamic creep results according to grading............................................................. 6-71
Figure 6-17: Example for road structure with porous asphalt ..................................................................... 6-72
Figure 6-18: Bitumen-rubber blend characteristics for different sources of bitumen, different percentages
rubber crumb at a reaction temperature of 180C .................................................................. 6-73
Figure 6-19: Example of a road structure with friction course (indicating water drainage mechanism)...... 6-76
Figure 6-20: Optimum coarse aggregate content........................................................................................ 6-84
Figure 6-21: Water map of South Africa giving an indication of potential aggressive ground waters ......... 6-87
Figure 6-22: Requirements for a corrosion survey ...................................................................................... 6-91
page 6-iv
June 19, 2008
TABLES
Table 6-1: Summary of Deflection Basin Parameters ................................................................................... 6-2
Table 6-2: Behaviour States Defined by Deflection Basin Parameters......................................................... 6-3
Table 6-3: Kantey-Brink criteria for expansive potential................................................................................ 6-5
Table 6-4: Van der Merwe criteria for expansive potential ............................................................................ 6-6
Table 6-5: Minimum compaction requirements for collapsible soils (after Weston) ...................................... 6-7
Table 6-6: Tentative allowable roadbed collapse values............................................................................... 6-8
Table 6-7: Proposed erodibility criteria for lightly cemented materials, C3 and C4..................................... 6-17
Table 6-8: Erosion test results on the material from Eastern Cape ............................................................ 6-17
Table 6-9: Residual UCS strength............................................................................................................... 6-19
Table 6-10: Selection of the appropriate design approach for bitumen emulsion treated layers ................ 6-20
Table 6-11: Recommended quality limits for substandard materials .......................................................... 6-21
Table 6-12: Recommended PIs for modification with bitumen emulsion.................................................... 6-22
Table 6-13: Target grading for continuously graded asphalt base -37,5mm............................................... 6-23
Table 6-14: Test requirements for continuously graded asphalt base ........................................................ 6-24
Table 6-15: Suitability of binder-aggregate combination ............................................................................. 6-26
Table 6-16: French texture depth guidelines ............................................................................................... 6-30
Table 6-17: Minimum values of skidding resistance for different sites ........................................................ 6-31
Table 6-18: Characteristic SFC values in the Western Cape Province....................................................... 6-32
Table 6-19: Suggested conversion factors for converting net cold residual binder to spray rate at average
spray temperature ................................................................................................................... 6-32
Table 6-20: Gradient limits for surfacing...................................................................................................... 6-33
Table 6-21: Minimum hot gross spray rates ................................................................................................ 6-33
Table 6-22: Road surface temperature for application of binders ............................................................... 6-34
Table 6-23: Interim crack movement classification ..................................................................................... 6-35
Table 6-24: Recommended tack coat spray rates....................................................................................... 6-38
Table 6-25: Choice of Bitumen binder ......................................................................................................... 6-40
2
Table 6-26: Hot bitumen spray rates for primed rates (l/m )....................................................................... 6-40
Table 6-27: Preferred aggregate gradings .................................................................................................. 6-40
Table 6-28: Appropriate grading for Otta Seals........................................................................................... 6-41
Table 6-29: Aggregate application rates for Otta Seals .............................................................................. 6-41
Table 6-30: Emulsion spray rates for a 6,7 mm seal................................................................................... 6-43
Table 6-31: Spray rates for 6,7 mm seal for lightly trafficked by-passes .................................................... 6-43
Table 6-32: Values of p for determining spray rate for double seal ............................................................ 6-49
Table 6-33: Determination of E80s heavy vehicle....................................................................................... 6-52
Table 6-34: Values of p for determining spray rate for Cape Seal .............................................................. 6-52
Table 6-35: Special circumstances warranting a reduction of spray rates.................................................. 6-52
Table 6-36: Tolerances for grading of aggregate for conventional slow setting anionic coarse slurry ....... 6-54
Table 6-37: Tolerance for grading of aggregate for rapid setting rubber modified coarse slurry ................ 6-57
Table 6-38: Mix Properties........................................................................................................................... 6-62
Table 6-39: Test requirements of semi-gap and continuously-graded mixes ............................................. 6-66
Table 6-40: Performance indices for binders and asphalt mixes ................................................................ 6-69
Table 6-41: Porous asphalt requirements ................................................................................................... 6-75
Table 6-42: Friction Course mix requirements ............................................................................................ 6-78
Table 6-43: Friction Course tack application rates ...................................................................................... 6-79
Table 6-44: Workability related to slump and vibro-consistometer.............................................................. 6-82
Table 6-45: Maximum water-cement ratio for different cement strength..................................................... 6-82
Table 6-46: Water content ........................................................................................................................... 6-83
Table 6-47: Approximate relative density for components of concrete ....................................................... 6-85
Table 6-48: Tests required for testing aggressiveness for water ................................................................ 6-88
Table 6-49: Recommended limits for assessing aggressiveness of water ................................................. 6-89
Table 6-50: Precautionary measures to protect concrete piles ................................................................... 6-92
Table 6-51: Water sample test results......................................................................................................... 6-95
June 19, 2008
page 6-v
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MATERIALS SELECTION, CONSTRAINTS AND

DESIGN PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
This chapters part in the overall layout of the
Materials Manual is shown in Figure 6-1 on
page 6-1 .
This chapter gives the background needed to

adequately select and improve materials to be
used for road construction, as well as to
design composite materials, such as asphalt
surfacing. Topics covered include problems
and constraints with:
The chapter is laid out in accordance with the

sequence of pavement layers starting at the
roadbed and progressing to the surfacing
layers. Concrete mixes are also covered at the
end.
roadbed
stabilization
seal application rates
asphalt mix design
wearing course selection
concrete mix design, and
usage and application of materials.
INPUTS
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ACTIVITIES
Chapter no.
Chapter 5
MATERIALS
INVESTIGATION
AND REPORTING
1 Management procedures
for monitoring and control
2 Materials standards
This chapter
Chapter 6
MATERIALS SELECTION,
CONSTRAINTS AND
DESIGN PROCEDURES
3 Commentary on test
methods
4 Sampling methods
Chapter 8
QUALITY ASSURANCE
7 Construction equipment
control
Chapters 9-20
ACCEPTANCE CONTROL
Figure 6-1: Layout of the Materials Manual
June 19, 2008
page 6-1
DESIGN CONCEPTS
In order to produce an appropriate rehabilitation design the behavioural characteristics of
the pavement need to be understood particularly with respect to flexibility. It would be
inappropriate to apply a stiff or rigid overlay
on a highly flexible pavement.
Deflections and curvature created by wheel
loads can be measured and are used in the designs. The typically used parameters are, for
convenience, summarised in this section.

Different deflection basin parameters and appropriate measuring devices are summarized
in Table 6-1 on page 6-2.
Horak also introduced the concept of the different behaviour states and guideline criteria
using the deflection bowl parameters, as outlined in Table 6-2 on page 6-3.
Table 6-1: Summary of Deflection Basin Parameters

PARAMETER
Maximum deflection
Radius of curvature
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FORMULA
0 or
MEASURING
DEVICE
REFERENCE
Benkelman beam
Lacroix deflectograph
Kennedy et al
Asphalt Institute (1978)
Curvature
Dehlen (1962a)
Dynaflect
Vaswani (1971)
1 + 2(1 + 0 ) +
A = 6
2( 2 / 0 ) + 3 / 0
Falling weight deflectometer (FWD)
Hoffman and Thompson

(1981)
F1 = ( 0 2 ) 1
FWD
Hoffman and Thompson

(1981)
Ymax
R=
2 0 (1 r 0 )
r = 127 mm
Spread ability
S=
[( 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 ) / 5]100
0
1 ... 3 = spaced 305 mm
Area
Shape factors
F0 = ( 1 3 ) 2
Base Layer Index
(previously SCI)
BLI = 0 - 300
Benkelman beam
Road rater
FWD
Anderson (1977) Kilreski

et al (1982) Molenaar
(1982)
Middle Layer Index (previously

BDI)
MLI = 300 - 600
Road rater
Kilareski et al (1982)
Lower Layer Index
LLI = 600 - 900
FWD
Deflection ratio
Qr = r /0
r =0/2
FWD
Claessen and Ditmarsch

(1977)
Bending Index
BI = 0/a
a = deflection basin
Benkelman beam
Hveem
Slope of deflection
SD = tan -1(0 - r)/r

r = 610 mm
Benkelman beam
Kung (1987)
Tangent slope
ST = (0 - r)/r
where r is
determined by a polynomial function
Benkelman beam
FWD
University of Dundee
(1980)
Radius of influence
RI = R/0
R is the distance from 0 to where the
basin is tangent to the horizontal
page 6-2
June 19, 2008
Ford and Bisset (1962)
Table 6-2: Behaviour States Defined by Deflection Basin Parameters

GRANULAR BASE PAVEMENT
APPROXIMATE
TRAFFIC CLASS
BEHAVIOUR
STATE
Ymax
mm
BLI
mm
MLI
mm
LLI
mm
ES100
Very stiff
<0,30
<0,08
<0,05
<0,04
ES10
Stiff
0,30-0,50
0,08-0,25
0,05-0,15
0,04-0,08
ES3
Flexible
0,50-0,75
0,25-0,50
0,15-0,20
0,08-0,10
ES1
Very Flexible
>0,75
>0,50
>0,20
>0,10
ASPHALT BASE PAVEMENT

APPROXIMATE
TRAFFIC CLASS
BEHAVIOUR
STATE
Ymax
mm
BLI
mm
MLI
mm
LLI
mm
ES100
Very stiff
<0,25
<0,05
<0,03
<0.03
ES10
Stiff
0,25-0,40
0,05-0,20
0,03-0,10
0,03-0,05
ES3
Flexible
0,40-0,60
0,20-0,40
0,10-0,15
0,05-0,08
ES1
Very Flexible
>0,60
>0,40
>0,15
>0,08
CEMENTED BASE PAVEMENT

APPROXIMATE
TRAFFIC CLASS
BEHAVIOUR
STATE
Ymax
mm
BLI
mm
MLI
mm
LLI
mm
ES100
Very stiff
<0,15
<0,04
0,03
<0,03
ES10
Stiff
0,15-0,25
0,04-0,10
0,03-0,06
0,03-0,05
ES3
Flexible
0,25-0,40
0,10-0,30
0,06-0,10
0,05-0,08
ES1
Very Flexible
>0,40
>0,30
>0,10
>0,08
Note
IDM Deflection and Bowl Parameters
PRESS
= the pressure of the load plate (diameter 300 mm) on the pavement in kPa (standard = 550 kPa).
LOAD =
the load transferred by the plate to the pavement in kN (standard = 40 kN).
D1
=
deflection of the pavement surface at the centre of the load plate, m
D2
=
deflection of the pavement surface at 200 mm from the centre of the load plate, m
D3
=
D4
=
D5
=
D6
=
D7
=
Ymax
=
D1 = maximum surface deflection which is an indication of bearing capacity of the total
pavement, m
BLI
=
(previously SCI) Base layer index = D1 - D3: indication of stiffness of the surfacing, the base and
sometimes the subbase (depending on the thickness of these layers)
MLI
=
(previously BDI) Middle layer index = D3 - D4: indication of stiffness of the subbase and upper
selected material
LLI
=
(previously BCI) Lower layer index = D4 - D5: indication of stiffness of the selected material
and roadbed
SPD
=
Spreadability = 100([D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 + D5 + D6 + D7]/7D1): is an indication for the ability of
the pavement to transfer loads.
E-AASHTO = Modulus of elasticity of the roadbed, MPa, calculated with the following equation1:
E-AASHTO
=
(20p)/(Dr.r)
p
=
plate pressure, kPa
Dr
=
deflection at distance r, mm
r
=
distance from the centre of the load plate, mm
The deflection D6 or D7 is normally used.
1.
AASHTO guide for Design of Pavement Structure. AASHTO, Washington D.C., 1986.
June 19, 2008
page 6-3
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SPECIAL PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE

MINERAL CONTENT OF GRANULAR MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
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A granular pavement layer consists of the

natural materials that must meet the standards
as given in Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
Special attention should be paid to the impact
of the material characteristics affecting
performance in order to obtain a uniform,
high resilient modulus to support the
following layer. As the resilient modulus
increases with increasing density, decreasing
saturation, and increasing angularity, it is
important to identify and eliminate materials
that will reduce compactability and which are
prone to saturation and water sensitivity. The
purpose of this section is to give guidelines
for the identification of some problem
materials that will lead to the construction of
substandard layers.
MICACEOUS MATERIAL
Weathered rock or soil that contains more
than 10 percent of mica2, especially coarsegrained muscovite, should be avoided for use
in any layer of a pavement and particularly
the subbase and base layers.
Muscovite, the light or white mica3, also

occurs in igneous rocks, particularly in the
acid types like granite and pegmatite, but is
also an important and widely occurring
component of certain sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. Muscovite is an
extremely elastic mineral whose platy
crystals, if bent, will always tend to recover
their original shape. The spring action affects
the compactability of muscovite-containing
soil or weathered rock. Densities obtained are
usually less than 1770 kg per m for subbase
layers.
Obtaining the specified density can be
problematic when using weathered rock or
soil of high micaceous content. With
increasing contents of mica, the liquid limit
and plastic limits of soil increase while the
plasticity decreases. This is caused by the
numerous voids contained in a micaceous
soil. The high void ratio results in the soil
retaining an abnormally high content of free
water resulting in a high Liquid Limit. Also,
the large internal surface area of micaceous
soils, caused by the platy mica minerals,
allows a larger quantity of water than usual to
be retained in the soil when the cohesion
between the soil particles breaks down and
this results in a higher Plastic Limit.
2. Tubey, L.W. A laboratory investigation to determine
the effect of mica on the properties of soils and stabilized soils. Ministry of Transport, Roads Research
Laboratory,
Research
Note
No.
RN/4077/LWT (unpublished), 1961.
page 6-4
June 19, 2008
3.
Weinert, H.H. The natural road construction

materials of Southern Africa, NITRR, CSIR,
Pretoria, 1980.
ROADBED
INTRODUCTION
The road is sealed with bituminous or

concrete surfacing.
The roadbed consists of the natural in situ

material on which the pavement layers are
constructed. The centreline materials survey
should give a good picture of the in situ
materials along the route. The purpose of this
section is to give guidelines on remedial
measures for in situ materials within the
material
depth
that
have
unusual
characteristics, e.g., expansive and collapsible
materials.
The finished road is within 0,5 m and

5,0 m above the natural ground.
There is an expansive clay roadbed
which extends from the natural ground surface
(i.e., not buried under other material) to a
depth of less than 3,0 m.
An average annual rainfall of 500 mm to
800 mm that is concentrated in the summer
months.
Material is potentially expansive when the
Atterberg Limits of the material exceed the
Kantey-Brink5 criteria given in Table 6-3 on
page 6-5.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
EXPANSIVE MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Table 6-3: Kantey-Brink criteria for expansive

potential
For soils to behave expansively, three concurrent conditions are necessary. They are:
A clay profile (this includes constituents
of the smectite group of clay minerals, i.e.,
saponite, nontronite or montmorillonite): the
greater the amount of clay in the soil the worse
the potential for heaving.
ATTERBERG LIMITS
CRITERIA
Linear Shrinkage,
% critical
>8
marginal
58
Liquid Limit, %
> 30
Plasticity Index
> 12
A deep water table level: the greater the

depth of the water table, below the surface, the
greater the potential heave, since the swelling
will be accumulated over much a greater depth.
Alternatively, the modified Van Der Merwe

criteria6 for weighted PI may be used to identify expansive potential of material, as given in
Table 6-4 on page 6-6.
A desiccated soil, i.e., the moisture content is very low: heaving conditions may be anticipated in climates where evaporation from a
free water surface is much greater than rainfall.
This particularly occurs when there is a large
seasonal variation in rainfall.
Refer also to the paper by Hanafy7 where the

characteristic swelling-shrinkage curve of desiccated expansive clay is developed. Very significant volume change can occur in some
clays, in excess of 30 percent in certain instances.
Weston4 has found that expansive clays will

detrimentally affect the road if the following
circumstances exist:
5.
6.
4.
Weston, D.J. Expansive roadbed treatment for

southern Africa. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, 1980,
pp 339-360.
7.
Kantey, B.A. and Brink, A.B.A. Laboratory criteria

for recognition of expansive soils. NBRI Bulletin no.
9, 1952, pp 25 - 28.
Wilson, L.C. Discussion, Speciality Session B. Proceedings of the Sixth Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Durban, 1976, pp 167-168.
Hanafy, E. Swelling/Shrinkage Characteristic Curve
of Desiccated Expansive Clays. Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 14, No. 2, June 1991, pp
206-211.
June 19, 2008
page 6-5
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Table 6-4: Van der Merwe criteria for expansive potential
1
WEIGHTED PI
<12
The removal of the potentially expansive

material and replacement with suitable material.
EXPANSIVE POTENTIAL
The use of ionic stabilizers (sulphonated

oils): these need to be tested with the expansive soil (for example cation exchange) to determine whether they are effective. The following can be achieved:
Low expansion
12 - 23
Medium expansion
23 - 32
High expansion
> 32
Very high expansion
Increased density (with sufficient effort)

Reduced permeability and hence less
Note
1. The weighted PI = PI.(% passing 425 m)
susceptibility to moisture variations

With some ionic stabilizers, chemical alteration of the clay particles and a consequent reduced susceptibility to moisture.
TREATMENT
Possible methods available to reduce or eliminate the effects of heaving of materials identified as expansive in road construction are8:
Control of free water by effective drainage.
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Control of density and moisture content

during compaction: it has been found that
compaction above OMC increases cohesion
and internal friction.
Pre-wetting of expansive materials has
been tried with varying success. The main difficulty is in obtaining thorough and uniform
wetting.
Lime stabilization or treatment: lime has
been found beneficial in modifying the
characteristics of expansive clays. It is
important, however, to ensure thorough mixing
across the full width of the road and to
sufficient depth. Lime treatment is generally
best used in conjunction with other methods of
reducing swell.
The use of pressure to reduce swelling:
this is achieved by using surcharge loads of at
least 5 m. This is clearly not often an option.
Raising gradelines sufficiently to prevent
damage from free water.
The use of impermeable membranes to
prevent moisture variation.
Weston5 gives two methods of estimating the

amount of swell (in millimetres). This is an
important step in assessing suitable countermeasures. The estimates can be used to rank
the swell potential of the expansive clay at one
of four levels. Appropriate treatment measures
can be selected.
COLLAPSIBLE MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
This is really a special case of consolidation
settlement where inundation, under load,
causes the collapse of the unstable soil fabric.
This is due to the softening of the bridging
material, which holds the coarser grains apart.
The requirement for both loading and water
distinguishes it from pure settlement where
only loading is required. These cementing
bridges are usually one of or a combination of
the following: clay, iron oxide, carbonate, gypsum, mica and possibly even salt.
Collapsible soils are generally of aeolian or
hillwash origins. However, highly weathered
granites and felspathic sandstones are also
known to cause this problem. According to
Weston9, collapsible soils show all of the following characteristics:
9.
8.
Concrete pavement construction over expansive

soils. Portland Cement Institute, 1970.
page 6-6
June 19, 2008
Weston, D.J. Compaction for collapsing sand roadbeds. Proceedings of the Seventh Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Accra, 1980.
They are predominantly sandy, i.e., more

than 60 percent of the material between
2,0 mm and 0,6 mm and less than 20 percent
less than 2 m in particle size.
Table 6-5: Minimum compaction requirements for collapsible soils (after Weston)
They have a relative compaction (in situ)

of less than 85 percent of Mod. AASHTO.
Oedometer tests on the material have a
collapse, measured under future service
stresses, of greater than one percent.
Potentially collapsible material in the roadbed
should be assessed as follows:
soil profiling to provide a descriptor

DCP testing to indicate relative
strength or homogeneity, but not density

in situ density to measure relative
compaction
laboratory grading to indicate sand
content
oedometer test to indicate collapse
potential
laboratory compaction to establish
Mod.AASHTO and hence relative compaction
Atterberg Limits (on both -0,425 mm and
-0,075 mm) to determine plasticity
A quick on site check for collapse potential can

be done as follows:
dig a hole at least 300 mm x 300 mm x
DEPTH
m
MINIMUM MOD. AASHTO

COMPACTION, %
0,0 - 0,5
90
0,5 - 1,0
85
Compaction at depth can be achieved by normal compaction methods when the sand is
saturated. This may not be an option in the
dryer areas where these sands are often found.
It may thus be necessary to use pneumatic, impact or vibratory rollers depending on the site.
Roller types, number of passes and moisture
contents should be decided by the Engineer
after site trials. Monitoring of the compaction
should be carried out preferably by in situ
density measurements, or by DCP tests. The
DCP should be calibrated to the in situ density,
at different levels, for the given material.
If the compactions, at depth, given in Table 6-5
on page 6-7 cannot be achieved, then further
oedometer collapse testing of the compacted
material should be carried out. If the measured
values exceed those given in Table 6-6 on page
6-8, then additional densification is required.
Refer also to TRH 911, TRH 1012
TRH 1513 for further design guidelines.
and
300 mm;
stockpile the excavated material carefully; and
backfill the hole with the stockpiled material. Do not compact the backfill.
If after the hole is filled no surplus stockpiled
material remains the material is probably collapsible.
TREATMENT
Weston10 has made a detailed study of collapsible sands. He recommends the following
minimum compaction for areas with collapsible soils - see Table 6-5 on page 6-7.
10. BS 1377 : Part 5 : Compressibility, permeability
and durability tests. British Standard Methods of
Tests for Civil Engineering Purposes, 1990.
11.
TRH 9: Construction of road embankments. CSIR,

NITRR, Pretoria, 1982.
12. TRH 10: The design of road embankments.
CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1994.
13. TRH 15: Subsurface drainage for roads. CSRA,
Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1994.
June 19, 2008
page 6-7
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Table 6-6: Tentative allowable roadbed collapse values

1,2,3
ALLOWABLE COLLAPSE
DEPTH BELOW ORIGINAL GROUND
LEVEL (D)
Saturation
possible
Saturation
unlikely
Saturation
very unlikely
D 0,5 m
1%
1%
1%
0,5 < D 1,0 m
1%
2%
3%
1%
3%
4%
15 mm
30 mm
40 mm
1,0 < D 1,5 m

4
Road surface total settlement , assuming

saturation to a depth of 1,5 m
Notes
1. The collapse should be determined in a standard oedometer using soil specimens 75 mm diameter by 19 mm
high. (Different dimensions may give different collapse values.) (British Standard Methods of tests for civil engi11
neering purposes. BS 1377, Part 5: 1990 - Compressibility, permeability and durability tests, 4. Determination of
swelling and collapse characteristics).
2. The collapse should be measured under a vertical pressure equivalent to the overburden, construction and traffic
stresses.
3. The future roadbed moisture conditions should be assessed and the appropriate collapse values selected.
4. Differential settlements will be less (25 - 75 percent) than this.
SETTLEMENT OF COMPRESSIBLE
SOILS
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INTRODUCTION
These generally involve soft alluvial, estuarine
and swamp soils, clays and mine slimes. These
conditions require deep site investigations
consisting of deep trial pits, boreholes and/or
probing such as quasistatic (Dutch) probes or
continuous SPTs. Undisturbed samples need
to be taken so that in situ density, grading,
Atterberg Limits, organic content and
oedometer (consolidation) tests can be carried
out in the laboratory.
Special measures such as filling, reinforcing,

drainage detailing, bridging and retaining
structures may be needed. For further guidelines see Reference 14.
NON-UNIFORM SUPPORT
INTRODUCTION
This results from wide variations in soil types
or varying conditions in a single soil type.
TREATMENT
Varying and/or deepening of the pavement
structure may be required.
TREATMENT
Adequate drainage, preloading and/or reinforcing is usually required. Refer to TRH 912,
TRH 1013 and TRH 1514 for further design
guidelines.
FLAWS IN THE STRUCTURAL

SUPPORT
INTRODUCTION
These flaws are secondary sinkholes, subsidence in dolomitic and limestone terrain, mining subsidence and slope in stability.
page 6-8
TREATMENT
SOLUBLE SALTS
INTRODUCTION
Under certain circumstances, salt may migrate
upwards and cause cracking, blistering or loss
of bond of the surfacing, disintegration of cemented layers and loss of density of untreated
layers. The upper limit of soluble salt content
of pavement material has been recommended
14. Van Wyk and Louw. Various reports on project

C404, Danilskuil to Kuruman.
June 19, 2008
as 0,2 percent15. This level is only valid if there

is no source of additional salt below the pavement. In such instances special measures to
minimize upward migration of salts may be
needed.
Possible measures to minimize upward migration of the salts are16,17 as follows:
well be advisable to consider the use of modified binders, such as bitumen-rubber or SBR
latex, which offer additional flexibility and durability.
HIGHLY RESILIENT SOILS

INTRODUCTION
The use of a barrier to prevent salt migration. This can be in the form of a plastic waterproof membrane, asphalt priming or coating or
uniform graded macadam or gravel without
fines and sand.
Excessive deflection and rebound of highly

resilient soils can occur during and after the
passage of a load. This can occur in organic
material, ash, micaceous and diatomaceous
soils.
Ensuring that the existing salt content of

material used does not exceed 0,2 percent by
mass.
TREATMENT
The use of only fresh water for construction.

Minimize salt migration by programming
the pavement construction to avoid wet/dry cycles during the construction of each of the subsequent layers.
Ensuring that each compacted layer is
covered with the material of the next layer
within 14 days (the uncompacted cover material may be left indefinitely, but once compacted it must also be covered within 14 days).
The use of an inactive crushed stone base,
placed and then compacted within 30 days.
Sealing the completed base within 21
days.
The use of a more impermeable bituminous surfacing (e.g., Cape Seal). This should
include the shoulders, to prevent the wet/dry
cycles, which promote migration of salt. Care
should be taken when using this precautionary
measure to ensure that the bituminous surfacing remains impermeable. In this regard it may
15. Netterberg F. Salt damage to roads- an interim
guide to its diagnosis, prevention and repair.
IMIESA 4, 1979
16. Horta, J.C. Salt Heaving in the Sahara. Geotechnique, Vol. XXXV, No. 3, Sept. 1983.
17. Obika, B. and Freer-Hewish, R.J. Soluble salt
damage to thin bituminous surfacings of roads and
runways. Australian Road Research, Vol. 20(4),
December 1990, pp 24-41.
Special compaction techniques or the removal

of the material may be required.
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION
Moles
Road damage due to the activities of moles
appears to be caused mainly by two members
of the Bathyergidae Family, the Cape dune
molerat (Bathyergus suillus) and the Namaqua
dune molerat (B. janetta). These are neither
moles or rats, but are more closely related to
porcupines. The molerats potential for causing
damage to the road structure is illustrated by
the following facts18:
The Cape dune molerat has been known

to reach a body length of up to 360 mm (excluding the tail), and a mass of almost 900 g.
It is the largest known completely subterranean
rodent in the world. The Cape dune molerats
extensive burrowing under highways and railway tracks causes sagging of the roads and
lines. They can be found in both sand dunes
and sandy loam areas. Their tunnels range between 150 and 220 mm in diameter and are
typically 400 to 650 mm below the surface.
Total burrow lengths measure up to 420 m.
18 Skinner, J.D. and R.H.N. Smithers. The Mammals of
the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria Press, 1990.
June 19, 2008
page 6-9
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A single individual occupies a burrow.

Nesting chambers have been measured
between 400 and 900 mm below the ground
level. Average monthly extensions of the
burrows range between 15 and 100 m. They
are most active when the moisture content of
the substrate is highest, in winter and during
the breeding season. It is thus apparent that the
molerat is most active in the wet season, when
the road structure is most vulnerable to
damage. The molerats operate at the level of
the lower selected level where sands layers are
frequently used.
Termites
Termites can create voids under a road, which
leads to differential settlement.
TREATMENT
The advantage of mole barriers is that they can

be added after the road has been constructed.
They are, however, expensive and make no
contribution to the strength of the road
structure.
Cement stabilization: it is recommended that
the uppermost sand layer of the pavement
structure be stabilized with 1,5 to 2 percent
cement to a depth of 300 mm to minimize the
impact of mole excavations under or through
the road prism. In addition, cemented subbase
layers provide a bridging structure in the event
of undermining at lower levels.
The advantages of stabilization is that it both
decreases the water sensitivity of the road
prism, reduces pavement deflections and adds
to the overall strength. The disadvantages are
the cost and the fact that stabilization must be
carried out during construction.
Moles
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There are two primary courses of action to prevent damage to the road structure caused by
molerat activity in the typically sandy environment where they are generally found. These
are either to use mole barriers, or to stabilize
the lower pavement layers.
Mole barriers: mole barriers typically consist
of a continuous wall of 6 mm thick unpressed
fibre-reinforced-cement
sheets
placed
vertically in the road verge. The sheets are
placed from the bottom of subbase level down
some 0,9 to 1,5 m, depending on the in situ
ground conditions and the normal water table
level. Bear in mind that molerats have been
known to dig deeper than 1,5 m. Careful
backfilling of the trenches is important and
stabilization of the backfill above the sheets, at
the subbase base levels, is advisable.
page 6-10
Termites
Cement stabilization or insect poisons are the
only preventative options. Stabilization is environmentally preferable.
OTHER PROBLEMS
Other rarer problems to be aware of include
polluted soils, combustible soils (peat, colliery
spoil), sulphate attack, acid attack, corrosion of
metal culverts, wind erosion and deposition.
The treatment of these special problems will be
dealt with on a needs basis.
June 19, 2008
CHEMICAL STABILIZATION
MODIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
Chemical stabilization is achieved by mixing
an active substance with a road building material. The material may have had a mechanical
stabilizer (binder) added. The resulting chemical reaction causes a cementing action, which
makes the material stronger and more durable.
As a secondary result the chemical reaction
may also reduce or eliminate certain unsatisfactory properties such as plasticity. Grading
is not a critical factor, but a lack of fines can
result in poor strength gain.
Chemical stabilization is used for a wide range
of purposes such as to:
Increase bearing strength,

increase the tensile strength, especially in
the early stages, by cementing the granular
material,
decrease the moisture content of wet materials in clay cuttings during rainy seasons
in order to expedite construction,
reduce or eliminate the formation of
harmful salts, i.e., soluble sulphate is
changed to non-active sulphate compounds,
reduce the plasticity (active clay content),
improve the compactibility of clayey materials due to alteration of the small clay
particles to bigger particles, making the material more friable and workable, and
make a material less susceptible to moisture ingress.
Granular layers can be chemically treated to
achieve some or all of the above by
modification,
modification and cementation, or
cementation.
However, it must be remembered that in the
case of lime, these two processes, modification
and cementation, overlap.
The main objective of modification is to alter

certain undesirable characteristics of a material
and make it suitable for use in the pavement.
Modification applies only to those materials,
which have clay, or other lime reactive material in them. The purpose of modification is to
neutralise the negative effects of clay minerals.
Lime is usually the most effective and cheapest
modifier. The addition of lime leads to a
change in the state of aggregation of the clay
particles as a result of a cation exchange. The
physical properties of the material itself are
thus changed. This process is generally termed
modification and takes place fairly rapidly. In
addition, normally over long periods of time
and under favourable conditions soil-lime
pozzolanic reactions may take place. As a result hydrates similar to those encountered in
cement are formed, leading to a cementing action. The processes of cementation and modification are not necessarily distinct and may occur simultaneously.
Lime has the ability to reduce plasticity and for
acidic, sulphide and/or sulphate contaminated
materials, to prevent salt damage. For success
with modification, it must be remembered that
road limes react differently with different types
of clay minerals. Therefore, the most
appropriate type of lime must be determined.
All types of road lime from feasible lime
sources near the project should be used in the
Design Verification (Laboratory) stage, to
determine the most cost effective type of lime
stabilization.
The three types of lime are as follows:
Calcitic road lime: This has a high
concentration of calcium hydroxide (available
free lime) with no or very little magnesium
hydroxide, e.g., lime from Titan Lime Works,
Moorreesburg, Ulco Lime Works and P & B
Lime Works, Bredasdorp.
Magnesium road lime: This has a lower
concentration of calcium hydroxide with a
June 19, 2008
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higher level of magnesium hydroxide. Sources

in this province are unknown.
Dolomitic lime: This has more or less
equal calcium and magnesium hydroxides,
e.g., Cape Lime Works, Langvlei, Robertson.
However, road lime either from Moorreesburg
or Ulco is superior in comparison to lime from
Bredasdorp. Lime from Robertson needs a
higher content to be added to achieve the same
effect as the others. The transport cost is a
factor to take into consideration when selecting
a source of lime.
The sampling and testing procedures are carried out after the stabilising agent has been
mixed in, as described in Chapter 4, Sampling
Methods, Sampling of Pavement Layers.
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CEMENTATION
In the case of road lime, cementation may also

be achieved. Sufficient lime is added to satisfy
the initial consumption of lime (ICL) for modification of excess active clay minerals present.
Thereafter, excess lime is used for the formation of cementing compounds by soil-lime pozzolonic reactions. Normally this reaction takes
place over long periods of time.
Where the early gain of tensile strength is
needed preference shall be given to cement,
cement-slagment, or lime-slagment blends, in
this order. The selection of the stabilizing
agent will depending on the quality of material
to be used and whether it is available.
Increased density improves the strength
gained. Therefore, the minimum compaction
for the upper cemented subbase layer is increased to 96 percent of Modified AASHTO
density.
This includes cement, cement-slagment and

lime-slagment blends. Cementation is due to
the formation of strongly cementitious
hydrates which bond soil particles together.
The hydration proceeds largely independently
of the aggregate and does not rely on chemical
interaction between cement and aggregate for
development of strength. Some lime is
produced during the hydration which may react
with any clay particles present in the manner
described below.
The trial section offers an opportunity to do the

following:
Cementation of subbase and selected layers is

sometimes required to satisfy the pavement design. Limited road funds may also prescribe
stabilization of an existing base as a first stage
rehabilitation. In a following stage this layer
would become a cemented subbase.
In the case of a second gauge or sand

replacement method giving a higher mean
percentage compaction of more than one
percent point, this value should be added to the
minimum specified compaction limit for the
specific layer, rounded off to the nearest 0,5
percent.
When a cemented layer is required, the untreated material shall comply with the specification for the granular material for that layer.
Portland cement is normally the cementing
agent used to achieve high tensile strength in
the early stages. If early strength is not
required, a mixture of cement and slagment, or
lime and slagment mixture may be used. Some
lime, as in the case of cement, may be
produced during hydration, and this may react
with any clay minerals present in the mixture.
page 6-12
a compaction study;
assess the effectiveness of various
compaction equipment;
establish if the higher specified
compaction can be achieved, and
calibrate a second nuclear gauge and/or
the sand replacement method to be used as a
back-up.
OBJECTIVES OF
STABILIZATION
The objectives of stabilization of pavement
layers are:
Reduction of construction costs by
improving the properties of substandard,
readily available materials where stabilization
is a cheaper alternative than the procurement
of materials complying with the relevant
June 19, 2008
specification. The material may remain

essentially a granular type, i.e., its strength is
derived largely from inter-granular friction,
although some increase in cohesion will result
should cementation take place.
The achievement of tensile strength due
to an increase in cohesion as a result of
cementation. A cemented layer is required to
satisfy criteria set for the following interrelated
characteristics:
Strength
Cracking
Erodibility
Durability.
The construction of a platform by stabilizing a wet and/or soft roadbed. This expedites the construction process.
Should there be any doubt with regard to the

uniformity of the material from a particular
source, then the design shall be carried out on
at least three representative samples from the
source and the mean of the data obtained from
these tests shall be used for the design.
Soil-stabilizer mixtures shall be prepared as
described in paragraph 3.1.1 of Method A9 of
TMH 1. The mixtures shall be tested in the
normal manner as for uncured material. The
stabilizer content, expressed as a mass
proportion at the specified density, and
yielding satisfactory improvement of the
material, should be the content specified,
provided it is not less than a practical
minimum. As a guide for minimum stabilizer
content (in situ mixing) the following figures
are given:
STABILIZER
IMPROVEMENT OF
SUB-STANDARD MATERIALS
DESIGN CRITERIA
Since the main requirement is modification,
tests shall be performed on uncured material,
irrespective of the type of stabilizer, although it
will most likely be lime. The design criteria are
dependent on the properties that the treatment
is intended to improve. Generally, the only
material properties under consideration in this
respect are Plasticity Index and California
Bearing Ratio. In view of the inherent
variability of materials and non-uniformity of
mixed-in stabilizer, the target values for
materials design should be chosen such that
this variability is accounted for. The guidelines
are given here:
Target CBR = CBRmin + 25
Target PI = PImax - 2
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The objective is to determine the optimum
content of the appropriate stabilizer for
construction. Since it is well known that
materials react differently to the addition of
various types of lime (calcium, magnesium or
dolomitic type), all the feasible options should
be investigated in order to minimize costs.
LIME
CEMENT
Minimum content normal

control% by mass
1,5
Minimum content tight

control & pockets % by
mass *
2,0
1,75
*Pockets of cement shall be used.
CEMENTED MATERIALS
STRENGTH
DESIGN CRITERIA
As stated above, the objective of achieving
tensile strength largely applies to cemented
subbase. Consequently, for reasons of
economy, raw materials shall comply with the
specifications for subbase (CBR >45 percent),
unless otherwise authorized.
Since cementation is required to meet the
required strength, tests shall be performed on
cured material. The stabilizer will generally be
cement, or a mixture of cement and slagment,
or lime and slagment.
In certain cases
cementation may, as described above, be
achieved by the addition of lime only.
However, since the development of tensile
strength with respect to time for lime-soil
mixtures remains somewhat indeterminate,
June 19, 2008
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preference shall be given to cement, cementslagment or lime-slagment blends.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The development of tensile (cohesive) strength
is gauged by means of the cured, unsoaked
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) as
described in TMH 1, Method A14. Moisturedensity tests should be carried out at varying
stabilizer contents, e.g., 1, 2 and 3 percent. The
laboratory design UCS (unsoaked) at 7 days
and 100 percent Mod. AASHTO density shall
be a minimum of 0,75 MPa and maximum of
3,0 MPa (refer TRH 1419, C3-C4).
formation and the means of controlling and

accommodating cracks so that they do not have
an adverse effect on the performance of the
pavement.
There are essentially two types of cracks in
cement-treated layers; they are:
traffic-associated cracks, and
cracks that are not caused by traffic and

that are usually referred to as initial cracks.
Non-traffic-associated cracks, such as cracking
caused by expansive clays and unstable embankments, are not discussed here.
Initial cracking
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Tests shall be performed at 24 hours (cured at

70C) and at 7, 14, 28 days, and if possible, at
90 days (especially for ferruginous materials)
to assess the rate of strength gain. This could
be useful information when adjudicating borderline results during construction. To provide
a rapid answer for construction control the 24hour rapid cure method can be calibrated
against the standard 7 day test.
The maximum UCS value is only a guide and
may be exceeded where it would result in an
impractically low stabilizer content. However,
very high strengths could result in reflection
cracking. In such a case another stabilizer
agent could be selected which would give a
lower (while yet acceptable) strength.
The stabilizer content shall be that which
yields satisfactory mixture strength. Recommended minimum proportions given above
shall also apply.
CRACKING
CRACKING IN CEMENT-TREATED
LAYERS
Cracks in cement-treated layers cannot be
avoided and must be accepted a feature of
cement treatment. However, cracking may
cause structural and maintenance problems. A
description is given of the mechanism of crack
19 TRH 14: Guidelines for Road Construction Materials,
C3-C4. CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria,

1985.
page 6-14
Initial cracking is caused by drying shrinkage,

or thermal effects, or both, and is independent
of traffic. In the majority of cases drying
shrinkage is probably the main cause of initial
cracking and volume changes due to temperature variations may be regarded as a contributory cause. The soil type, the compaction moisture, the rate of drying and the cement content
are factors that influence the degree and nature
of the cracking.
CRACKING IN LIME-TREATED
MATERIALS
Initial cracking develops in lime-treated pavement layers and the cracks form rectangles,
like the cracks in cement-treated layers. The
shrinkage characteristics and rate of strength
development of lime-treated materials are generally different from those of cement-treated
materials. Usually the cracks in lime-treated
materials are narrower, less extensive and
therefore less significant than those in cementtreated materials. However, some lime-treated
materials, such as some calcretes and sandstones, may crack as badly as cement-treated
materials.
CONTROL OF SHRINKAGE CRACKING

DURING THE DESIGN STAGE
Design strength
Materials with a high stabilizer content are
more susceptible to cracking than materials
with a low stabilizer content. The design
strength should, therefore, be as low as possible, but still be consistent with the structural
and durability requirements of the pavement. It
June 19, 2008
is often possible to achieve adequate strength

with a low stabilizer content.
Position of treated layer in pavement
Cracks that reflect through the bituminous
surfacing can usually be prevented if the
cemented material is confined to the subbase
layers and the base consists of untreated
material. The initial cracks in the subbase do
not usually reflect through an untreated base
(G1, G2 or G3) of 150 mm or more. This is
probably the most effective way of preventing
shrinkage cracks from reflecting through the
surfacing. However, instances have occurred
where cracking in the subbase has reflected
through 200 mm of an untreated base and
bituminous surfacing. Where the base of an
existing road requires cementation as part of a
rehabilitation strategy, an appropriate bitumenrubber seal or equivalent should be considered
in the overall design strategy.
Material properties
Some materials shrink more than others. Chert
gravel is an example of a material that shrinks
considerably when treated with cement. Many
lime-stabilized calcretes and sandstones exhibit
shrinkage cracking.
CONTROL OF SHRINKAGE CRACKING

DURING THE CONSTRUCTION STAGE DESIGN INPUT IN PROJECT
SPECIFICATIONS
Stabilizer Content
The stabilizer content should not be increased
excessively during construction simply to ensure that strength requirements are met.
Spreading, mixing, compaction and curing,
should be of a high standard so that a uniform
mix is obtained both vertically and horizontally. This is so that the specified strength can
be achieved with the lowest possible stabilizer
content.
Compaction Moisture Content
The degree of cracking is proportional to the
amount of moisture lost on drying and thus the
wetter the material on compaction, the greater
the degree of cracking. The compaction
moisture content should not exceed OMC.
Construction practice to ensure effective

curing should be carefully evaluated. The most
practical solution for curing of a cemented
subbase is to cover it by spreading the next
layer within 48 hours.
Delay Between Mixing And Compaction
Cracking in plastic materials stabilized with
lime can sometimes be reduced by mixing the
lime with moist material and then delaying the
compaction until tests show that the plasticity
has been reduced to acceptable limits. This delay should be incorporated in test procedures
for determining density and strength.
Delay Of Surfacing
If it is convenient, delay the construction of the
bituminous surfacing (where applicable) until
some or most of the shrinkage cracking has
taken place and the tendency of cracks to reflect through the surfacing may be reduced.
The layer must, however, be cured. This delay
is not recommended for lime-stabilized materials owing to the likely increased risk of carbonation.
Settlement
If excessive settlement takes place in the road
beds or in fills, cracking of cemented layers
can be aggravated. Road beds and fills should
be compacted effectively so that subsequent
settlement and cracking are reduced to a
minimum. Refer to Chapter 2, Materials
Standards Roadbed. Settlement under a
pavement with cemented layers may result in
more serious cracking.
Traffic-Associated Cracking
Cracks associated with traffic are caused by
traffic overstressing the cement-treated layer.
Traffic-associated cracking may occur in a
cemented layer in any position in the
pavement, but in practice cracks in the
bituminous surface have been observed mostly
in pavements where the treated layer has been
used as a base. The cracks are usually closely
spaced and, with continual overstressing,
connect to form circular or square blocks.
During wet conditions pumping of fines
occurs. This eventually leads to open cracks
and finally rocking and failure of the blocks.
June 19, 2008
page 6-15
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Figure 6-2: Proposed crushing curve
The basic failure mechanism of relatively deep

pavements with lightly cemented base layers is
crushing (compression) failure in the upper
portion (0 - 75 mm) of the base layer, changing
the pavement from a deep to an inverted
pavement.
Lightly cementitious gravel base materials
must be of adequate strength (UCS) to increase
the crushing life span (Nc), especially if
relatively high tyre contact stresses are
expected. This requirement shall especially be
addressed where rehabilitation design may
require a cemented base in a holding-action
strategy. A tentative design curve (50 percent
probability) has been put forward by M. de
Beer20,21 and this has been given in Figure 6-2
on page 6-16.
20. De Beer, M. Aspects of the design and behaviour of
road structures incorporating lightly cementitious
layers. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, February
1990.
21. De Beer, M. Developments in the failure criteria of
the South African mechanistic design procedure for
asphalt pavements. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements: Design
and Performance, Vol. 3, Nottingham, August,
1992, pp 54-76.
page 6-16
ERODIBILITY
Surface erosion of a pavement layer occurs
when hydraulic and/or mechanical action
caused by traffic loading abrades an interface
of a structural layer. In the process the loosened material may be distributed horizontally
or vertically as the material is moved from an
area of high pressure to one of lower pressure.
Typically, erosion manifests itself as pumping
where traces of the fine material appear on the
surface through cracks. The erosion test was
developed by M. de Beer22 et al and correlated
with Heavy Vehicle Simulator observations.
The test is described in Chapter 3 and is relatively quick with results obtainable within 8
days. The test consists of a loaded wheel running on a linear wheel track on the erosion
specimen.
The Erosion Index, L, determined by this device is defined as the average depth of erosion
over 15 points (three longitudinal and five
22. De Beer, M. and Visser, A.T. Erodibility of cementitious subbase layers in flexible pavements. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference for Asphalt Pavements in Southern Africa, Swaziland, June 1989,
pp vii-1 - vii-15.
June 19, 2008
cross-sections on the eroded surface) after

5000 load repetitions.
Table 6-7 on page 6-17 reflects proposed
erodibility criteria for cemented material of
0,75 to 3 MPa laboratory designed UCS at 7
days. The test specimens are compacted to
100 percent Mod. AASHTO density.
Table 6-7: Proposed erodibility criteria for
lightly cemented materials, C3 and C4
density specification for relatively fine grained

cemented subbases for flexible pavements is
very important from an erodibility point of
view. This aspect must be considered during
the design stage. It is, therefore, prudent for the
designer to introduce an extra over item in
the project specifications to accommodate an
increased density from 95 percent to 96 percent of Mod. AASHTO density. See Figure 6-3
page 6-18.
Layer
Traffic Class
Erosion Index, L
(mm)
DURABILITY
Base
<ES0,3-ES30
Subbase
ES0,3-ES3
Subbase
ES10-ES30
Netterberg (1987), reported by Sampson23

stated that the initial 7-day cured UCS and durability are not synonymous. In other words,
material which has sufficient strength to satisfy
the 7-day cured UCS design requirements of
TRH 1420 may still have the potential to:
Factors such as too low or too high stabilizer

content, type of stabilizer, the material being
stabilized, grading modulus and density all
have a bearing on the Erosion Index.
See typical results in Table 6-8 on page 6-17.
The research carried out, also indicated that the
disintegrate at the surface leaving a loose

interface with an overlying layer (i.e., loss
of bond between the base and seal); or
deteriorate from below resulting eventually
in loss of structural capacity of the pavement.
Table 6-8: Erosion test results on the material from Eastern Cape
ROAD
MATERIAL AND LAYER
STABILIZING
AGENT
STABILIZER
CONTENT
ERODIBILITY INDEX L
TR 6/4
Weathered dolerite
Rotalime
2,2
2,2
Rotalime
3,8
Lime
1,5
0,3
3,0
1,1
(for subbase)
TR 18
Rotalime
Karoo
Sandstone
(for base layer)
Lime and emulsion
1,5 + 2,0
Lime and emulsion
3,0 + 2,0
0,4
TR 6/2
Decomposed Dolerite
Lime
2,0 - 3,0
3,2
(in situ
Decomposed Dolerite
Lime
2,0
2,0
specimens)
Decomposed Sandstone
Lime
2,0
2,0
(for subbase)
TR 9/8
Karoo sandstone
Lime (Premier)
1,5
0,67
TR 9/9
Karoo sandstone
Lime (Premier)
1,5
0,52
Note
1. Uncarbonated test results; depth in mm after 5 000 erosions repetitions
23. Sampson, L.R. and Paige Green, P. Recommenda-
tion for suitable durability limits for lime and cement

stabilised materials. Draft Research report,
DPVT/130, March 1990, Roads and Transport
Technology, CSIR.
June 19, 2008
page 6-17
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Surface deterioration is especially critical with

materials that are cured by water spraying
twice a day (Netterberg et al, 1988, reported by
Sampson24).
Research by L.R. Sampson et al24 has established the following tests necessary for the
identification of durability problems (the
erodibility criteria will also partly address durability):
Gravel Initial Consumption of Lime
(ICL)
Wet-dry brushing test
UCS on cycled or carbonated specimens
INITIAL CONSUMPTION OF LIME OR

INITIAL CONSUMPTION OF CEMENT
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The provision of the gravel ICL or Initial

Consumption of Cement (ICC) test into
specification limits should alleviate most of the
durability problems presently experienced. It is
recommended that during any assessment of
the suitability of materials for stabilized base
or subbase, the first test to be carried out
should be the ICL or ICC.
Experience has shown that only when

sufficient stabilizer is added to maintain the pH
above 12,0 so that cementation occurs and is
maintained, is the plasticity permanently
reduced. Thus, sufficient stabilizer must be
added to satisfy the initial consumption of lime
or cement and to maintain the pH at a suitably
high level for the design life of the structure to
ensure that long-term cementation occurs. A
stabilizer content of ICL or ICC plus one
percent is recommended.
RESIDUAL UCS STRENGTH

Rather than base the strength criteria on the
7-day UCS, it is recommended that a residual
UCS (RUCS) be used. This is to ensure that
even if the material is subjected to wetting and
drying or carbonation in service it will retain
sufficient structural integrity to satisfy the
original design requirement in terms of UCS or
CBR.
Figure 6-3: Summary of relationships between erosion index and relative density of four types of
material
page 6-18
June 19, 2008
The research19 results show that, provided the

laboratory vacuum-carbonated, 7-day RUCS is
met, the wet-dry strength requirements are also
satisfied. Thus, it is recommended that only the
vacuum-carbonated RUCS needs to be satisfied. It is therefore suggested that, rather than
using the limits for 7-day cured UCS, these
limits should actually be met by the vacuumcarbonated RUCS at either 100 percent or
97 percent Mod. AASHTO compaction,
whichever is appropriate.
An added advantage of only performing the
vacuum-carbonated RUCS is that it can be
done in the same time as the normal 7-day
cured UCS, unlike the wet-dry cycled UCS,
which takes approximately 60 days to complete the cycling. Limits for the RUCS are
given in Table 6-9 on page 6-19.
Table 6-9: Residual UCS strength

RESIDUAL UCS, MPa
CODE
100 % Mod.
AASHTO Density
97 % Mod.
AASHTO Density
Max.
Min.
Max
Min.
C1
12
C2
C3
1,5
C4
1,5
0,75
0,5
This requirement will have to be further evaluated as more experience is gained.
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June 19, 2008
page 6-19
BITUMEN EMULSION TREATMENT

the moisture content of the mix after
INTRODUCTION
compaction,
the grading of the aggregate and the
voids content of the mix,
the type and quality of the emulsion,
the mechanical forces caused by compaction and traffic,
the mineral composition of the aggregate, and
the magnitude of the electrical charge on
the aggregate in relation to that of the emulsion.
Bitumen emulsion treatment is achieved by

admixing up to 5 percent emulsion (3 percent
net bitumen) to the granular material in order
to improve the materials such as
substandard road layers,

G2 bases,
recycled granular bases,
recycled cement and lime stabilised
bases, and
combinations of the above.
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Bitumen emulsion stabilization is used to

improve the compactibility of granular
materials,
make a material less susceptible to moisture ingress,
increase the tensile strength, and
increase bearing capacity.
Cement or lime present in the mix may act as a

catalyst and thus assist breaking of the emulsion. The addition of cement is recommended
for thick layers 150 mm, or where the voids
content is very low.
Table 6-10: Selection of the appropriate design
approach for bitumen emulsion treated layers
Granular layers can be bitumen emulsion

treated to achieve some or all of the above by
modification, or
stabilization.
The selection of the appropriate approach is
based primarily on design traffic class and material quality. Guidelines24,25 on the selection
of the appropriate design approach are given in
The curing behaviour of emulsion treated materials has practical implications for opening a
newly constructed layer to traffic. The length
of the curing period is affected by factors such
as
the rate at which the aggregate absorbs

waterporous aggregates absorb the water
in the emulsion and reduce the time for the
emulsion to break,
24. GEMS - The design and use of granular emulsion
mixes. SABITA Manual 14, Cape Town, 1998, 52p.
25. ETB The design and use of emulsion-treated
bases. SABITA Manual 21, Cape Town, 1999.
page 6-20
MATERIAL QUALITY
ES1/
<E0
ES3 ES10 ES30
High quality (G1 to

G3)
NCE
M/S
Acceptable quality
(G4 to G6)
M/S
Substandard quality
(G7 or lower)
M/S
N/A
N/A
Notes
1. NCE: Not Cost Effective
2. M: Modification
3. S: Stabilization
MODIFICATION
The range for residual bitumen contents falls
generally between 0,6 and 1,5 percent by mass
of the mix for modification. The quality of the
material should preferably be G1 to G3, as this
type of material should seldom require more
than 1 percent residual bitumen.
If the material quality is G4 or G5, more residual bitumen will be required. This could be as
much as 2 percent by mass of the mix. When
the residual bitumen exceeds 1,5 percent the
treatment is approaching stabilization. Be-
June 19, 2008
tween 1,5 and 2 percent residual bitumen content may be considered a grey area in which
both modification and stabilization take place.
The use of G6 or lower quality material is generally not recommended, as these materials
usually require more than 2 percent residual bitumen.
In the modification approach the PI of the material before treatment is very important. It is
preferable that the PI should not exceed 6. If
the PI exceeds 6, it should first be modified using lime or cement to reduce the PI to 4 or less.
The compatibility of the material with emulsion should be established before implementing the mix design process.
The types of non-plastic material that are
known to react well with emulsion, especially
at low emulsion contents, and without lime
treatment, include:
decomposed granites,
quartzitic gravels,
dolomite/chert gravels,
sandstone gravels, and
crushed material from various rock
types.
Material with an unacceptably high PI (more

than 6) should first be tested for lime reaction.
Materials which may react well with lime are:
weathered granite,
weathered dolerite, and
weathered norite.
Acceptable quality material (G4 to G6)

and traffic class ES10 and higher
Low quality material (G7 and lower) and
traffic class between ES3 and ES10,
For low quality material (G7 and lower) and a
traffic class of ES30 and greater stabilization
will not be suitable.
When G1-G5 materials are used, the material
shall comply with the recommendations for the
granular material.
In the case of substandard materials, the recommended quality limits given in Table 6-11
on page 6-21 should be applied.
Table 6-11: Recommended quality limits for
substandard materials
QUALITY
CRITERION
SIEVE SIZE, mm
% PASSING
26,5
80 -100
2,36
25 - 85
0,075
3 -15
Plasticity Index
maximum of 7
Sand Equivalency Value
maximum of 30
OBJECTIVES OF EMULSION
TREATMENT
Materials that usually do not react with lime

are:
weathered diabases,
weathered andesites, and
pedogenic materials.
STABILIZATION
In the stabilization approach where the residual
bitumen content may range from 1,5 percent to
3 percent by mass, the granular emulsion
mixes are treated as if they are asphalt mixes.
Stabilization is suitable for the following conditions:
High quality material (G1 to G3) traffic

class ES30 or higher, or
The objectives of bitumen emulsion stabilization or modification of pavement layers are:

Reduction of construction costs by improving the properties of substandard, readily
available material where stabilization or modification is a cheaper alternative to the procurement of materials complying with the relevant specification.
The achievement of tensile strength due
to an increase in cohesion.
An emulsion treated layer is required to satisfy
criteria set for the following interrelated characteristics:
June 19, 2008
page 6-21
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resistance to fatigue cracking,

stiffness,
resistance to permanent deformation, and
durability.
IMPROVEMENT OF
SUB-STANDARD MATERIALS
BY MODIFICATION
DESIGN CRITERIA
For modification, the PI of the aggregate is
very important and shall not exceed 6. If the PI
of the virgin material exceeds 6, the material
should first be modified with lime or cement to
reduce the PI to 4 or less. Recommended PIs
are given in Table 6-12 on page 6-22.
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Table 6-12: Recommended PIs for modification

with bitumen emulsion
MATERIAL QUALITY
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The objective is to determine the following:
the correct composition of components

(such as emulsion content) to ensure that
design criteria are met, and
design parameters for the structural design process.
The full mix design procedure is described in
section 4 of SABITA Manual 1425 and section
4 of SABITA Manual 2126.
IMPROVEMENT OF MATERIALS
BY STABILIZATION
DESIGN CRITERIA
The properties to be measured on the treated
material are
PLASTICITY INDEX
(maximum)
G1, G2
G3 - G5
Marshall stability,
voids in the mix,
indirect tensile strength, and
diametral resilient modulus.
The standards are given in Chapter 2, Standards.
The properties to be measured on the treated

material are
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The objective is to determine the following:
indirect tensile strength,

CBR,
UCS, and
diametral resilient modulus.
the correct composition of components

(such as emulsion content) to ensure that
design criteria are met, and
design parameters for the structural design process.
The standards for CBR and UCS are given in

Chapter 2, Standards.
The full mix design procedure is described in

section 3 of SABITA Manual 1425 and section
4 of SABITA Manual 2126.
page 6-22
June 19, 2008
HOT-MIX ASPHALT BASE

INTRODUCTION
Asphalt base pavements have a bituminous
base layer which is 80 mm or greater in thickness. In bituminous base pavements both deformation and fatigue cracking are possible.
Two types of subbase are recommended, either an untreated granular subbase or a
weakly cemented subbase. Rutting may originate in either the bituminous or the untreated
layers or both. If the subbase is cemented
there is a probability that shrinkage or thermal cracking will reflect to the surfacing.
This is especially so if the bituminous material is less than 150 mm thick, or if the subbase is excessively stabilized.
The aforementioned characteristics will affect
the selection of the type of binder and appropriate grading. The microclimate would normally indicate if an active filler is needed.
The maximum aggregate size selected will be
influenced by the need to improve the structural capacity of the pavement for optimal life
cycle cost.
The production of the Interim Guidelines for
the Design of the Hot Mix Asphalt in South
Africa (IGHMA) in 2001 has led to the development of the User Guide for the Design
of Hot Mix Asphalt26 which should be referred to for design recommendations.
Rehabilitation projects may have limited paving widths and thicknesses to facilitate traffic
accommodation during construction. This
may in turn limit maximum aggregate size.
Whenever an asphalt base is to be placed in a
number of lifts, each lift shall be tacked before placing the subsequent lift. The general
rule is that the maximum aggregate size
should not exceed 50 percent of the compacted paved layer thickness. However, two
60 mm lifts using 37,5 mm maximum aggregate size, have been successfully placed. Narrow paving widths (approximately 4 m maximum) are favoured to minimise segregation.
26. User Guide for the Design of Hot Mix Asphalt,

SABITA Manual 24, Cape Town, 2005.
Table 6-13: Target grading for continuously

graded asphalt base -37,5mm
SIEVE
SIZE
mm
GRADING
F=5%, n= 0,45
D= 37,5 mm,
GRADING
F=7%, n= 0,40
D= 37,5 mm,
37,5
26,5
19,0
13,2
9,5
6,7
4,75
2,36
1,18
0,600
0,300
0,150
0,075
100
85
73
62
53
45
39
28
20
15
10
7
5
100
87
76
65
57
49
43
32
24
18
13
10
7
DESIGN
Experience has shown that better constructability conditions exist using continuous
graded asphalt. The target grading is derived
from the following formula (also refer to criteria for granular bases):
(100 F)(d n 0,075 n )
P=
+F
(D n 0,075 n )
where:
P = percentage passing a particular sieve, %
d = sieve size, mm
n = exponent which determines the shape of
the grading curve
D = maximum aggregate size, mm
F = filler content, (% passing 0,075mm
sieve)
The characteristic values listed in Table 6-14
on page 6-24 shall apply for design and have
been obtained for various engineering
properties for 37,5 mm maximum aggregate
size mix. The material shall have a smooth
continuous target grading within the range of
F = 5 percent and n = 0,45 and F = 7 percent
(approximately one percent being active
filler) and n = 0,4, using 4 percent 60/70 pen.
bituminous binder should be usedsee
Figure 6-4 on page 6-24 and Table 6-13 on
page 6-23.
June 19, 2008
page 6-23
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Table 6-14: Test requirements for continuously graded asphalt base

PROPERTY
CRITERION
CHARACTERISTIC
VALUES
37,5 mm Aggregate
2-5
Maximum density
2469
Voids, %
Density, kg/m
Voids in mineral aggregate (minimum), %
12
Stiffness (25C, 10 Hz), MPa
3552
Stiff layer, MPa
> 2000
Flexible layer, MPa
1500 - 2500
Indirect Tensile Strength (25C), kPa

Strain at maximum stress, %
Dynamic Creep Modulus, (minimum), MPa
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100
Cumulative % passing
B
A
S
E
1307
To report
2,8
10
23
120
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800
Continuously graded asphalt base

proposed criteria 37,5 mm max. size
80
F=7% n=0,40 Upper limit

60
G1 Base upper limit

40
n=0,45 F=5%
Lower limit
20
G1 Base lower limit

0
0.01
0.1
10
100
Sieve size, mm
Figure 6-4: Grading of coarse graded asphalt base
page 6-24
June 19, 2008
SURFACING
GENERAL
BINDER SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
The criteria for the selection of bituminous
binders, design of application rates for binder
and aggregate, and constraints applicable to all
surface treatments are given in this chapter.
Criteria which are only applicable to a specific
type of seal are given under the seal heading.
RESEAL NEEDS
The existing seal is evaluated and the assessment data used as input for selecting the appropriate reseal. The evaluation of the existing
seal shall be done according to TMH 927 and
TRH628. The need for resealing and the type
of seal to be placed on the existing surfacing is
influenced by the following factors:
Texture of existing surfacing,
Voids in existing surfacing,
Cracks in existing surfacing,
Aggregate loss,
Condition of existing binder,
Bleeding/flushing of existing surface, and
Cracks due to inadequate structural capacity and behavioural state.

The type of the seal is influenced by the following factors:
Cracks in existing surfacing
Condition of binder in existing seal, i.e.,

lively or dry and brittle, and
Condition of seal, i.e., is there any bleeding or flushing.
27.
28
Draft TMH 9: Pavement management systems:

standard visual assessment manual. COLTO, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1992.
Draft TRH 6: Nomenclature and methods for describing the condition of asphalt pavements, CSRA,
Department of Transport, Pretoria (1985).
COMPATIBILITY OF BITUMINOUS
BINDERS WITH VARIOUS
AGGREGATES
Experience has shown that aggregates with
high silica content, such as quartzite, sandstone, granite, etc., have poor adhesion with
some bituminous products, especially in the
presence of moisture. For this reason cationic
emulsion shall be used with these aggregates.
The durability of slurries made with anionic
stable grade emulsion do not appear to be inferior to that made with cationic emulsion. The
workability of slurry made with anionic emulsion is significantly superior to one made with
cationic emulsion while also costing less.
Hence it is recommended that anionic stable
grade emulsion normally be used for slurry.
Experience has, however, shown that with certain aggregates anionic emulsion greatly increases the water demand (from 15 parts to
greater than 25 parts!) resulting in a highly
permeable slurry and cracking. This can be
overcome by adding a wetting agent (N9 or
similar), or using a cationic stable mix.
In the case of a sand seal, experience has
shown that MC3000 cutback bitumen and sand
with a high silica content perform satisfactorily, especially in drier regions.
Basic (non-siliceous) aggregates perform satisfactorily with penetration bitumen, cutback bitumen, anionic or cationic bitumen emulsions.
In view of the minimal difference in cost between cationic and anionic spray and premix
grade bitumen emulsions, as well as for practical considerations, cationic emulsion shall
normally be used. Table 6-15 on page 6-26
shows which binder-aggregate combinations
should be used.
June 19, 2008
page 6-25
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Table 6-15: Suitability of binder-aggregate combination

BINDER TYPE
SILICEOUS
AGGREGATE
NON-SILICEOUS
AGGREGATE
No
Yes
MC3000 cutback bitumen
No
Yes
Cationic bitumen emulsion: Spray
Yes
Yes
Premix
Yes
Yes
Stable
Yes
No
Premix
No
Yes
Stable
Yes
Yes
Penetration bitumen
Anionic bitumen emulsion:
Note
1. For sand seal specifications MC3000 cutback may be used with silica sands
BITUMEN-RUBBER
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Determining the proportions of bitumen,

rubber crumb and extender oil (if needed) is a
process of trial and error. When bitumen and
rubber crumb are blended together, there is an
interaction between the materials29. The
reaction is influenced by the temperature at
which the blending-reaction occurs, the period
of time that the temperature remains elevated,
the type and amount of mechanical mixing
energy, the size and texture of the rubber
crumb, and the aromatic component of the
bitumen. Depending on the process selected,
these parameters can be adjusted, within limits,
to achieve the desired product.
The reaction, more appropriately defined as
polymer swell, is not a chemical reaction. It is
the absorption of aromatic oils from the
bitumen into the polymer chains, which are the
key components of the natural and synthetic
rubber in the rubber crumb. The natural rubber
polymers are more reactive with the bitumen
than the synthetic rubber polymers. Each group
of polymer chains imparts particular
characteristics to the modified binder.
The reaction does not result in a melting of the
rubber crumb into the bitumen. The reaction is
similar to a compressed, hard, dry sponge
being placed in a water bath. As the sponge
29. State of the Practice- Design and construction of
asphalt paving materials with crumb rubber modifier. Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C., May 1992, pp 10-33.
page 6-26
absorbs the water, it swells and softens.

Rubber crumb behaves in a similar manner. As
rubber crumb reacts with the bitumen it also
swells and softens. In addition, the reacted
particle becomes tacky and develops an
adhesive property. A fully reacted particle can
swell three to five times its original volume.
The viscosity of the bitumen-rubber blend is
used to monitor the reaction. It is measured
using the Brookfield Viscometer, ASTM
D2994. Portable versions of this viscometer
are commonly used as a production control
during the reaction phase. The bitumen and
rubber crumb react absorbing aromatic oil
from the bitumen. The blends viscosity
increases as the amount of aromatic oils
available to lubricate the binder reduces. The
swelling and adhesive characteristics of the
reacted rubber crumb also add to the increased
viscosity. Bitumen modified with 15 percent
rubber crumb increases the viscosity at 135C
by a factor of 10.
The rate of reaction between rubber crumb and
the bitumen can be increased by increasing the
surface area of the rubber crumb. The smaller
the crumb the greater the surface area. A given
mass of ground rubber crumb passing a
0,850 mm sieve reacts faster than an equal
mass of granulated rubber crumb passing a
4,75 mm sieve. The surface area is increased
by the reducing the crumb size. The difference
in crumb production methods can also effect
the surface area. A blending temperature up to
220C is needed to achieve a reasonable
reaction rate. See Figure 6-5 on page 6-28,
June 19, 2008
which shows the impact of temperature on the

product qualities.
If the reaction of the bitumen rubber is allowed
to continue for a prolonged period the viscosity
will gradually decrease.
It is therefore
important to carry out mixing trials at selected
reaction temperatures. During these trials the
flow, softening point and viscosity should be
measured against time.
A suitable time
window (minimum and maximum) and
mixing temperature should be determined to
obtain the required flow, softening point and
viscosity properties. See Figure 6-5 on page
6-28.
Lower maximum temperatures are prescribed
by oversees road authorities3 when a diluent is
added. Allowing such diluents to be present in
the dispersion too long before spraying is
thought to be detrimental. This is because it
becomes absorbed in the discrete rubber
particles and is no longer as effective in
reducing the consistency of the material30.
curve and reduces the binders temperature

sensitivity. Most of the modification in the
binders properties, with regard to viscosity,
occur at the higher temperatures.
The ability of rubber crumb to enhance the
properties of the binder hinges on the
compatibility between the bitumen and the
rubber crumb. Compatibility is dependent on
the composition of both materials. Rubber
crumb is a relatively homogeneous blend of
numerous rubber polymers from different
types and parts of a tyre. Bitumen is composed
of asphaltenes (solids), aromatics (oils), and
saturates (gels) which vary with crude source.
It is very probable that the supply of aromatic

oils available in the bitumen is shared with
the rubber crumb. It is likely that the reaction
occurs both ways depending on the balance of
aromatic oils available in the system. The
binder viscosity stabilizes as the reaction
continues. The specified reaction time should
be the minimum time, at a preset temperature,
required to stabilize the binder viscosity see
Figure 6-5 on page 6-28.
The type and amount of aromatics in the

bitumen play a major role in determining the
compatibility. There must be sufficient
aromatics in the bitumen to satisfy the
absorption demands of the rubber crumb and
retain the low temperature flexibility of the
binder. If the proposed bitumen is from a low
aromatic crude, extender oil will be needed to
sweeten the bitumen.
Alternatively, a
different bitumen source may be considered.
Every bitumen source should be checked for
compatibility with rubber crumb before field
placement of material. The bitumen and rubber
crumb are compatible if the reaction time and
temperature are reasonable (typically 200C
for 100 minutes) and there is a significant
flattening in the temperature viscosity curve.
These conditions will vary with the particle
size and amount of rubber crumb.
The mechanical mixing energy used to blend

the modified binder can significantly alter its
characteristics. Only low-energy shear mixing
has been applied due to the particle size
typically specified for rubber crumb. High
shear mixing equipment cannot effectively mix
the coarse rubber crumb.
It is imperative that tests are performed to

establish the relationships illustrated in
Figure 6-5 on page 6-28 prior to approving a
contractors blend proposal to enable field
operations to be effectively controlled. The
effect of delays on the product quality can then
be anticipated.
Changes in the viscosity of the binder over the

normal range of operating and mixing
temperatures indicates that the addition of
rubber crumb flattens the temperature-viscosity
30. Dickinson, E.J. Assessment of the deformation and
flow properties of polymer modified paving bitumens. National Seminar on Asphalt-Rubber, Federal Highway Administration, San Antonio, Texas,
October 1981, pp 265-272.
June 19, 2008
page 6-27
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Figure 6-5: Bitumen-rubber blend characteristics for 78% 80/100 pen bitumen with 20% rubber
crumb and 2% extender oil at different reaction temperatures of 180C, 200C and 220C
page 6-28
June 19, 2008
AGGREGATE SELECTION
The grade of stone selected for various seal
types, as specified in Chapter 2, shall be according to the following guidelines:
For modified binders (latex modified, bitumen-rubber) only grades 1 and 2 aggregate
shall be used.
For unmodified, (penetration grade) only
grades 1 and 2 aggregate shall be used.
For unmodified emulsion binders grades
1, 2 and 3 aggregate can be used.
Pneumatic tyres deform under load into a flat

contact area with the pavement. On wet pavements, water trapped in this contact area must
be expelled because it reduces the friction between the tyre and the road surface. The
greater the vehicle speed, the less time there is
available for expelling the water. Large, open
flow channels provided by the tyre area and by
the pavement macrotexture allow better and
faster drainage. They therefore reduce the
speed dependence of skid resistance. This is a
characteristic of the Cape Seal, provided the
slurry is applied with squeegees to produce an
exposed mosaic of 19 mm aggregate.
For penetration grades precoating should be

considered depending on the nature of the seal,
e.g., a Cape Seal does not require precoating
(the fog spray used as part of the construction
procedure facilitates adhesion of the slurry).
Although macrotexture provides drainage

channels, a thin water film remains on the contact area. A harsh microtexture penetrates this
film to establish quasi-dry contact points.
Thus, both good macrotexture and microtexture are essential for good skid resistance under wet conditions. Coarse macrotexture depends on the paving mix and the surface finishing process. Harsh microtexture is obtained by
selecting suitable aggregate. Characteristics
such as high strength and low polishing values,
and, in particular, angular shape plays an important role in enhancing microtexture.
For bitumen-rubber binder, precoating is mandatory. Use Colcote S or an equivalent bituminous agent to precoat the aggregate (10 to
18 litre/m3 depending on stone size). The aggregate should be dry stockpiled. Precoated
material should be protected against washing
off during rainy weather by temporarily covering the stockpile. The covering should be removed immediately thereafter to facilitate airdrying of the coated material. If drying cannot
be achieved prior to application due to inclement weather, an asphalt plant may have to be
used to achieve the required level of dryness.
Seasonal changes in skid resistance are typical

and are very pronounced on asphalt pavements. Skid resistance usually reaches a minimum in late summer due to a building up of oil
on the surface. This effect will, in turn, be reduced by using a binder type with higher softening point values, such as bitumen-rubber
binders. Regardless of original construction
standards, skid resistance will decrease with
time. Pavement wear reduces macrotexture,
while polishing by traffic reduces microtexture
harshness necessary for penetrating thin waterfilms.
PRECOATING
No precoating shall be used for seal work using emulsion binders. The absorption characteristics of the uncoated aggregate facilitates
the breaking process of the emulsion binder.
Although certain guidelines extracted from

authoritative research reports are given in this
section, the following legal implications are
relevant31:
DESIGN
SKID RESISTANCE
The selection of an appropriate surfacing is influenced by the level of risk of skidding offered by the surfacing under various operational conditions.
31. NCHRP Report 37: Tentative Skid-Resistance Requirements for main rural highways. Skid Resistance of Roads and Airfields. Highway Research
Board, 1967.
June 19, 2008
page 6-29
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Concern that improper use of the skid number

could be made in legal actions against the state
if specific minimums were published was
expressed by a number of state representatives.
It was properly pointed out that many
interacting elements combine to establish a
hazardous condition on a highway and that the
skid number was only one of such elements.
There is no practical skid number that can be
cited as representing a value above which no
skidding would occur under all circumstances.
Conversely, even the slickest pavement, with
the possible exception of those covered with
wet ice, can be driven over provided the
driving speed is low enough and tire treads are
optimum. Most states use the results of skid
resistance measurements as a general guideline
for further examination of a potentially
hazardous situation, but the impossibility of
taking simultaneous action on all such
potentially dangerous sites makes it
impracticable to establish a minimum below
which the pavement would automatically be
ruled as slippery. Consequently, mandatory
requirements are generally not considered to be
appropriate.
Figure 6-6 on page 6-30 shows a qualitative

classification of surface properties and illustrates the effect of surface properties on skid
resistance at different speeds32.
The sand patch method is used to obtain a
quantitive measure of the texture depth.
French33 texture depth guidelines are shown in
Table 6-16: French texture depth guidelines
SURFACING
TEXTURE
DEPTH mm
Fine textured where speed 80

km/h
0,2 - 0,4
Medium textured normal conditions; speeds 80 - 120 km/hr
0,4 - 0,8
Coarse textured for traffic speed

>120 km/hr
0,8 - 1,2
Very coarse textured - high risk areas
>1,2
TRRL also recommends that, for zero decrease

in skid characteristics from 50 to 130 km per
hour, the texture depth for bituminous surfacings should be >2 mm and for transversely
grooved concrete >0,8 mm.
Various measuring devices33 are used world
wide to obtain objective measurements of skid
resistance. Since SCRIM (Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine) is the
most widely used technique for measuring skid
resistance in Southern Africa, guideline criteria
researched and offered by Salt34 are included
in Table 6-17 on page 6-31. Another method
for testing skid resistance is the Grip Tester
which has been correlated to SCRIM.
Salt35 has produced a logical approach in setting guideline criteria based on a risk rating for
various levels of SCRIM measurements (SFC
at 50 km/h) for different site conditions.
Figure 6-6: Effect of surface properties on skid

resistance
page 6-30
32. NCHRP Synthesis Report 104. Criteria for use of

Asphalt Friction Surfaces. Transportation Research
Board, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program Nov. 1983, pp 19.
33. Rigden, P.J. Skid Resistance of Roads and
Streets- A State of the Art Review. CSIR, NITRR,
PAD64, Pretoria, July 1988.
34. Salt, G.F. Research on skid resistance at the
Transport and Road Research Laboratory (19721977).
June 19, 2008
Selection, constraints & design procedures
In order to facilitate the selection process, a

range of characteristic SFC values are given
for various surfacing types obtained in the
Western Cape Province (see Table 6-18 on
page 6-32). Long-term trends in the measured
SCRIM values need to be established to properly assess functional qualities in a life cycle
cost approach.
CONVERSION FACTORS
Table 6-19 on page 6-32 gives the suggested
conversion factors, f, used to convert cold net
spray rates to hot spray rates for various binders36.
Block pavements have also been assessed by

Clifford35.
Table 6-17: Minimum values of skidding resistance for different sites
SITE
A1
(Very
difficult)
A2
(difficult)
DEFINITION
(a) Approaches to traffic

signals on roads with a
speed limit greater than
64 km/h
(b) Approaches to traffic
signals, pedestrian crossings & similar hazards on
main urban roads
(a) Approaches to major
junctions on roads
carrying >250 commercial
vehicles per lane per day
(b) Roundabouts &
their approaches
(c) Bends with radius
<150 m on roads with a
speed limit >64 km/h
(d) Gradients >5% &
longer than 100 m
Generally straight sec(average) tions of and large radius

curves on:
(a) Motorways
(b) Trunk and principal
roads
(c) Other roads carrying
0,30
>250 commercial vehicles
per lane per day
10
0,55
0,60
0,65
0,70
0,75
0,45
0,50
0,55
0,50
0,55
0,60
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0,65
C
(easy)
a) Generally straight sections of lightly trafficked

roads
(b) Other roads where
wet accidents are unlikely 0,30
to be a problem
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,35
0,40
0,45
35. Clifford, J.M. Skid-resistance measurements made

on several symental block pavements. CSIR,
NITRR, Technical Report RP/13/83, Pretoria, May
1983, p 21.
36. Draft TRH 3: Surfacing seals for rural and urban

roads and compendium of design methods for surfacing seals used in the Republic of South Africa.
CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1998.
June 19, 2008
page 6-31
Table 6-18: Characteristic SFC values in the Western Cape Province

SURFACING TYPE
BINDER TYPE
1,2
RANGE OF SFC RESULTS

AT 50 KM/H
TYPICAL AVERAGE
SEALS
Coarse Slurry
Modified
0,60 - 1,00
0,8
6,7 mm
Conventional
0,51 - 0,87
0,7
9,5 mm
Conventional
0,36 - 0,64
0,5
13 mm
Conventional
0,29 - 0,65
0,5
Bitumen-rubber
0,50 - 0,66
0,55
Sound
Conventional
0,56 - 0,80
0,65
Severe bleeding
Conventional
0,07 - 0,39
0,2
Conventional
0,59 - 0,67
0,6
-medium grade
Bitumen-rubber
0,44 - 0,80
0,6
- fine grade
Bitumen-rubber
0,44 - 0,72
0,6
Conventional
0,43 - 0,71
0,6
Bitumen-rubber
0,57 - 0,69
0,6
Cape Seal (19 mm)
ASPHALT
Semi-gap plus
rolled-in chips
Continuously graded
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Notes
1.
The range is derived from the mean value 1,96. (Standard deviation).
2.
The speed is nominal, i.e, the actual speed at measurement ranges around the nominal speed.
3.
The above values have generally been obtained from newly constructed surfaces 1 to 3 years old and it can be
expected that these values will fall with traffic and time as the exposed aggregate is polished and the harsh microtexture is lost.
4.
While the modified slurry has registered excellent SFC values it is possibly more prone to ponding, and consequently aquaplaning, than a single seal and should be employed with due consideration.
5.
Typically the SFC at 80km/h can be expected to be of the order of 0,1 less than the SFC at 50 km/h.
Table 6-19: Suggested conversion factors for converting net cold residual binder to spray
rate at average spray temperature
BINDER
CONVERSION
FACTOR, f
AVERAGE SPRAY
TEMPERATURE, C
150/200 Pen bitumen
1,09
165
MC3000 Cutback
1,23
142
Anionic (60%) emulsion
1,68
60
Cationic (65%) emulsion
1,55
60
Cationic (70%) emulsion
1,44
70
page 6-32
June 19, 2008
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE
LEAST DIMENSION
The ALD is computed according to TMH137,
test method B18(b)T, version 2001/03).
For the first spray the permissible maximum

hot gross spray rate for emulsions shall be > a
maximum of 1,75 litre/m2 for 19 mm aggregate to obviate run-off of the binder.
Table 6-20: Gradient limits for surfacing
GENERAL CONSTRAINTS
GEOMETRY
Gradient constraints are important to limit
damage caused by water running on the surfacing and by shoving. Recommended surfacing types38 for a range of gradients are given
in Table 6-20 on page 6-33.
ABSORPTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF
AGGREGATES
Highly absorptive aggregates require special
consideration because, with absorption of the
bitumen over time, there is an increasing risk
of ravelling and a reduced fatigue life.
GRADIENT,
%
<6
RECOMMENDED SURFACING
Any surfacing
6-8
Asphalt, Cape Seal, coarse (thick)

slurry, double seal, single seal,
sand seal
8 - 12
Asphalt, Cape seal, double seal,

single seal, sand seal
12 - 16
Asphalt, Cape seal, double seal
> 16
Concrete block, concrete
Table 6-21: Minimum hot gross spray rates

BINDER
MINIMUM HOT GROSS

SPRAY RATE
2
litre/m
Emulsions
0,61
Other unmodified
binders
0,71
Some Eastern Cape sandstones and dolerites

are known to be highly absorptive. For Cape
Seal construction the 19,0 mm quartzitic
sandstone is combined with slurry made from
dolerite crusher dust in order to overcome the
problem.
Note
2
1. A measurement tolerance of 0,05 litre/m is assumed.
Modified binders, such as latex emulsion or

bitumen-rubber, also reduce the risk of absorption with time. Highly absorptive bases,
such as calcretes and certain sandstones, may
justify the use of a tack coat (first spray) of a
modified binder for any seal type.
Sufficient time must elapse prior to applying

the second spray to ensure that any volatiles
in the binder used for the first spray have escaped and are not trapped by the second spray
as this could result in richness or bleeding of
the surfacing.
LIMITING HOT GROSS SPRAY

RATES
DILUTIONS OF EMULSIONS
APPLICATION OF SECOND SPRAY
37. TMH1: Standard Methods of testing road construc-
Compatibility of the water to be mixed with

the emulsion for the cover spray shall be
checked (refer to Chapter 2, Materials Standards, Water). Water that is fit for drinking
is usually suitable for the dilution of cationic
emulsion (spray grade and stable mix) and for
anionic stable mix emulsion. In all cases the
water shall be added gradually to the emulsion.
tion materials, CSRA, Pretoria, 1986.

Appropriate standards for bituminous surfacings
for low volume roads. SABITA, Manual 10, Cape
Town, May 1992, p 20.
Anionic spray grade emulsion must never be

diluted.
The minimum hot gross spray rates which

shall be observed to ensure good adhesion
and coverage are given in Table 6-21 on page
6-33.
38.
June 19, 2008
page 6-33
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for the top 50 mm. The moisture content

should not exceed four percent.
SOLUBLE SALTS
The requirements for G1, G2, G3, G4 and
Waterbound Macadam base with respect to
electrical conductivity shall be strictly
adhered to. If excess soluble salts exist, a
significant increase in the chloride content at
the surface of the pavement may occur as the
relative humidity decreases. The rapid rise in
surface salt content is significant at
temperatures above 25C and relative
humidities below 50 per cent.
Table 6-22: Road surface temperature for application of binders

TYPE OF BINDER
Construction procedures as outlined on page

6-7 with respect to roadbed, remedial measures for soluble salts, should be adhered to.
Modified binders, in particular bitumenrubber binders, have been used to counteract
the blistering or loss of bond of the surfacing.
Cape Seals have in general been more successful where such problems were anticipated.
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WEATHER LIMITATIONS
No bituminous material shall be applied:
during damp or rainy weather;

during the months of May, June, July
and August;
when the wind strength is such that it
may adversely affect the spraying operation;
when there is free water on the road;
and
when the temperature of the road surface immediately prior to surfacing operations is below, or is likely to fall below, the limits given in Table 6-22 on
page 6-34 during the surfacing operations.
No primer or surface seal shall be applied unless the moisture content of the base
is less than 50 percent of OMC.
If a reseal is likely to trap moisture below the
cracked surface a delay in the resealing process of at least 48 hours is recommended after
prolonged rainfall, or 12 hours after light
showers. If in doubt remove a portion of the
old seal and determine the moisture content
page 6-34
MINIMUM ROAD
SURFACE
TEMPERATURE, C
Primer (all types)
10
Hot pen. bitumen
25
MC3000 Cutback bitumen
20
Bitumen Emulsion (all

types)
10
Bitumen Rubber Modified

(spray application)
20
Bitumen-Rubber (spray
application)
20
Hot mix asphalt (all

types)
10
Hot mix asphalt (modified)
20
Relaxation of the embargo on winter surfacing (May, June, July, August) is not favoured.
However, where limited surfacing operations
are proposed due to unforeseen circumstances, the Materials Engineer may approve
a relaxation, subject to the contractor meeting
all the other requirements of the specification.
A bitumen emulsion would normally be used.
In addition the following shall apply:
When spray grade emulsion is used for
the first coat of the Cape Seal, the second application of binder, diluted emulsion fog
spray, shall be applied at least 2000C.hours
later.
Following the application of the diluted
emulsion fog spray, the first slurry coat shall
be applied at least 1000C. hours later.
The C.hours shall be calculated for intervals
of 24 hours, taking the product of 24 hours
and half the sum of the maximum and minimum ambient temperatures for the 24 hour
interval. The product shall be accumulated
until the specified value of C.hours has been
achieved.
June 19, 2008
All spraying and/or slurry operations

shall cease after 14h00.
The Crack Movement Simulator (CMS) was

developed to investigate the fatigue
characteristics of thin layers of conventional
and modified binders under simulated crack
movement and controlled conditions in the
laboratory. From research done with the
CMS, a classification system relating a range
of crack movement to interim guidelines for
remedial treatment was drawn up and is given
Table 6-23 on page 6-35. Recent research
clearly underscores the strategy of using a
stress absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI)
for the high range of crack movement,
followed by a bitumen-rubber asphalt.
Cognizance shall also be taken of the higher

flux content in emulsion (0 to 5 percent in
terms of SABS) generally implemented by
the suppliers during the cooler day temperatures. A higher flux content would require increased time intervals between successive
sprays.
Emulsion can be produced for use in lower
temperatures without the addition of flux.
Such emulsion is preferably for tack coats
(and in particular for Cape Seals) and should
be used to limit the incidence of bleeding.
CRACK ACTIVITY
Cracks or joints in a pavement experience
crack movements of varying magnitude. Rust
et al39 has described the following mechanisms:
The cracks in a flexible pavement can
move due to their changing position in the deflection basin as the wheel moves towards
and away from the cracks.
Crack movement on a flexible pavement
can change due to a change in either the
shape of the deflection basin or the block
size.
The cracks in a semi-rigid pavement can
move due to the tilting of the blocks under a
wheel load; this crack movement can change
with the size of the blocks.
On a rigid pavement (such as a jointed
concrete pavement [JCP]) the joints may
move vertically due to a cantilever action of
the slabs if a void is present under the slab.
On a continuously reinforced concrete
[CRC] pavement the cracks can move due to
the hinging of the blocks on the reinforcement steel.
39. Rust, F.C., Servas, V.P. and Van der Walt, N.

Performance of various modified binders in road
trials and under simulated crack movement in the
laboratory. Proceedings 5th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for South Africa, Swaziland,
June 1989, pp vi-56 to vi-68.
Table 6-23: Interim crack movement classification

CRACK
MOVEMENT
(m)
CLASSI FICATION
SUGGESTED
REMEDIAL
TREATMENT
< 50
Low
Conventional surface
treatment
50 to 200
Medium
Surface treatment
with modified binder
200 to 300
High
Overlay (min. 30 mm
thick) with modified
binder
> 300
Very High
Thick overlay (e.g.,

granular), recycling,
etc.
For cemented bases crack activity

measurements can be measured by using the
Crack Activity Meter (CAM). In addition,
deflection basin measurements are measured.
A correlation of crack movement with peak
deflections was obtained for numerous
cement treated bases assessed in this
manner40 and the 95th percentile line
(prediction limit) produced (see Figure 6-7 on
page 6-36). A strategy whereby uniform
sections can be identified based on deflection
bowl characteristics, followed by limited
CAM measurements within each section,
provides a cost effective design approach and
allows for the selection of the most
appropriate treatment.
40. Crack activity meter/road surface deflectometer

survey, CSIR, DRTT, Survey. Report for CPA
Roads Department, TSB/2/88, 10 March 1988.
June 19, 2008
page 6-35
S
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F
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I
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G
Crack movement, mm
450
400
Very High
95 th percentile
350
300
250
High
Regression
200
150
Medium
100
50
Low
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
Deflection, mm
Figure 6-7: Crack Movement for a typical cemented base
Rust et al41 have introduced the M50 and

CMSt parameters to allow the evaluation of
the relative fatigue performance of binders in
crack movement simulator testing. The parameters are shown in Figure 6-8 on page
6-36.
CMSt is an indication of the temperature
sensitivity of a binder in terms of fatigue
performance. It is the ratio between M50 at
12,5C and M50 at 5C. A high value for
CMSt indicates a high sensitivity to
temperature changes.
Fatigue life (CMS repetitions)
S
U
R
F
A
C
I
N
G
stress absorbing membrane42 only is required,

however, bitumen-rubber is considered as the
only appropriate stress absorbing membrane
interlayer (SAMI). Typical applications for
the latter function are 2,5 litre/m2 (membrane
thickness
= 2,5 mm)
using
13,2 mm
aggregate.
In similar fashion, parameters describing the

influence of the other variables in the CMS
test can be defined, especially the frequency
of loading, thickness of the layer and rest
periods. Such definitions should specify the
test conditions regarding these other
variables.
page 6-36
CMS t = M 50 (12,5)
M 50 (5)
5000
4000
3000
12,5 C
2000
1000
5 C
M50 (5)
M50 (12,5)
Movement, micrometres
*The tests conducted by C. Rust et al on the

crack movement simulator have shown that
bitumen-rubbers are superior in terms of
resistance to cracking. Bitumen-rubber
binders are able to accommodate up to at
least the high range of crack activity.
Alternative options may be possible where a
41. Rust, F.C., Coetser, K. and Verhaeghe, B.M.J.A.
The evaluation of six modified binders for retardation of crack reflection through laboratory studies
and field work. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Asphalt Pavement Nottingham UK, August, 1992.
6000
Figure 6-8: Determination of M 50 and CMSt

from CMS data
42. National seminar on asphalt rubber. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Texas, October 1981.
June 19, 2008
PRIME COAT
INTRODUCTION
A prime coat must be capable of wetting and
penetrating the dust film covering a granular
base and coating the aggregate particles with a
strongly adhering film of bituminous binder. It
must also be capable of penetrating the surface
of dense graded bases. The requirements are
generally met by low viscosity cutback
bitumens and invert bitumen emulsion.
MATERIALS
MC30 and invert bitumen emulsion may be
used. The standards are given in Chapter 2:
Materials Standards, Prime. Prime derived
from tar may not be used due to Safety, Health
and Environmental considerations.
DESIGN
Which prime to use depends on the type of
base on which it is used and the absorptive
characteristics of the base43. Weather
conditions shall also be taken into account
since some types of prime are slow drying in
winter. Certain weather conditions can result in
a slow rate of drying of the prime. These are
for example:
Use MC 30 cut back with 10 percent white

spirits.
This facilitates penetration and
prevents erosion of the surface texture. The
addition of white spirits will, however, require
additional time prior to applying the next
treatment in order to allow all the volatiles to
disperse. If this aspect is neglected, flushing of
the binder to the top the surface seal will
probably occur during the warmer months.
Any further cutting back shall be subject to the
approval of the Materials Engineer. Where
there is a choice of suitable binders, the most
economical should be used.
SPRAY RATE
The generally recommended spray rate for all
types of prime is 0,7 litre/m2. On very
dense/tight crushed stone bases this may be
reduced to 0,6 litre/ m2. This reduction would
only be applied where there is little penetration
of the prime and ponding/pooling occurs. For
G4 base (a dense graded, natural gravel),
which is more open and absorptive, the spray
rate shall be in the range 0,85 to 1,1 litre/m2.
A dense, non-plastic base which is to be

primed during winter
Priming in very humid conditions.
43. TRH 1: Guide on prime coats, tack coats and temporary surfacings for the protection of bases. CSIR,
June 19, 2008
page 6-37
P
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TACK COAT
INTRODUCTION
A thin asphalt surfacing up to 40 mm

thick is laid.
The main objective of a tack coat is to promote

adhesion between an existing surface and a
new bituminous overlay or surfacing. Reduced
adhesion increases octohedral shear stress in
the overlying surface44. A tack coat of bitumen
emulsion can also be used as a curing
membrane for cement stabilized bases.
Areas where exceptionally high shearing

stresses are induced, such as on steep
gradients, on sharp bends and at road
intersections with traffic lights.
Periods of colder or moist weather.
The site is in a shaded area.
DESIGN
SPRAY RATE
A tack coat is necessary in every case where

doubt exists as to whether adequate adhesion
can be obtained between a newly applied
bituminous surfacing and an underlying layer.
This usually applies in the following cases:
T
A
C
K
C
O
A
T
Anionic (60%) stable grade emulsion shall be

diluted in the ratio 1:1 and applied according to
the spray rates given in Table 6-24 on page
6-38.
Table 6-24: Recommended tack coat spray
rates
An asphalt surfacing layer is constructed

over a concrete road or bridge deck.
SURFACE CONDITION

over a previously primed surface that has
become excessively dusty or has dried out
excessively.
over an existing bituminous surface that is
smooth or deficient in bitumen. This can apply
when the existing surface is an old bituminous
road and also when a newly laid levelling
course has a very smooth texture.
SPRAY RATE
2
litre/m
Very smooth bituminous surface or concrete
0,3
Smooth bituminous surface
0,4
Hungry, rough or badly

cracked bituminous surface
0,55
Very open bituminous surface
0,7
44. Carpenter, S.H. and Freeman, T.J. Characterising

premature deformation in asphalt concrete placed
over Portland cement concrete pavements. TRB,
TRR 1070, 1986, pp 30-41.
page 6-38
June 19, 2008
OTTA SEALS
DOUBLE OTTA SEAL
INTRODUCTION
An Otta Seal is a particular type of bituminous
surfacing, originally developed in the early
1960s by the Norwegian Road Research Laboratory and intended to serve as a temporary
surfacing for newly constructed roads. Its
good performance led to its adoption as a permanent single or double surfacing for new and
existing roads. It has proven to be an effective
and economic approach to surfacing low volume roads and has been extensively used in
Botswana45.
Otta Seals consist of a 16 mm to 32 mm thick
bituminous surfacing comprising a mixture of
graded aggregates ranging from natural gravel
to crushed rock together with relatively soft
(low viscosity) binder, with or without a sand
cover seal. The Otta Seal with graded stone
and soft binder contrasts with the single sized
crushed aggregate and relatively hard (high
viscosity) binders used in conventional seals.
There are single Otta Seals, double Otta Seals
and Single Otta Seals with a Sand Cover Seal.
SINGLE OTTA SEAL

Single Otta Seals require a high level of experience and careful workmanship and are
rarely used in this country.
SINGLE OTTA SEAL WITH SAND COVER

SEAL
This seal consists of a combination of a Single
Otta Seal with a Sand Cover Seal. While the
service life of this seal is much shorter than
that of the double Otta Seal, it is more cost effective for roads with an Annual Average
Daily Traffic (AADT) of less than 500.
Although the Double Otta Seal is the most durable, it is also more expensive and should
only be considered for roads carrying high volumes of traffic.
MATERIALS
ANTI STRIPPING AGENTS
The adhesion between the bitumen and aggregate depends on close contact between the two
materials. The addition of a small amount of an
anti-stripping agent to the bitumen reduces the
surface tension of the water and promotes the
coating of the aggregate with the bitumen.
Typical dosages of an anti-stripping agent is
0,5 percent to 0,8 percent by mass of bitumen.
O
T
T
A
DESIGN
BINDER SPRAY RATES
The choice of bitumen (see Table 6-25 on page
6-40) and the binder spray rates (See Table
6-26 on page 6-40) are decided after considering:
annual average daily traffic,

type of aggregate grading,
absorbency of aggregate particles, and
whether the base is primed or not.
When working with hot spray rates the minimum application should not be less than
1,5 l/m2 and if the aggregate has an absorbency of more than 2 percent, then the application should also be increased by a further
0,3l/m2.
45. The design construction and maintenance of Otta
Seals, Guideline No. 1, Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Roads Department, Republic of Botswana, 1999.
June 19, 2008
page 6-39
S
E
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L
S
Table 6-25: Choice of Bitumen binder
TRAFFIC AT THE TIME

OF CONSTRUCTION
(AADT)
TYPE OF BITUMEN BINDER

OPEN GRADING
MEDIUM GRADING
DENSE GRADING
Less than 100
150/200 pen. grade
MC 3000
MC 800
100-1000
150/200 pen. grade
150/200 pen. grade in cold

weather
MC 3000
MC 800 in cold weather
More than a 1000
Not applicable
150/200 pen. grade
MC 3000
MC 800 in cold weather
Table 6-26: Hot bitumen spray rates for primed rates (l/m )
GRADING
DENSE
TYPE OF OTTA SEAL

OPEN
MEDIUM
AADT
<100
AADT
>100
1,4
1,5
0,7
0,9
1,5
1,6
0,7
0,8
1,6
2,0
0,7
0,8
1,5
1,9
0,6
0,7
1,4
1,5
1,5
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,7
1,7
1,7
st
Double
Single with a sand cover
seal
1 layer
nd
1
2 layer
Fine sand
Crusher Dust or
Coarse river sand
st
1
1 layer
Single
Maintenance reseal (single)
O
T
T
A
S
E
A
L
S
Notes:
1. Where aggregate has a water absorption of greater than 2 percent the bitumen spray shall be increased by 0,3 l/m2.
2. Binder for sand cover seal shall be MC3000 for crusher dust, or coarse river sand and MC800 for fine sand.
AGGREGATE GRADING SELECTION

The Otta Seal design allows for a variety of
aggregate gradings to be used so long as they
fall within the envelope given in the aggregate grading table in Chapter 2, Materials
Standards. Experience has shown that the
grading envelopes shown in the table perform
best within the respective traffic volume categories (see Table 6-27 on page 6-40 and
Table 6-28 on page 6-41).
Table 6-27: Preferred aggregate gradings

AADT
BEST SUITED
GRADING
<100
open
100 - 1000
medium
>1000
dense
The only limitation is that open gradings

should not be used for traffic in excess of
1000 AADT.
page 6-40
June 19, 2008
PRIME
Table 6-28: Appropriate grading for Otta Seals
SIEVE
SIZES
(mm)
OPEN
GRADING
(% passing)
MEDIUM
GRADING
(% passing)
DENSE
GRADING
(% passing)
19
100
100
100
16
80 100
84 100
93 - 100
13,2
52 82
68 94
84 100
9,5
36 58
44 73
70 98
6,7
20 40
29 54
54 80
4,75
10 30
19 42
44 70
2,00
08
3 18
20 48
1,18
05
1 14
15 38
0,425
02
06
7 25
0,075
01
02
3 10
AGGREGATE APPLICATION RATES

Table 6-29: Aggregate application rates for
Otta Seals
GRADING
AGGREGATE SPREAD RATES

2
3
(m /m )
Open
63 77
Medium
63 77
Dense
50 63
Prime is normally applied at an application

rate of between 0,8 and 1,2 l/m2.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

DOUBLE OTTA SEAL AND
COMBINATION SEALS
INTERSECTIONS WITH YIELD SIGN,
ROUNDABOUTS AND STEEP
GRADIENTS
Binder application rates for Otta Seals on
steep gradients will need adjustment to minimise excessive bleeding and instability during
the early stage of the seal. The same applies
to steep gradients in combination with sharp
curves where vehicles tend to break heavily.
In such cases the binder content should be reduced by 0,3 l/m2 and a coarse aggregate
grading should be used.
If the risk of bleeding is considered a major
problem, the binder used should be 150/200
penetration grade, or preferably a penetration
grade even slightly harder than 150/200
which can be achieved by adding 2 to 3 percent kerosene to 80/100 penetration grade bitumen.
Although no special design procedure is

required, or has been developed for Otta
Seals, it is important to remember that
sufficient to excessive amounts of aggregate
are applied to the surface during rolling as
well as through the curing period. The curing
period is two weeks when working with
crushed aggregate, or longer when working
with natural gravel. See Table 6-29 on page
6-41 for recommended application rates.
Sand Cover Seals shall be applied at 85 to
100 m2/m3.
June 19, 2008
page 6-41
O
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S
SAND SEAL
INTRODUCTION
DESIGN
This seal consists of a spray of binder followed

by the application of a coarse, clean sand. This
surfacing is used for low-volume roads,
especially in drier regions, but can also be used
for resealing, or for temporary by-passes. For
new construction two layers are usually
specified. However, where there are economic
constraints good durability can be expected
from one layer. The second layer can always
be applied at a later stage if found to be
necessary and this could be several years later.
SPRAY RATE
MC3000 shall be applied at 1,20 litre/m2.
SPREAD RATE
The sand shall be spread at 180 m2/m3.
MATERIALS
S
A
N
D
S
E
A
L
Bituminous binder shall be a MC3000 cutback

bitumen. The aggregate shall consist of a
coarse sand, free of dust, containing particles
not exceeding 6,7 mm. Refer to Chapter 2
Material Standards. In very hot temperature
conditions MC3000 can be problematic. In
such cases a penetration grade binder should
be considered.
page 6-42
June 19, 2008
SINGLE SEAL OF 6,7 mm CHIPS

INTRODUCTION
Table 6-30: Emulsion spray rates for a 6,7

mm seal
This seal is used for resealing existing surfaced

roads. It is occasionally also used for surfacing
lightly trafficked, temporary by-passes. The
seal consists of a spray of bitumen emulsion or
latex modified emulsion covered with 6,7 mm
chips. For the more cubical shaped aggregate,
it has been found desirable to use a fog spray
(comprising a diluted emulsion) to minimize
whip-off followed by a light sand blind.
ALD mm
SPRAY RATE (HOT) litre/m
<3,5
1,00
3,5 - 4,0
1,20
>4,0
1,40
1. If the existing surface is dry

OTHER
and cracked, the spray rate
CONDITIONS
shall be increased by 0,2
2
l/m
2. If cubical chips are used, i.e.,
a Flakiness Index <15, the
spray rates shall be in2
creased by 0,1 l/m .
MATERIALS
The bituminous binder shall consist of a cationic (65 or 70%) spray grade emulsion or latex
modified emulsion. The aggregate shall be
6,7 mm chips. Refer to Chapter 2, Materials
Standards.
3. If the total spray rate is less

2
than 1,2 l/m the use of a
single spray of emulsion
should be considered
2
4. If the total spray is >1,2 l/m

a split application shall be
applied. The top spray shall
be an emulsion diluted 1:1
with water and sprayed at
2
0,8 l/m
DESIGN
Normally, the ALD of 6,7 mm chips does not
exceed 3,5 mm. If it does, an increased spray
rate shall be used. The following application
rates are applicable.
Table 6-31: Spray rates for 6,7 mm seal for

lightly trafficked by-passes
SPRAY RATES
The appropriate emulsion spray rates for a road
to be resealed are given in Table 6-30 on page
6-43 The same spray rates apply for cationic,
anionic, or latex modified emulsions.
LIGHT TRAFFIC BY-PASSES

Priming of the base is not essential for bypasses, although experience has shown priming
to be preferable. Table 6-31 on page 6-43 gives
the spray rates for cationic, anionic emulsion
and latex emulsions. Where heavier traffic is
to be carried the use of a latex emulsion
significantly improves chip retention and
performance of the seal.
In some instances a cover spray consisting of
equal parts emulsion and water may be specified.
ALD mm
EMULSION SPRAY
2
RATE (HOT) litre/m
3,5 mm
1,20
> 3,5 mm
1,40
SPREAD RATES
The 6,7 mm chips shall be spread at 180 - 200
m2/m3 for a single spray allowing for excess
chips to be swept off (one day after opening to
traffic). The 6,7 mm chips shall be spread at
200 - 210 m2/m3 for a double spray. Chips
shall be spread shoulder-to-shoulder in a single
layer.
Note
The ALD can be computed as given under
Computation of average least dimension on
page 6-33 which is the reference method. Alternatively, the ALD may be determined by the
measurement method described in TMH 1,
Method B18.
June 19, 2008
page 6-43
S
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F
A
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7
M
M
S
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A
L
SINGLE SEAL OF 9,5 mm CHIPS PLUS SAND

BLIND
INTRODUCTION
S
U
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F
A
C
I
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G
9
M
M
S
E
A
L
This seal can be used for new construction of

low volume roads, temporary by-passes, and
for resealing an existing surface. This seal
normally consists of a spray of bitumen
covered by 9,5 mm chips spread in a single
layer shoulder-to-shoulder, in the wet
emulsion, followed by a second spray of
bitumen emulsion. After the second spray has
broken, it is lightly blinded with sand. A
latex modified cationic emulsion is preferred
for highly flexible pavements and where
enhanced durability is required. For example,
roads remote from aggregate suppliers using a
life cycle cost approach, or if highly absorptive
aggregates are used.
MATERIALS
The bituminous binder shall normally be a
cationic emulsion spray grade emulsion (65 or
70%), or a latex modified cationic emulsion.
The aggregate shall be 9,5 mm chips. The sand
shall be reasonably clean and coarse and shall
not contain pebbles larger than 6,7 mm. Refer
to Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
On any particular project spray rates need only

be varied if a change in ALD results in a
variation in excess of 0,05 litre/m2 net cold
binder.
If the existing surfacing is dry and cracked, the
spray rate shall be increased by 0,2 litre/m2. If
cubical chips with a flakiness index of 15 or
less are used, the spray rate shall be increased
by 0,1 litre/m2. If the existing surface is
bleeding, the spray rate shall be decreased.
Penetration grade bitumen and precoated
aggregate may be used under special
circumstances.
SPREAD RATES
9,5 mm CHIPS
The curve in Figure 6-9 on page 6-45 shall be
used to determine the approximate spread rate
of stone. This curve, which relates spread rate
of stone to ALD is only meant as a guide. The
criterion to be used is that the chips shall be
spread in a single layer shoulder to shoulder.
The spread rates specified shall be rounded off
to the nearest 5 m2/m3.
SAND
The sand shall be spread lightly as the purpose
of the sand is solely to prevent pick up of the
9,5 mm chips by passing traffic.
DESIGN
SPRAY RATES
Note
2
The total hot gross spray rate (litre/m ) shall

be determined according to TRH 336 and
checked against the WCPA formula, which is
0,172ALD.f, where f is the conversion factor
for the type of emulsion used see Table 6-19
on page 6-32. Product designer software is
currently being developed which will incorporate both the TRH 3 and WCPA approaches.

page 6-33, which is the reference method.
Alternatively, the ALD may be determined by
the measurement method described in TMH 1,
Method B18.
The total spray is divided into a top and bottom

spray. For the top spray the emulsion may be
diluted 1:1 with water and sprayed at
0,8 litre/m2. In such cases the specification
shall be obtained from the Materials Engineer.
page 6-44
June 19, 2008
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
Spread rate, m2/m3
155
150
145
140
S
U
R
F
A
C
I
N
G
135
130
125
120
115
9
M
M
110
S
E
A
L
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
0
10
11
12
13
14
Average least dimension, mm

Note: The spread rate curve is applicable to aggregate with a flakiness index of 15 or less. The spread rate generally
increases with an increase in flakiness. Further research on the effect of flakiness on the spread rate may quantify
this and it is anticipated that the spread rate curve will be modified.
Figure 6-9: WCPA spread rate curve
June 19, 2008
page 6-45
SINGLE SEAL OF 13,2 mm CHIPS

INTRODUCTION
This seal can be used for new construction,
temporary by-passes, and for resealing an
existing surface. It is normally the first reseal
after a Cape Seal and is used on surfaces with a
fine to medium texture. It is also used when
traffic accommodation is a major problem in
order to limit the number of construction
activities. This seal consists of a single spray
of penetration grade bitumen, unmodified or
modified, followed by the spreading of 13 mm
precoated chips.
MATERIALS
S
U
R
F
A
C
I
N
G
1
3
M
M
S
E
A
L
The aggregate shall be 13,2 mm chips. The

chips shall be precoated according to the
requirements given on page 6-29 under
Precoating. The bituminous binder shall
consist of penetration grade bitumen with or
without a modifier. Modifiers can be SBR
latex or natural rubbers and their use will be
dictated by the state of the pavement, i.e.,
flexibility or a high incidence of crack activity.
For binder and aggregate standards refer to
Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
DESIGN
PENETRATION GRADE AND LATEX

MODIFIED
The total hot gross spray rate (litre/m2) shall be
determined according to TRH 336 and checked
against the WCPA formula, which is
0,172ALD.f, where f is the conversion factor
for the type of emulsion used see Table 6-19
BITUMEN-RUBBER
2
Typically 2,5 litre/m to 2,7 litre/m (for a

membrane thickness 2,5 mm) has been used
page 6-46
SPREAD RATES
Figure 6-9 on page 6-45 shall be used to
determine the approximate spread rate of the
13,2 mm chips. This curve which relates
spread rate of stone to ALD is only meant as a
guide. The criterion to be used is that the
chips shall be spread in a single layer shoulder
to shoulder. The spread rates specified are to
be rounded off to the nearest 5 m2/m3.
Note
SPRAY RATES
for bitumen-rubber binders where only

extender and no cutter is being used. On high
trafficked roads (>200 HVPD) spray rates of
the order of 2,2 litre/m2 are considered more
appropriate. Typically 1,85 to 2,0 litre/m2 has
been sprayed for bitumen-rubber binders using
a cutter. Below 2 litre/m2 special care must be
exercised to avoid uneven sprays such as
roping or tramlining during spraying
operations. For low volume traffic applications
guidelines by A.O. Bergh et al46 could be used.
For medium to high volume traffic roads
and/or cement treated bases a more
comprehensive investigation is required to
determine adequate membrane thickness. For
example, crack activity and deflection bowl
characteristics should be measured. An
analysis should then be carried out.

page 6-33, which is the reference method. Alternatively, the ALD may be determined by the
Method B18.
46. Bergh, A.O. and Thomson, H.C. Simplified design

method for bitumen rubber seals for lightly trafficked
roads. SABITA Modified Binders Seminar, 1991,
4p.
June 19, 2008
SINGLE SEAL OF 13,2 mm CHIPS PLUS

SAND BLIND
INTRODUCTION
This seal is mainly used for resealing of
existing surfaces, but can also be used for new
construction. It is normally the first reseal after
a Cape Seal and is used on surfaces with a fine
to medium texture. It is used when traffic
accommodation is a major problem in order to
limit the number of construction activities.
The purpose of the sand is solely to prevent
pickup of the chips. This seal consists of a
spray of bitumen emulsion, unmodified or
modified, covered by 13,2 mm chips spread in
a single layer, shoulder to shoulder, in the wet
emulsion. This is followed by a second spray
of bitumen emulsion. The seal is blinded
lightly with sand after the emulsion has
broken.
Sixty percent of the 0,172ALD.f hot gross

spray shall be applied in the first spray. The
second spray shall consist of forty percent of
the 0,172ALD.f hot gross spray plus 0,2 litre/m2.
SPREAD RATES
13,2 mm CHIPS
of stone. This curve which relates spread rate
of stone to ALD is only meant as a guide and
the criterion to be used is that the chips shall be
The spread rates specified are to be rounded of
to the nearest 5 m2/m3.
SAND
MATERIALS
The aggregate shall be 13,2 mm chips, which
shall not be precoated as precoating retards the
breaking of the emulsion. The bituminous
binders shall consist of cationic (65% or 70%)
spray grade emulsion. The modifier most
commonly used is SBR latex. It is
recommended that latex modified emulsions be
used on highly flexible pavements, or in cases
where the aggregate is highly absorptive. For
standards for binder, aggregate and sand refer
to Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
The sand shall be spread very lightly as its

purpose is solely to prevent pickup of the
chips.
Note
Method B18.
SPRAY RATES
0,172ALD.f + 0,2, where f is the conversion
factor for the type of emulsion used. See Table
6-19 on page 6-32. Product designer software
is currently being developed which will incorporate both the TRH 3 and WCPA approaches.
June 19, 2008
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SINGLE SEAL OF 13,2 mm CHIPS PLUS GRIT

second spray shall consist of the forty percent
of the 0,172 ALD.f hot gross spray plus
0,2 litre/m2.
INTRODUCTION
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This seal is mainly used for resealing of

existing surfaces, but can also be used for new
construction. It is normally the first reseal after
a Cape Seal and is used on surfaces with a fine
to medium texture. It is used on roads with a
high traffic volume as the grit provides an
improved mechanical interlock and the seal is
less susceptible to ravelling. This seal consists
of a spray of bitumen emulsion, unmodified or
modified, covered by 13,2 mm chips spread in
a single layer, shoulder to shoulder, in the wet
emulsion. This is followed by a second spray
of bitumen emulsion. The grit is spread in the
wet emulsion.
SPREAD RATES
13,2 mm CHIPS
of stone. This curve which relates spread rate
of stone to ALD is only meant as a guide. The
criterion to be used is that the chips shall be
The spread rates specified are to be rounded
off to the nearest 5 m2/m3.
GRIT
MATERIALS
The aggregate shall be 13,2 mm chips, which
shall not be precoated as precoating retards the
breaking of the emulsion. The bituminous
binders shall consist of cationic (65% or 70%)
spray grade emulsion. The modifier most
commonly used is SBR latex. It is
recommended that latex modified emulsions be
used on highly flexible pavements or in cases
where the aggregate is highly absorptive. For
standards for the binder, aggregate and grit
refer to Chapter 2, Materials Standards. A
coarse sand may also be approved by the
Materials Engineer for use.
The grit (or sand approved by the Materials

Engineer) shall be lightly over applied. The
spread rate shall be 180-200 m2/m3.
Note
Method B18.
DESIGN
SPRAY RATES
against the WCPA formula, which is 0,172
ALD.f + 0,2, where f is the conversion factor
for the type of emulsion used. See Table 6-19
Sixty percent of the 0,172 ALD.f hot gross
spray shall be applied in the first spray. The
page 6-48
June 19, 2008
DOUBLE SEAL OF 13,2 mm & 6,7 mm CHIPS

INTRODUCTION
DESIGN
This seal is primarily used for new construction. It is sometimes used for resealing, especially in high volume rural or urban environment. This seal consists of a spray of bitumen
binder, 13,2 mm chips spread in a single layer,
shoulder to shoulder, in the binder. This is followed by a second spray of binder covered
with 6,7 mm chips, followed by a fogspray of
diluted emulsion. Any deviation from the
above procedure shall only be with prior approval of the Materials Engineer.
SPRAY RATES
p(ALD 13,2 + ALD6,7).f,
where
p
ALD
MATERIALS
The bituminous binder shall consist of two

sprays of cationic (65 or 70%) spray-grade
emulsion. However, the use of other binders,
such as 150/200 Penetration bitumen, MC3000
cutback bitumen and modified bitumens or
emulsions, may also be considered. When a
binder other than emulsion is used the minimum hot gross spray rates which shall be observed to ensure good adhesion and coverage
are:
First spray = 0,65 litre/m2, and
Second spray = 1,0 litre/m2.
If these minimum spray rates cannot be observed, emulsion shall be used.
The aggregate shall be 13,2 mm and 6,7 mm
chips. Refer to Chapter 2 for the standards of
materials.
is the spray rate factor from

Table 6-32 on page 6-49
is the average least dimension of the chips, and
is the expansion factor from
Table 6-32: Values of p for determining spray

rate for double seal
E80 PER DAY (Both directions)
200
0,17
>200
0,15
Product designer software is currently being

developed which will incorporate both the
TRH 3 and WCPA approaches.
Deduct 0,33 litre/m2 net bitumen from the rate
obtained from the above formula for the fog
spray when cationic (65%) emulsion is used.
Deduct 0,30 litre/m2 when anionic (60%)
emulsion is used. In both cases 0,5 litre/m2
emulsion is deducted. This amount is then diluted with an equal volume of water and
sprayed at 1,0 litre/m2. The remainder is then
split into two equal sprays. Resultant sprays
are then rounded off to the nearest
0,01 litre/m2.
Spray rates shall be adjusted for significant
changes in ALD. This adjustment should not
be based on the test results of a single sample.
In this respect see Chapter 8, Quality Assurance.
June 19, 2008
page 6-49
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SPREAD RATES
13,2 mm CHIPS
of stone. This curve, which relates spread rate
of stone to ALD, is only meant as a guide.
The criterion to be used is that the chips shall
be spread in a single layer shoulder to shoulder. The recommended spread rates are to be
rounded off to the nearest 5 m2/m3.
Note
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page 6-33, which is the reference method. Alternatively, the ALD may be determined by the
Method B18.
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June 19, 2008
CAPE SEAL
INTRODUCTION
DESIGN
This seal is used for new construction and

urban reseals. It consists of a split application
of binder with 19 mm chips followed by two
applications of slurry. The chips are spread
shoulder to shoulder in a single layer in the
first application of binder. Care should be
taken not to spread the chips too thickly as this
will inhibit penetration of the slurry into the
interstices leaving air voids resulting in loss of
durability, laminations in the layer, increased
permeability and poor stability.
SPRAY RATES
MATERIALS
Several spray grade binders may be used for
the first spray. These include 150/200 pen.
bitumen, MC3000 cutback bitumen and
cationic emulsion (65%) or latex emulsion. For
the second spray diluted emulsion or a cationic
(30%) emulsion is normally used. Economics,
constructibility, environmental constraints and
the minimum spray rates for good transverse
distribution should always be considered. A
further consideration is the minimum spray
rate required for good transverse distribution of
the binder.
Stable grade emulsion for slurry shall be
anionic (60%). Experience has, however,
shown that with certain aggregates anionic
emulsion greatly increases the water demand
(from 15 parts to greater than 25 parts!)
resulting in a highly permeable slurry and
cracking. This can be overcome by adding a
wetting agent.
The aggregate shall be 19,0 mm chips. Recent
overseas practice47 has successfully used a
bitumen-rubber binder, 13 mm aggregate and
slurry in an urban environment to cater for
heavy turning movements, or to prolong the
life of extensively cracked roads.
Refer to Chapter 2 for standards of materials.
The spray rates are determined by traffic only.

Absorption of bitumen by the stone or the underlying layer shall be allowed for in the determining spray rates. Reduction to the spray
rate is made in special circumstances where the
hardness of the stone does not meet the specification, or where the newly laid surface is to
be trafficked by heavy construction traffic in
addition to the normal traffic. In these cases a
relaxed specification may be approved by the
Materials Engineer. The binder is applied in a
split application because the second spray:
minimises dislodgement of the stone

during slurrying,
provides a tack coat between the stone
and slurry.
TRAFFIC
Experience has shown that it is the heavy
vehicles which primarily contribute to bleeding
of the road surface. As the most durable
surface is the one containing the most
bituminous binder, the aim is to spray as much
binder as possible without producing a
bleeding surface. For this reason the spray
factor is varied according to the number of
heavy vehicles (expressed as E80s) making use
of the road in both directions per day. Heavy
vehicles are defined as trucks and trailers of
3 ton carrying capacity and over. The heavy
vehicle count is converted to E80s (see the
Materials Report). Check for more recent
counts and obtain the latest information from
the Pavement Management System. Passenger
cars, caravans and vans are disregarded in
arriving at the number of heavy vehicles.
The number of heavy vehicles making use of
roads should be obtained from the Department
or from the local authority for urban roads.
Where only heavy vehicle counts are available
47. Asphalt-rubber Cape seals. The Manhole Messenger, Volume 3, No. 3, Manhole Adjusting Inc.,
Monterey Park, California, September 1992, 7p.
June 19, 2008
page 6-51
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without E80 factors, TRH448 gives a guideline

for establishing appropriate E80 factors see
Table 6-33 on page 6-52).
Product designer software is currently being

developed which will incorporate both the
TRH 3 and WCPA approaches.
These E80 factors have, in recent years, increased significantly (particularly for Category
A and B roads) and have careful consideration
should be given to the actual values used for
the E80 factor.
REDUCTION IN SPRAY RATES

Table 6-34: Values of p for determining
spray rate for Cape Seal
Table 6-33: Determination of E80s heavy

vehicle
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LOADING OF HEAVY VEHICLES

(OR TYPE OF ROAD)
E80/HEAVY
VEHICLE
Mostly unladen (Category C, farm to

market)
0,6
50% laden, 50% unladen (Category

A or B, major interurban)
1,2
>70% fully laden (Category A or B,

main arterials or major industrial
routes)
2,0
HARDNESS OF STONE
The Treton value is used as a field control to
determine the hardness of the aggregate. The
maximum value normally acceptable is 20.
However, in exceptional cases where it is
economically justifiable, approval may be
given for the use of stone with a Treton Value
greater than 20 (Treton will be replaced by the
Aggregate Impact Value).
TOTAL COLD NET BINDER

APPLICATION RATE
The total cold net binder application rate (in litre/m2) shall be determined according to
TRH 336 and checked against the WCPA formula, which is
p.ALD19
where
ALD19 the average least dimension
of the 19 mm chips (in mm)
p
is selected for Table 6-34 on

page 6-52
E80 PER DAY

Both directions
50
0,145
51 - 100
0,140
101 - 150
0,135
151 - 200
0,130
201 - 250
0,125
251 - 300
0,120
>300
0,115
Special circumstances may warrant a reduction

in the spray rates. These circumstances and the
applicable percentage by which the sprays may
be reduced are shown in Table 6-35 on
page 6-52.
Table 6-35: Special circumstances warranting
a reduction of spray rates
DESCRIPTION OF
CIRCUMSTANCES
REDUCTION IN
SPRAY RATES %
Climbing lanes
Heavy construction traffic

(loaded vehicles) excluding
climbing lanes
Stone with Treton >20
The impact of heavy construction traffic shall

be evaluated by considering the ratio of construction to design traffic, the prevailing ambient temperature and the age of the seal when
subjected to the construction traffic.
As a guideline a reduction in the case of construction traffic will only be warranted where
the total of heavy construction traffic and normal heavy traffic, at that time, exceeds the design traffic of the next, or any higher category,
within the first 3 weeks of the completion of
the surfacing.
INCREASE IN SPRAY RATES

48. TRH 4: Structural design of interurban and rural road
pavements. CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1996.
page 6-52
Where for any reason the prime coat has been

omitted, the cold net binder of the first spray
only shall be increased by 0,15 litre/m2.
June 19, 2008
SPREAD RATE
used for the determination of the approximate
spread rate of stone. The curve, which relates
spread rate of stone to ALD, is only intended
as a guide and the criterion to be used is that
the chips shall be spread in a single layer
shoulder to shoulder. The recommended
spread rates are to be rounded off to the nearest
5 m2/m3.
DESIGN SHEET
The procedure to be followed for determining
spray rates on the design sheet (see Appendix
D) is as follows:
Obtain design traffic from Materials
Report subject to confirmation from Traffic
Data Base.
Read off spray factor from Table 6-32 on
page 6-49.
Multiply this value by the ALD to obtain
cold net rate in litre/m2.
Make the permissible reductions in
respect of climbing lanes, construction traffic,
soft stone, where applicable.
The binder shall be split as follows:
Bottom spray: Shall consist of hot

binder or emulsion. Hot binder is preferred as this will normally be
economical.
Second spray: Shall consist of a mixture
of equal parts of emulsion and water applied at a rate of 1,0 litre/m2 (See paragraph 3 and 4).
The cold rates obtained are multiplied by the

applicable expansion/volatile factors to obtain
hot gross spray rates.
Notes
Stable mix grade emulsion for use in the
slurry seal may also be used for the cover
spray. If available, this is usually the most
practical solution.
checked. Water that is fit for drinking is suitable for the dilution of cationic (spray grade
and stable mix) emulsion and for anionic stable
mix emulsion. In all cases the water shall be
added gradually to the emulsion. Anionic
spray grade emulsion must never be diluted.
Where emulsion is used for the first
spray, it is possible that the calculated spray
rate exceeds the maximum permissible spray
rate of 1,75 litre/m2 if the cover spray remains
at 1,0 litre/m2 using 1 part emulsion to 1 part
water. In such cases the first spray shall be
1,75 litre/m2 and the rest of the binder shall be
sprayed in the second spray in the ratio of
2 parts emulsion to 1 part water.
A 30% emulsion is also available in the
marketplace.
Where, in exceptional cases, diluted
emulsion cannot be used for the cover spray,
undiluted emulsion may be used provided prior
authority is obtained from the Materials Engineer.
The ALD can be computed as given under Computation of average least dimension
on page 6-33, which is the reference method.
Alternatively, the ALD may be determined by
the measurement method described in TMH 1,
Method B18.
Spray rates should be adjusted for
significant changes in ALD or Treton values of
the chips. This adjustment should not be based
on the test results of a single sample. In this
respect see Chapter 8, Quality Assurance.
SLURRY MIX COMPOSITION

A mix consisting 100 parts aggregate and between 14 and 20 parts stable grade emulsion,
by mass, for the first slurry and 20 parts for the
second slurry shall be used. The binder content for the first slurry shall be agreed with the
Materials Engineer and shall be dependant
upon the traffic and the expected local temperatures. The cement content shall be between 1 and 2 parts. The water content can be
varied, but it will normally be about 15 parts to
give a flow of 30 to 40 mm.
Compatibility of the water to be used with

the emulsion for the cover spray shall be
June 19, 2008
page 6-53
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COARSE SLURRY
MINERAL FILLER CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
Conventional slow setting anionic coarse
slurry is used for treating an existing road
surface carrying a low volume of heavy traffic
and exhibiting any of the following defects:
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BITUMINOUS BINDER CONTENT
The surface is uneven because of bumps,

slacks and/or ruts (including bridge decks),
i.e., poor riding quality.
A mix consisting of 100 parts of dry aggregate,

15 parts of emulsion (by mass), and water (~10
parts) to satisfy the consistency requirement.
The surface characteristics are conducive

to a skidding hazard when wet.
The bituminous binder content of the coarse

slurry will only be determined after it has been
designed and approved and following the
placing of an acceptable trial section. The
residual binder content will normally range
from 6,5 percent to 12 percent by mass of the
dry aggregate according to the aggregate used.
Surface cracking of low activity is

present.
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Portland Cement content of 1,0 to 2,0 percent

by mass of dry aggregate shall be incorporated
in the slurry.
However, for roads subject to extreme

temperature ranges, a modified or rapid setting
slurry shall be used to ensure stability.
The slurry system shall be a process whereby a
bitumen emulsion is combined with high quality aggregate in a purpose-designed machine,
which applies a continuous cold mix.
The slurry shall be capable of being placed on
an existing bitumen surface without any tack
coat being applied. The material shall be mixed
and applied with a purpose designed machine.
JOB MIX
The grading of the mineral aggregate
determined on the samples specified shall not
deviate from the grading of the approved job
mix by more than the tolerances given in Table
6-36 on page 6-54.
Table 6-36: Tolerances for grading of aggregate for conventional slow setting anionic
coarse slurry
Refer also to Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
DESIGN
The combined aggregate grading limits shall
be in accordance with the requirements of
Chapter 2 for conventional slow setting anionic
coarse slurry. Compatibility of the proposed
source or alternative available sources of
aggregate with the bitumen emulsion shall be
assessed prior to finalizing the source of
supply. Consistency shall be determined using
the WCPA Method.
page 6-54
AGGREGATE PASSING
SIEVE BY MASS mm
GRADING
TOLERANCE %
4,75 mm and larger
2,36
0,300
0,075
The bituminous binder content determined on

the samples specified shall not deviate by more
than 1,0 percent from the specified binder
content.
The job mix requires verification using
materials already placed in stockpile,
especially regarding the compatibility of the
emulsion and aggregate.
June 19, 2008
WEATHER LIMITATIONS
When temperatures are rising, slurry shall not
be applied at an ambient air temperature of less
than 7C, or when temperatures are dropping at
less than 13C. Special precautions will be required during hot weather to
lower the road surface temperature with

a light spray of water, or
work in the cool part of day.
Slurry operations shall be suspended when rain
is imminent. No slurrying shall be done when
strong winds are blowing which are likely to
affect the normal breaking of the slurry.
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page 6-55
RAPID SETTING RUBBER MODIFIED

COARSE SLURRY
INTRODUCTION
Rapid setting rubber modified course slurry is
used for treating an existing road surface exhibiting any of the following defects:
The surface is uneven because of bumps,
slacks and/or ruts (including bridge decks),
i.e., poor riding quality.
The surface edges require reinstatement.
For a high volume, low heavy axle

facility ( ES1 traffic), the surface texture
needs improvement or reseal.
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The slurry system shall be a process in which

emulsion and aggregate are mixed to form a
coarse slurry. The system shall include the following critical points:
bitumen emulsion: rubber modified with
rapid curing characteristics independent of
ambient temperatures
aggregate: high quality
mixing and laying: purpose designed machine

mix application: cold and continuous
The nature of the screeding equipment will

limit improvement longitudinally. Rut filling is
normally done for ruts in excess of 10 mm.
The depth of rutting will influence the choice
of maximum aggregate size. The material shall
be capable of being placed on an existing
bitumen surface without any tack coat being
applied. Each layer shall be capable of carrying
traffic within 30 minutes of laying.
Aggregate samples (30 kg fine aggregate and

15 kg of coarse aggregate) shall be submitted
to the supplier of binder well in advance to
assess compatibility of the proposed or
alternative available source of aggregate with
the rubber modified emulsion.
MARSHALL CRITERIA
The Marshall stability shall be greater than
7,0 kN. Voids in mix shall be in the range 2,0
to 6,0 percent.
MINERAL FILLER CONTENT

A Portland Cement content of 1,0 to 2,0
percent by mass of dry aggregate shall be
incorporated in the slurry.
The actual quantity shall be subject to approval
by the Materials Engineer.
BITUMINOUS BINDER CONTENT

The bituminous binder content of the coarse
slurry, which is in accordance with the two
grading categories, shall be decided pm after
the mix has been designed and approved
following the placing of an acceptable trial
section.
The residual binder content will normally be in
the range of 6 to 9 percent by mass of the dry
aggregate according to the aggregate used.
JOB MIX
The grading of the mineral aggregate
determined on the samples specified shall not
deviate from the grading of the approved job
mix by more than the tolerances given in Table
6-37 on page 6-57.
DESIGN
The combined aggregate grading limits shall
be in accordance with the requirements of
Chapter 2 for rapid setting rubber modified
coarse slurry.
page 6-56
June 19, 2008
Table 6-37: Tolerance for grading of aggregate

for rapid setting rubber modified coarse slurry
AGGREGATE PASSING
SIEVE BY MASS, mm
GRADING
TOLERANCE, %
4,75 and larger
2,36
0,300
0,075
WEATHER LIMITATIONS
The system shall be sufficiently versatile to be
laid at ambient air temperatures of 4 to 40C
and shall be capable of being laid under damp
road conditions.
The Marshall criteria shall be within

specification. The bituminous binder content
determined on the samples shall not deviate by
more than 1,0 percent from the specified
binder content.
The job mix requires verification using
materials already placed in the stockpile,
especially regarding compatibility with the
polymer.
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page 6-57
HOT-MIX ASPHALT SURFACING

INTRODUCTION
Monismith et al49 and the CSIR50 have
produced a comprehensive mix design system
for asphalt. A brief extract has been given of
the framework for design, and for the
aggregate and binder sub-systems leading up to
the trial mix design. The User Guide for the
Design of Hot Mix Asphalt26 should also be
consulted.
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The mix design method in this chapter covers

proven and approved designs with small
deviations being possible. These deviations
could be the target grading within specified
envelopes and/or binder type and content.
Figure 6-10: Radius of curvature versus asphalt

strain
Special verification tests according to the

tables in Chapter 8, Quality Assurance,
and/or additional special tests may, however,
be required by the Materials Engineer.
Monismith et al49 offer guidelines for special
tests which may be appropriate to address
specific areas of concern.
E. Horak51 suggests that the maximum tensile
strain in the asphalt layer (HA) is the distress
determinant most associated with fatigue
cracking. He also demonstrated the trends in
strain values for granular bases with a typical
roadbed modulus of 70 MPa, and various deflection basin parameters. Figure 6-10 on page
6-58 relates radius of curvature to horizontal
strain (HA) for different asphalt surfacing
thicknesses. Figure 6-11 on page 6-58 relates
Surface Curvature Index to maximum horizontal strain.
49. Monismith, C.L., Finn, F.N. and Vallerga, B.A. A

comprehensive asphalt concrete mixture design
system. ASTM, Asphalt Concrete Mix Design, Development of More Rational Approaches, STP 1041,
Philadelphia, 1989, pp 39-71.
50. Interim Guidelines for the Design of Hot-Mix Asphalt in South Africa Transportek, CSIR, Pretoria,
June 2001.
51 Horak, E. Aspects of deflection basin parameters
used in a mechanistic rehabilitation design procedures for flexible pavements in South Africa. PhD
Thesis, University of Pretoria, 1988.
page 6-58
Figure 6-11: Surface Curvature Index (SCI) to

maximum horizontal strain
The elastic modulus of the base of a granular

base pavement can also be determined from
Figure 6-12 on page 6-59 if the roadbed
modulus is 70 MPa. As shown in this figure,
various deflection basin parameters can be
used to determine the roadbed elastic modulus.
The effect of the surfacing thickness is also
taken into consideration. Although the roadbed
effective elastic modulus is not varied, this figure can be used to determine a first estimate of
the base elastic modulus EB value for analysis.
Benkelman beam work carried out on various
old pavements with G3 bases has found radius
of curvature values in the order of 50 m with
Benkelman beam deflections in the order of
0,8 mm. According to Figure 6-10 on page
6-58 such a project would be a candidate for a
June 19, 2008
modified asphalt. Likewise, a very flexible

behaviour state according Table 6-2 on page
6-3, has a BLI >0,4 mm. Figure 6-11 on page
6-58 illustrates a maximum horizontal asphalt
strain trend which cannot be accommodated by
conventional asphalt.
For increased inflation pressures, the induced

tensile strains would even further justify the
use of a modified binder in the asphalt. Heavy
turning movements also induce higher tensile
and other strains.
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Figure 6-12: Granular base elastic modulus (EB) versus deflection basin parameters
GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR

A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM
In general terms, the design of an asphalt mix
system consists of the following basic steps:
Select the type and grading of the mineral
aggregate.
Select the type and grade of binder, with
or without modification.
Select the amount of a binder to satisfy
the project-specific requirements for mix
properties.
These steps have been incorporated into a
general framework for design, which is
illustrated in Figure 6-13 on page 6-61, and
serves as the basis for the comprehensive
asphalt design system.
Proper selection of the mix components and

their relative proportions require a knowledge
of the significant properties and performance
characteristics of asphalt paving mixtures and
how they are influenced by the mix
components. Table 6-38 on page 6-62 contains
a listing of the mix properties that must be
considered for specific design situations
together with a summary of the factors that
influence these properties.
Mix design is the selection of the components
to achieve a desirable balance in these
properties for the specific pavement
application. Selection of the components and
their relative proportions is also influenced by
the pavement support upon which the mix will
be constructed. The designer must realize that
mix design and pavement design are
interactive and, therefore, must be considered
together.
June 19, 2008
page 6-59
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AGGREGATE SELECTION
SUBSYSTEM
BINDER SELECTION
SUBSYSTEM
The aggregate selection subsystem is outlined

in Figure 6-14 on page 6-63. The following list
includes the aggregate characteristics that
should be considered.
A framework for the binder selection subsystem is shown in Figure 6-15 on page 6-63.
Surface Texture: provides the loadcarrying capability of an aggregate through its

inter-particle frictional resistance. For many
aggregates this can be improved by crushing.
Surface texture also contributes to the skid
resistance
of
the
pavement
surface
(microtexture).
Rheological properties: The response of

asphalt mixes to both load and environmental
influences depends on the rheological
characteristics of the binder contained therein.
Durability: covers the resistance of an

aggregate to disintegration (production of
fines), crushing, polishing, and freeze-thaw
breakdown.
Wetability: refers to the propensity of the
aggregate to be preferentially wetted by bituminous binder in the presence of water.
Size and distribution: influences a number of the mix characteristics such as pavement
surface texture, permeability, and workability.
The maximum aggregate size depends on the
thickness of the lift in which the mix is placed.
Absorption: the tendency of bituminous
binder to flow into the pores of the aggregate.
The greater the absorption the less free
binder available to affect the mix properties.
Shape: may have an influence on the
properties of the mix, for example, stability,
creep and fatigue.
Depending upon the use of the mixes, some or
all of these aggregate characteristics will be
considered in the design process.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
These characteristics may be defined by stressstrain relationships and viscosity over a range
of temperatures and times of loading. For
example, the stiffness modulus of a mix at a
particular time of loading and temperature is a
function of the stiffness modulus of the binder
contained in the mix.
Tensile (Fracture) Characteristics: The tensile
strength of the mix is dependent on the tensile
(fracture) strength of the bituminous binder
matrix contained in the mix.
Adhesion: The bonding characteristics of the
binder to the aggregate that influences the
water sensitivity of the mix.
Safety: The temperature at which the binder
will flash should be defined; normally, the
temperature at which this occurs for
bituminous binders is above the mixing
temperature.
The influence that the binder has on peoples
health must be known so that correct handling
procedures can be specified. As with the aggregate, specific binder properties will be required depending on the end use of the mix.
The type and amount of mineral filler (material

passing the 0,075 mm sieve) can have a significant influence on the properties of the resultant mix.
page 6-60
June 19, 2008
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Figure 6-13: Comprehensive design system for asphalt with or without modified bitumen
June 19, 2008
page 6-61
Table 6-38: Mix Properties
PROPERTY
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DEFINITION
EXAMPLES OF MIX VARIABLES THAT HAVE

AN INFLUENCE
Stiffness
Relationship between stress and

strain at a specific temperature and
time of loading
Aggregate grading, asphalt stiffness, degree of

compaction, water sensitivity, binder content and
type
Stability
Resistance to permanent deformation (usually at high temperature

and long duration of loading)
Aggregate surface texture, aggregate grading,

asphalt stiffness, binder content and type, degree
of compaction, water sensitivity
Durability
Resistance to weathering effects

(both air and water) and to the
abrasive action of traffic
Binder content and type, aggregate grading, degree of compaction, water sensitivity
Fatigue resistance
Ability of mix to bend repeatedly

without fracture
Aggregate grading, binder content and type, degree of compaction, asphalt stiffness, water sensitivity (Note: selection of mix components dependent on structural pavement design)
Fracture characteristics
Strength of mix under single tensile

stress application
Aggregate grading, aggregate type, binder content and type, degree of compaction, asphalt
stiffness, water sensitivity
Skid resistance
(surface friction
characteristics)
Ability of mix to provide adequate

coefficient of friction between tyre
and pavement under wet conditions
Aggregate texture and resistance to polishing,

aggregate grading, binder content and type
Permeability
Ability of air, water, and water vapour to move into and through mix
Aggregate grading, binder content, degree of

compaction
INITIAL MIX DESIGN

The binder content selected in the trial mix
design subsystem will serve as the basis for the
preparation of laboratory specimens for testing
in this phase of the process. Mixes containing a
range in bituminous binders contents,
bracketing the selected value, should be
prepared. This preparation phase is of extreme
importance to ensure that the specimens are
representative of those produced in the field.
A standard procedure must be followed for the
blending and mixing of the aggregate and
binder under laboratory conditions.
This
procedure should include criteria for batch
size, blending sequence, mixing temperature,
and mixing time.
page 6-62
Equipment necessary for this standard

procedure should also be specified with respect
to critical dimensions and specific features
needed to ensure consistent and uniform
results. A standard conditioning procedure is
required for curing the asphalt in the
laboratory to permit absorption of the binder
by the aggregate. Available evidence suggests
that such conditioning should be done prior to
compaction while the mix is in a loose state.
Laboratory compaction is a critical part of this
process. It is imperative that equipment used
in the laboratory for compaction of the samples
exhibits characteristics as close as possible to
those compacted in the field.
June 19, 2008
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Figure 6-14: Aggregate selection subsystem
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Figure 6-15: Binder selection subsystem
June 19, 2008
page 6-63
ASPHALT WITH CONVENTIONAL BINDER

adhesive agent shall be used unless approved
by the Materials Engineer.
INTRODUCTION
The requirements for standard mixes generally
used in the Western Cape Province are given in
Chapter 2, Materials Standards. The
management of quality shall comply with the
requirements of Chapter 8, Quality
Assurance and Chapter 17, Acceptance
Control Asphalt Layers. Cognizance shall be
taken of the various design stages, viz.,
laboratory and trial section. The trial section
design verification stage addresses the actual
design and also the adequacy of the
construction equipment (refer to Chapter 7,
Construction Equipment Control) and
construction procedures.
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Active filler is normally also specified to limit

moisture induced damage (stripping) and improve durability52,53.
Samples of mineral filler, if required, shall be
from the same sources as will be used for
production, and shall consist of one or more of
the types described in Chapter 2, Materials
Standards.
The binder shall consist of straight run bitumen
conforming to SABS 307 and shall be of the
same grade as will be used for manufacturing
the asphalt. The lower penetration (higher viscosity) grade will be selected for conditions as
described in Chapter 2, Materials Standards.
MATERIALS
Samples of the various component materials
shall be obtained and/or supplied in good time
(as prescribed in the project specifications).
The aggregate for the asphalt type selected
shall comply with the gradings in Chapter 2,
Materials Standards. These gradings,
including the maximum size aggregate, may be
varied with the approval of the Materials
Engineer. Samples of the various aggregate
fractions shall preferably be taken from the hot
bins of the asphalt plant, but may also be taken
from stockpiles, as described in Chapter 4,
Sampling Methods, provided the proportions
recommended are reasonably in balance with
those obtained from the asphalt plant screens.
The material to be used in the design shall be
representative in respect of shape, size and
petrological type of the material, which is intended to be used during production. Should it
be established that the material has changed in
any respect after the mix has been designed
and approved it will be necessary to redesign
the mix. In the case of siliceous aggregates
(e.g., quartzite, granite etc.) which have poor
adhesion with bitumen, 1,5 parts of lime or
limestone dust per 100 parts aggregate (m/m)
must be added to promote adhesion. No other
page 6-64
DESIGN
Before any design is used for production it
shall be submitted to the Materials Engineer
for approval together with samples of the aggregate and bitumen.
The aggregate grading, binder type, binder
grade and filler which have been provisionally
selected must be evaluated using the relevant
methods. These are listed on page 6-65.
All the tests described in the methods are conducted on Marshall briquettes.
The guidelines for each type of asphalt are
given below.
52. Taylor, M.A. and Khosla, N.P. Stripping of asphalt

pavements: State of the art. TRB, Transportation
Research Record 911, 1983.
53. Button, J.W. Maximizing the beneficial effects of
lime in asphalt pavement mixtures - evaluation and
prevention of water damage to asphalt pavement
materials. ASTM, SPT 899, Philadelphia, 1984,
pp 134-146.
June 19, 2008
PROPERTY
METHOD
The determination of a suitable binder content for use in an

asphalt mix
TMH1, C1
The determination of the resistance to flow of a cylindrical

briquette of a bituminous mixture by means of the Marshall
apparatus
TMH1, C2
The determination of the bulk relative density of a compacted

bituminous mixture and the calculation of the voids content
TMH 1, C3
The determination of:

a) the maximum theoretical relative density of asphalt mixes
(Rices method) and
b) the quantity of bituminous binder absorbed by the aggregate
TMH 1, C4
The determination of the immersion index of a bituminous

mixture
TMH 1, C5
Tentative method for the determination of the creep characteristics of asphalt mixes
Development of a mixture design procedure for recycled asphalt mixtures
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RR 183-10 (Center for Highway Research, Texas, November, 1978.)
CONTINUOUSLY GRADED ASPHALT

The binder content shall coat the aggregate
particles adequately, but without being
excessive.
For dense graded mixes the binder content
shall be obtained by calculating the average of
the binder contents for the following:
Maximum Marshall density
Maximum Marshall stability
The percentage air voids in the mix as specified by the Materials Engineer for the particular job (normally 4 to 5%) to fill 75 percent of
the voids in the mineral aggregate.
The criteria according to Table 6-39 on
page 6-66 shall be satisfied when applying the
bitumen content so obtained from the Marshall
curves.
June 19, 2008
page 6-65
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Table 6-39: Test requirements of semi-gap and continuously-graded mixes
TRAFFIC CLASS
ES30
Property
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
METHODS
kN
18
15
10
TMH 1, C2
Marshall flow
mm
TMH1, C2
Stability/flow
kN/mm
2,5
TMH 1, C2
Creep Modulus
@ 40C
MPa
80
80
60
TMH 1,
C6T
Repeated creep
Modulus @ 40C
MPa
10
10
10
Chapter 3
Indirect Tensile
Strength @ 25C
kPa
800
800
800
ASTM
TMH 1, C3
75
75
75
TMH 1, C5
Air Voids
Immersion Index
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TEST
Min.
Marshall stability
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ES10
Notes
1. Air voids as high as 10 percent may be permitted in semi-gap graded mixes provided that the air permeability requirement is met.
2. Criteria subject to latest research input.
SEMI-GAP GRADED ASPHALT
Be:
effective binder content of the asphalt

mix (% by mass of mix). The effective binder content of an asphalt mix
is defined as the total binder content
of the mix minus the quantity of
binder lost by absorption into the aggregate particles (refer to TMH1,
Method C44).
B:
total binder content of the mix, % by

mass of mix
A:
surface area of aggregate blend, m2/kg
S:
density of binder at 25C, kg/m3
RATIO OF FILLER TO BINDER

The filler plays a very important part in
providing tensile strength, stiffness and
resistance to plastic deformation of gap and
semi-gap graded mixes. Too low a filler to
binder ratio may result in low resistance to
plastic deformation and inadequate tensile
strength, whereas too high a ratio may result in
a very stiff and brittle mix. The ratio of filler to
binder therefore needs to be controlled. Lower
and upper limits of 1 and 1,5 percent
respectively are recommended.
FILM THICKNESS
In order to ensure that enough binder is
available to produce a durable mixture, it is
advisable to calculate the average film
thickness of binder in the mix. The film
thickness should not fall below 5 m.
The film thickness of the binder is calculated
from the following formula:
F = (Be/100 - B)(1/A)(1/S)106
where:
F:
film thickness, m
A, the surface area of the aggregate blend, is

calculated from:
A=
(2 + 0,02a + 0,04b + 0,08c + 0,14d + 0,30e + 0,60f
+ 1,60g)0,20482
where:
a: percentage passing 4,75 mm sieve
b: percentage passing 2,36 mm sieve
c:
percentage passing 1,18 mm sieve
d: percentage passing 0,60 mm sieve

e:
f:
g: percentage passing 0,075 mm sieve

page 6-66
June 19, 2008
For further guidelines where deviations are

considered from the Standard Designs
consult TRH 854 and User Guide for the
Design of Hot-Mix Asphalt55 and research by
the Bureau of Public Roads56 on aggregate
grading.
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54. TRH 8: Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt

surfacings for highways. CSRA, Department of
Transport, Pretoria, 1987.
55. Manual 24: User guide to the design asphalt,
SABITA, Cape Town, 2005.
56. Aggregate grading for highways: simplification,
standardization and uniform application and a new
graphical chart for evaluating aggregate grading.
U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Public
Roads, Washington DC, May 1962, pp 1-26.
June 19, 2008
page 6-67
BITUMEN-RUBBER ASPHALT
CONTINUOUSLY GRADED
ASPHALT
INTRODUCTION
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The cost of bitumen-rubber asphalt is

approximately 30 percent more than
conventional asphalt. The benefits of adding
rubber to the mix (wet process is only
considered) should, however, be viewed on a
life cycle cost basis as well as the actual needs
of the structural system. Research has shown
that bitumen-rubber asphalt offers improved
flexibility (elastic recovery), higher resistance
to reflective cracking and improved fatigue
life. From a functional point of view an
increase in skid resistance and a reduction in
traffic noise may be obtained. Selection of an
appropriate asphalt requires a systems
approach covering all requirements.
Tielking et al57 demonstrated the effect of tyre
inflation pressure (non-uniform contact
pressure) on tensile strain for asphalt surfaces
of different thickness on a 200 mm granular
base for three different base moduli. Inflation
pressures of 517 kPa and 862 kPa were
selected because the lower represented a
typical historical value used for design and the
higher represented the 85th percentile inflation
pressure measured on Texas highways, which
also suggests future trends for the RSA. It was
found that for a thin surface on a low modulus
base that the tensile strain is near or in excess
of 1000 microstrain. Monismith58 considers
this to be the upper limit for linear behaviour
of conventional asphalt mixes.
Typical applications
asphalt areas follows:
for
bitumen-rubber
57. Tielking, J.T, Roberts, F.L. Tyre contact pressure

and its effects on pavement strain. Journal of
Transport Engineering, Vol. 117, No. 1, Jan 1987,
pp 56 - 71.
58. Monismith, C.L. Fatigue characteristics of asphalt
paving mixtures and their use in asphalt pavements. Proceedings of the Annual Pavement Conference, Symposium on Fatigue in Asphalt Pavements, University of New Mexico, 1981.
page 6-68
High volume roads where increased

fatigue life justifies higher initial costs based
on a life cycle costing approach
Bridge deck asphalt to minimize
resurfacing cycle for reinstatement of skid
resistance, etc., and to limit unnecessary bridge
joint replacement
Rehabilitation of flexible to highly flexible pavement structures59
The provision of stable asphalt surfacing
at intersections with good stability (greater
resistance to deformation), fatigue and skid
resistance qualities
An overlay to counter crack reflection
from a cracked pavement, preferably in
combination with a stress absorbing membrane
(using a bitumen-rubber membrane): or the
same thickness bitumen-rubber has a longer
Crack Movement Simulator (CMS) fatigue life
than to conventional bitumen.
Table 6-40 on page 6-69 reflects the trend in
performance indices for binders and asphalt
mixes with varying rubber content obtained
with the CMS test, where:
Performance Index = Log {N/t2}
where:
N = Repetitions at defined failure
t
= Sample thickness, mm
= Crack movement, mm
Table 6-40 page 6-69 further indicates an
increase in performance (based on a drop in
tensile load) as rubber content increases. The
average rate of increase for the asphalt mixes
is of the same order as those obtained from
CMS fatigue tests performed on the binder
films. The fine continuously graded mixes are
the exception as they seem to be less sensitive
to rubber content.
59. De Villiers, E.M. A cost effective bitumen-rubber

asphalt overlay on a highly flexible pavement. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Transportation Convention, Session 5B, Pretoria, 1990, Paper 7,
pp 1-19.
June 19, 2008
Table 6-40: Performance indices for binders and asphalt mixes
FAILURE MODE
Cracking
MATERIAL
RUBBER CONTENT
Binder film
1
Open graded
50% drop in total load
17%
20%
22%
1,500
2,432
2,738
3,036
0,469
1,338
1,401
1,655
13,2 mm continuous
1,248
1,316
1,361
19,0 mm continuous
1,192
1,354
1,527
1,672
Open graded
50% drop in tensile load
0%
0,372
1,177
1,401
1,617
13,2 mm continuous
1,217
1,054
1,303
19,0 mm continuous
1,146
1,391
1,455
1,491
Note
1. Gradings are identical to those specified in Chapter 2 for bitumen-rubber asphalt surfacing.
DESIGN
MATERIAL PREPARATION
MIX DESIGN AND QUALITY CONTROL
BITUMEN-RUBBER BINDER
Bitumen-rubber asphalt mixes are designed in

the same way as mixes using unmodified
bitumen, but with variations of standard
procedures and the addition of some special
tests. The design information submitted to the
Materials Engineer shall include a graphical
plot of the blend characterization as typically
reflected in Figure 6-18 on page 6-73. The
following schedule is recommended for sample
sizes:
The bitumen-rubber binder shall comply with

the requirements set out in Chapter 2. Ideally a
bitumen-rubber blend is prepared in the
manufacturers blending plant, but suitable
blends may be prepared in the laboratory. The
manufacturers method statement covering the
blending process shall be available and
laboratory procedures shall replicate steps in
this process to the extent that is practically
possible. Such a method statement shall
include the following information:
SAMPLE
SIZE
Blending and digestion time
25 kg
Blending and digestion temperature
Fine aggregate
25 kg
Storage time
Active mineral filler (lime, cement )
10 kg
Plant cyclone/baghouse dust
10 kg
Storage temperature
Coarse aggregate
25 kg
Intermediate aggregate
Bituminous binder
(80/100 pen normally)
4 x 5 litres
Mixing time (i.e., in plant pug mill or

drum)
Extender oil
2 x 1 litres
Aggregate and binder mixing temperatures
Processed rubber crumb
3 x 5 kg
All samples shall be taken in accordance with

TMH 560 and SABITA Manual 461.
60.
TMH 5, Sampling Methods for road construction

Materials, NITRR, CSIR, Pretoria, 1981.
61. TG1: The use of modified bituminous binders in
road construction, Asphalt Academy, CSIR, Pretoria, 2001.
Compaction temperature
The principal steps in the laboratory preparation of the bitumen-rubber blend are described
in the paragraphs that follow.
The rubber content of the binder blend is
decided from the job specification as well as
the proportion of extender oil, if any. However,
June 19, 2008
page 6-69
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this may be varied during design to achieve the

required properties. The penetration of the base
binder has a significant bearing on the blend
properties and the effect of variation of this
property should be carefully assessed. Figure
6-18 on page 6-73 illustrates the effect of
rubber content and binder source on the
desired properties. It has also been shown that
changes in rubber crumb content and source
can significantly affect flow characteristics and
ultimately dynamic properties of the mix62.
Hence, it is clearly necessary to assess the
effect of the binder source on the properties of
bitumen-rubber blend. Sufficient quantities of
the two constituents are determined and
weighed off. The bitumen is heated to the
specified
blending
temperature
while
continuously stirring in the rubber crumb and
maintaining the blend at constant temperature.
The blend is then maintained at the specified
reaction temperature for a prescribed period.
When the reaction is complete, i.e., when
digestion has reached the required stage, the
blend is allowed to cool to the specified
storage temperature. The blended binder must
then be maintained at the specified storage
temperature throughout the mix design
procedure. The job specification and
manufacturers method statement will include
a limitation on the time, which the blended
binder may be stored. Should the design
process exceed this time, the blended binder
must be discarded and a new batch prepared
(refer to paragraph 3.3 of BRT1, SABITA
Manual No. 3).
The following list indicates the tests to be
carried out on the bitumen-rubber blend:
PROPERTY
TEST
Ball penetration & resilience of

bitumen-rubber blends
SABITA
BR2T
Compression recovery of
bitumen-rubber
SABITA
BR3T
Flow test for bitumen-rubber
SABITA
62. De Villiers, E.M., van der Merwe, C.P. & Onrat,

J.M. Recent developments in bitumen-rubber asphalt in the Cape Province. Proc. 6th Conference
on Asphalt Pavements in Southern Africa, Cape
Town, 1994, Vol. 2, ppVI-1 to VI-27.
page 6-70
blends
Dynamic viscosity of bitumenrubber
Softening point
(R&B shouldered ring)
BR4T
SABITA
BR5T
ASTM D36
MIXED AGGREGATE
The various samples of aggregate are blended
to produce the desired grading according to
Chapter 2 using a suitable method.
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

The procedures listed below are used to obtain
data for the mix design. However, conditions
shall be varied to conform to the manufacturers method statement.
ACTIVITY OR
DETERMINATION
TEST
Procedure for the making of asphalt specimens for flow and voids
analysis
Variations:
1. Mixing and compaction temperatures.
2. Compaction: 75 blows
TMH 1, C2
(Appendix)
Determination of bulk relative density of a compacted mixture &

calculation of void content
TMH 1, C3
Determination of maximum theoretical density and bitumen

absorption
TMH 1, C4
Determination of immersion index
TMH 1, C5
Determination of creep
characteristics
TMH 1, C6T
Determination of indirect tensile

strength
ASTM D4123
The creep characteristics and indirect tensile

strength tests are an integral part of the design.
However, it can be assumed that the use of
modified binder mixes will be confined to the
solution of particularly severe problems. It is
desirable, therefore, to establish the more
fundamental properties of the mix. When
designing for permanent strain (rutting) and
stability (shoving) recent Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) research has found that the most
appropriate primary testing is Gyratory
Compaction and/or Wheel tracking tests.
June 19, 2008
Dynamic creep modulus, MPa
Coetzer63 et al have measured the dynamic

creep of bitumen-rubber asphalt according to
grading (refer to Chapter 2), varying binder
and rubber content (base bitumen was 80/100
pen.) and results are given in Figure 6-16 on
page 6-71.
35
7% Binder FG
7% Binder CG
6% Binder FG
20
15
An extraction shall be carried out in terms

of TMH 1, method C7b.
6% Binder CG
10
5% Binder FG
A factor, F, must be calculated as

follows:
5% Binder CG
0
0
10
15
20
Rubber Content
A blend of aggregates closest to the

design curve shall be made up.
A sample of bitumen-rubber blend is
taken from the plant at the same time as the
mix is sampled and shall be added at the
correct binder content and the components
thoroughly mixed.
30
25
true bitumen-rubber binder content of the mix

during manufacture the following procedure
shall be used:
25
FG = Fine gradation
CG = Coarse
Gradation
F=
Figure 6-16: Average dynamic creep results according to grading
INTERPRETATION OF TEST DATA

A suitable form shall be used for reporting test
data.
(M A )100
MW
where:
MA: mass of bitumen-rubber added to aggregate blend
MW: mass of bitumen-rubber washed away in
extraction
Note
The interpretation of data and the selection of a

suitable mix will be guided by the job
specifications, which are prescribed, by
geographic situation, traffic, the characteristics
of the site and existing road structure, and by
climate.
When making up this mix, all spatulas, mixing

bowls, scoops, etc., shall be allowed for in the
mass determinations. This correction factor
must be determined and then used to calculate
the true bitumen-rubber binder content of the
mix for each sample taken from the plant.
It is most important that the designer should

understand that laboratory testing does not
simulate the field process well. As a result it is
essential that critical control parameters be
confirmed by testing samples taken from field
trials at the start of construction.
As an indication, the nominal mix proportions

(by mass) for bitumen-rubber asphalts (both
continuously graded mixes [13,2 & 19,0 mm
maximum aggregate size]) are as follows:
QUALITY CONTROL
During the process of manufacturing the
bitumen-rubber blend, the rubber crumb
becomes partially digested by the bitumen.
Some rubber is not extracted by the solvent but
remains with the aggregate. To determine the
CONTINUOUSLY GRADED
% OF
TOTAL
Mixed aggregate
90,2
Binder (bitumen-rubber)
7,8
Active Filler (cement, lime, etc.)
2,0
63. Coetzer K and Verhaeghe BMJA, Engineering

properties of bitumen-rubber asphalt CSIR, DRTT,
unpublished progress Report PR89/151, SA Roads
Board, 1992,
June 19, 2008
page 6-71
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Similarly, mix design criteria are as follows:

CONTINUOUSLY GRADED
MIX
CRITERIA
Marshall stability (minimum), kN
Voids in mix, %
2-5
Indirect tensile strength (minimum), kPa
800
Immersion index (minimum), %
90
Static creep modulus (minimum),

MPa
80
Dynamic creep (minimum), MPa
10
Digested rubber (minimum), %
30
Stability-flow ratio (minimum)
2,0
Freeze-thaw test
B
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B
B
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A
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no stripping
POROUS BITUMEN-RUBBER
ASPHALT
INTRODUCTION
Refer to Chapter 2, Materials Standards, for
the definition of open graded, porous asphalt.
This type of mix is normally recommended for
high-volume traffic conditions in mountain
pass situations, high rainfall areas and near
built-up residential areas. The advantages of
porous mixes are:
high skid resistance at high speed and in
rainfall (no aquaplaning);
reduced spray or splash;
no light reflection from wet pavement;

and
reduction of tyre rolling noise.
Indications are that significant improvement of

these properties is only achieved at speeds of
80 km/h and faster. See Figure 6-17 which
shows the concept of porous asphalt.
Figure 6-17: Example for road structure with

porous asphalt
Sainton et al64 reported that pure bitumens

have neither the cohesion nor the flexibility to
give porous asphalt resistance to heavy traffic.
Binder content must be limited to 4,5 to 5
percent, otherwise rutting occurs. With this
binder content the stones are bound firmly, but
fatigue resistance is weak and the porous
asphalt life is limited. Moreover, the thin
asphalt film is sensitive to ageing by oxidation.
Polymer-modified asphalt (PMA) has good
rheological properties at first, but these are not
stable over time and, after ageing by oxidation,
PMA becomes brittle at low temperatures.
Bitumen-rubber has high cohesion, high
flexibility at low temperature, strong creeping
resistance and a remarkable ageing resistance
because there is no fluxing agent and because
of an anti-oxidant in the rubber powder.
Because of the high viscosity of bitumenrubber binder, it is possible to have a high
binder content in porous asphalt mixes. This
leads to binding strength fatigue resistance and
ageing resistance (thick film).
A disadvantage, however, is the risk of
reducing the initial percentage of voids in the
layer. This is caused by using a high binder
content65, which increases compaction (thus
reducing the voids).
64. Sainton, A. Advantages of asphalt rubber binder for

porous asphalt concrete. TRB, Transportation Research Record 1265, 1990, pp 69-81.
65. Van Heystraeten, G. and Moraux C.: Ten years experience of porous asphalt in Belgium. TRB,
Transportation Research Record 1265, 1990,
pp 34-40.
page 6-72
June 19, 2008
B
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Figure 6-18: Bitumen-rubber blend characteristics for different sources of bitumen, different percentages rubber crumb at a reaction temperature of 180C
June 19, 2008
page 6-73
The drainage capacity of the porous asphalt

surface depends on the percentage of voids. It
is therefore important that this percentage is
high when the pavement is opened to traffic.
This is also necessary to prevent rapid clogging by dust or mud entering the layer. An example of where porous asphalt should not be
used is a road that is frequently soiled with a
variety of waste products. This is the case with
roads in farming areas, where so much mud is
left by tractors that a porous asphalt surface
could be rapidly clogged.
Another example is low volume or slow traffic
roads. This is because traffic ensures some
self-cleaning of the surface of porous asphalt.
Dust, which inevitably accumulates in the
voids at the surface, can be swept out only by
the suction effect of the tyres of numerous
vehicles travelling at high speed over the
pavement.
B
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B
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A
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A
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DESIGN
The standard WCPA porous asphalt design
grading envelope in Chapter 2, Materials
Standards, has a proven track record, verified
by research and closely resembles the PA 12
grading developed in Spain. For guidelines
based on current South African experience
refer to SABITA Manual 1766.
The design procedure for porous asphalt is
based on the following:
A minimum binder content to assure
resistance against particle losses resulting from
traffic.
A minimum binder content to provide a
thick enough film of binder covering the
aggregates to ensure a durable mix.
It is also preferable not to use porous asphalt in

areas where the surface of the pavement is
subjected to very high tangential loads,
because relatively little is known about the
resistance of porous asphalt to this type of
loading.
A maximum binder content, but still

sufficient to satisfy minimum dynamic creep
criteria and thus minimizing rut potential.
An important property of porous asphalt,

which accounts for a great part of the success
of the mix, is that it considerably reduces
rolling noise both inside and outside vehicles.
As demonstrated by research, this reduction in
noise levels results from:
A maximum binder content without overfilling the voids and yielding a non-drainable
mix. Maximizing the voids results in good
drainage and absorption characteristics.
Sound absorption in the voids of the layer

(increased absorption with increase in percentage voids);
elimination of air pumping at the tyrepavement interface; and
the good surface evenness of this wearing
course.
When considering the application of porous

asphalt, a 25 mm thick layer up to a 40 mm
thick layer is used. To ensure high draining capacity, and a substantial reduction in rolling
noise and to preserve these properties over a
longer period, the 40 mm thickness is recommended by Van Heystraeten et al64. 25-30 mm
thick layers have been used successfully in the
Western Cape area.
A maximum binder content without resulting in excessive binder runoff.
Refer to Table 6-41 on page 6-75.
MINIMUM BINDER
The resistance to particle loss through abrasion
and impact is analysed through use of the Cantabro test (NLT-352/86). The test uses the Los
Angeles rattler without balls and at controlled
temperature on Marshall samples compacted
with 50 blows on each side (a mixing a temperature of 150C and a compaction temperature of 140C to be used). The results are given
as the weight loss (in percent), after 300 drum
revolutions (Table 6-41 on page 6-75). The
maximum abrasion loss value permitted is 20
percent. The minimum amount of binder is determined from the results of this test.
66. SABITA Manual 17, Porous asphalt mixes design

and use, SABITA, Cape Town 1995.
page 6-74
June 19, 2008
The binder content shall, however, be above

4,5 percent to ensure adequate coating thickness.
BINDER PROPERTY OF
CONTENT
THE MIX
MAXIMUM BINDER
The dynamic creep modulus test is performed
on samples mixed at a temperature of 150C
and compacted at 140C using 50 blows
Marshall compaction. The repeated creep test
is conducted at a temperature of 40C. The
loading frequency remains at 0,5 Hertz square
wave throughout the test. After an initial
conditioning, a reference is established. After
this the strain accumulation is measured
against a repeated load of 100 kPa up to 3600
load repetitions. Dynamic creep modulus, D(t),
is defined as the reciprocal of the creep
compliance:
D( t ) =
Table 6-41: Porous asphalt requirements
Minimum
Resistance to
particle losses
(Cantabro test)
(maximum), %
Durability,
% bitumen
Binder Runoff
Repeated creep
modulus (minimum), MPa
Maximum
Drainability,
% Voids
Total strain observed (Function of time)

Applied Stress
SPECIFICATION
20
> 4,5
10 min
20 (Target value)
(19 - 25 average
based on 6 results
per lot with individual values ranging
from 16 to 28)
(PA 12: 18-20)
This method has been selected because of

Work by Verhaeghe et al has shown that
bitumen-rubber binders with flow values in
excess of 60 mm will produce mixes with low
resistance to deformation (subject to further
verification).
The calculation of voids is made on the same
Marshall
samples,
with
the volume
geometrically determined. For a specific
grading, the voids target set defines a
maximum binder content. There is a maximum
binder content to prevent drainage of the
binder from the aggregate, although this
criterion has not yet been set. With this
procedure, it must be considered that the use of
the Marshall hammer for compacting the
specimens can cause some runoff of the binder,
mainly with high contents. Nevertheless, this
leaves the mixture on the safe side in relation
to the results of the Cantabro test.
the good correlation between voids
B
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calculated with the method and drain

ability in the road, and
the results of the Cantabro test with
laboratory specimens and road samples.
R
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B
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Based on experience and research input to

date, the nominal mix proportions (by mass)
for bitumen-rubber porous asphalts shall be:
A
S
P
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A
L
T
BITUMEN-RUBBER
POROUS ASPHALT
% OF TOTAL
Mixed aggregate
92,5
Binder (bitumen-rubber)
5,5
Active filler
2,0
June 19, 2008
page 6-75
FRICTION COURSES
INTRODUCTION
The requirements for thin and ultra thin friction courses (FC) used in the Western Cape
Province are given in Chapter 2, Materials
Standards, as is the definition for friction
courses. This type of surfacing mix is usually
only recommended for relatively high speed,
medium to high volume traffic conditions. It is
also beneficial for sections with narrow road
widths, low passing opportunities (pass situations or rolling areas), high rainfall areas
and/or within highly built-up residential areas.
The advantages of these porous mixes are:
lower cost (approximately 40 percent

F
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less) compared to conventional porous

Bitumen Rubber Asphalt (BRA)
friction layer;
high skid resistance at high speed during
rainfall (i.e., no aquaplaning);
reduced spray or splash;
no light reflection from wet pavement;
reduction of tyre rolling noise; and
improved rideability.
Similar to porous BRA mixes, indications are

that significant improvement to the friction,
spray/splash and noise reduction properties are
only achieved at speeds of 80 km/h and faster.
Figure 6-19 shows the concept of a FC.
Tack coat membrane
FC top layer
16-25mm
Water
collection
and flow
Semi-impervious
underlying layer
Figure 6-19: Example of a road structure with

friction course indicating water drainage
mechanism
page 6-76
Binder content must be limited to 4,5 to 5,0

percent, otherwise closing-up of the mix occurs. With this binder content the stones are
generally firmly bound, but fatigue resistance
and the porous asphalt life is limited. The thin
asphalt film is sensitive to ageing by oxidation
and a minimum coating (typically above 10
m) is required to prevent early ageing failures.
Polymer-modified asphalt (PMA) is generally
not required (unlike conventional porous asphalt) due to the higher mastic content (percentage passing the 2,36 mm sieve).
Because of the relatively low viscosity of
straight bitumen binder, it is not feasible to use
too high a binder content in FC asphalt mixes
due to the risk of the mix closing-up. This
binder limiting condition may lead to aggregate loss if the grading become too open, i.e.,
low mastic.
A major advantage of FC layers over conventional open-graded asphalt (OGA) layers is that
the self-tacking pavers, used to pave these
products, are equipped to apply a thick sealing
membrane (tack) that seals semi-impervious
substrate layers. The softening-point of the
tack coat needs to be higher than the road
maximum temperatures. In the case of heaver
applications (>0,3l/m2 net binder), polymer
modification should be used to prevent the
binder migrating into the FC layer and causing
the mixture to compact further and to close-up,
lose its interconnected voids and macro-texture
and therefore its functionality.
The drainage capacity of the FC surface depends on the percentage of voids, the layer
thickness and the maximum aggregate size
used. It is, therefore, important that the percentage voids is high when the pavement is
opened to traffic. This is also necessary to
prevent rapid clogging by dust or mud entering
the layer. FC layers should not be used where
a road is frequently soiled with a variety of
waste products. Roads in rural or farming areas, could rapidly become clogged because of
numerous gravel accesses where mud is depos-
June 19, 2008
ited by the wheels of tractors or trucks on the

porous asphalt surface.
As for porous BRA layers, low volume or slow
trafficked roads tend to lose their openness and
functionality early on. Traffic ensures some
self-cleaning of the surface of porous asphalt.
Dust, which inevitably accumulates in the
voids at the surface, can only be swept out by
the suction effect produced by the tyres of numerous vehicles travelling at high speed over
the pavement.
It is also preferable not to use FCs in areas
where the surface of the pavement is subjected
to very high horizontal tangential loads (intersections), or where handwork will be necessary.
An important property of FC, which largely
accounts for the functional efficiency of the
mix, is that it considerably reduces rolling
noise both inside and outside vehicles. Similar
to open-graded BRA layers, the reduction in
noise levels results from:
sound absorption in the voids of the layer

(increased absorption with increase in
percentage voids and thickness);
elimination of air pumping at the tyre
pavement interface; and
the good surface evenness (negative
texture roughness) of this wearing
course.
When considering the application of FC layers,
a 16 mm to 25 mm thick layer is generally required to ensure adequate drainage capacity, a
substantial reduction in rolling noise and to
preserve these properties over a long period.
The thicker layers are generally used for the
larger aggregate type (13,2 mm). Both 18 mm
friction courses (9,5 mm maximum aggregate
size) and 22 mm thick (13,2 mm maximum
aggregate size) layers have been used successfully in the Western Cape area. Layers with
thicknesses below 1,8 times the maximum aggregate size have a greater tendency to closeup than thicker layers.
DESIGN
The design procedure for FCs is based on the
following principles:
An optimum field-voids ensuring mix
composition, open enough to ensure high inter6 Selection, constraints & design procedures
connected voids and surface texture, but with

adequate mastic to ensure durability and
aggregate lock-in.
Minimum required aggregate strength,
shape and durability to ensure that the layers
do not close-up under field loading.
A minimum binder content and/or film
thickness to ensure resistance against particle
losses resulting from traffic and to ensure a
durable mix (Cantabro values satisfied).
A maximum binder content to prevent
over-filling of the voids, resulting in a nondrainable mix or inherently unstable mix.
Maximising of the voids and interconnected
voids results in good drainage, macro texture
and absorption characteristics.
A maximum binder content, but still
sufficient to satisfy minimum MMLS (or other
applicable loading simulation).
Nominal mix properties (by mass) are
shown below:
ULTRA THIN FRICTION
COURSE
% OF TOTAL
Mixed aggregate
94,4
Binder
4,6
Active filler
1,0
OPTIMUM FIELD VOIDS AND BINDER

CONTENTS
The Superpave Method using gyratory compaction was developed to simulate field conditions, and results in a volumetric mix design
specification for this material or mix. This
simulated field compaction method has been
calibrated to set the compaction effort (gyrations) to accurately simulate typical end compaction of the field layers. Detailed studies
and field calibrations were done to derive a reliable
field
simulation,
compositional/volumetric control point at which durability and performance properties can be specified and/or verified. At a specified temperature (130C for 60/70 Penetration Grade Bitumen, determined as a function of the binder
viscosity, which should be 1000 70 x 106
m2/s), the mix shall have between 23 and 28
percent voids-in-mix after 20 gyrations. The
June 19, 2008
page 6-77
F
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initial optimal binder content, for the assessment of further performance properties, can be
selected from this voids-versus-binder relationship. The test is used to assess the initial compositional mix design and can also be used during construction as a volumetric quality control
tool. Where a Gyratory Compactor is not
available for daily testing, Marshall Voids-InMix testing (2 x 50 Blows, Open grade asphalt
compaction methods) may be carried out for
daily quality control testing. However, the mix
design acceptance shall be carried out on results obtained from a Gyratory Compactor.
MINIMUM AGGREGATE STRENGTH

AND DURABILITY
See requirements in Chapter 2, Materials
Standard, Friction Courses for aggregate
grading strength, shape and durability to ensure layer durability and functionality.
F
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MINIMUM BINDER
The resistance to particle loss through abrasion
and impact is analysed through the Cantabro
test (NLT-352/86, Appendix G). The test uses
the Los Angeles rattler without balls and at
controlled temperature on Marshall samples.
These Marshall samples are mixed at a temperature of 145C and compacted with 50
blows to each side and a compaction viscosity
of 1000 x 10-6 m2/s (refer SABITA Manual
1766) and testing temperatures typically for
60/70 Pen bitumen at 130C and for 40/50 Pen
bitumen at 135C. The results are given as the
weight loss (in percent) after 300 drum revolutions. The maximum abrasion loss permitted is
20 percent for a 9,5 mm maximum size aggregate mix and 25 percent for 13,2 mm mix. The
minimum amount of binder is determined from
the results of this test together with the minimum criteria for adequate coating (film thickness greater than 10,0 m). The absolute minimum criterion is 4,5 percent binder (by mass
of mix).
MAXIMUM BINDER AND INHERENT

MIX STABILITY
The MMLS accelerated pavement testing apparatus and be utilized to assess overall mix
stability (resistance to closing up or loss of surface texture or interconnected voids). The
page 6-78
standard dry test protocols (as per ITT-US) are

used, 150 mm diameter briquettes prepared (20
to 22 mm thick, gyrated with 20 cycles on a
50 mm surfacing substrata mix at 130C or
1000 x 10-6 m2/s viscosity). The briquettes are
loaded until 100 000 repetitions at 50C have
been applied.
The performance testing used in collaboration
with the MMLS testing include:
Interconnected voids (LCS),

Layer voids,
Texture depth,
Deformation,
Aggregate loss, and
Mix visual appearance.
The friction course requirements are given in

Table 6-42. The value after two years in the
field may be used as a performance specification for non-Agrment accredited products to
ensure adequate long term performance.
Table 6-42: Friction Course mix requirements
PROPERTY
VALUES
SPECIFICATION
Gyratory
Compactor
Briquettes
Field Layer
0 Loads
100 000
loads
Initial
After
2 years
Open
Open
13,2 mm mixes
Closing-up
Open
Open
Voids in
mix/layer (%)
22 28
>15
20 30
>16
Inter connected voids

(LDS) (%)
>20
>12
Texture
depth (sand
patch) (mm)
>2,0
>1,0
>2,0
>1,2
9,5 mm mixes
Closing-up
Open
Voids in
mix/layer (%)
22 28
>15
20 30
>16
Inter connected voids

(LDS) (%)
>17
>8
Texture
depth (sand
patch) (mm)
>1,6
>0,8
>1,6
>1,0
June 19, 2008
Open
Open
Open
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM TACK

APPLICATION
Tack application rates are, in the case of application on a new facility, dependant upon traffic
and, in the case of an existing pavement, upon
the texture depth and permeability. Refer to
Table 6-43: Friction Course tack application
rates
APPLIED TO
SPECIFICATION
2
(l/m )
Min
Max
New Asphalt Layers

Traffic > 1000 vpd
0,4
Traffic < 2000 vpd
0,5
Existing, permeable or
aged substrata
Low texture depth, impermeable
0,45
High texture depth, aged, dry,

permeable
F
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O
N
0,8
Notes
2
1. Tack nominal application at 0,5 l/m on new as2

phalt/seal layers and 0,65 l/m on old or existing
surfaces can be used assuming 65% Net Polymer
Modified Binders.
June 19, 2008
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page 6-79
CONCRETE
FINE AGGREGATE
INTRODUCTION
All concrete mixes with a design works cube
strength at 28 days of 20 MPa or higher shall
be designed.
C
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E
It is essential that concrete withstand the

conditions for which it has been designed,
without deterioration, over a period of many
years. There are, however, some environments
under which the useful life of even the best
concrete will be short. The external causes can
be physical, chemical, or mechanical. They
may be due to weathering and attack by natural
or industrial liquids and gases. The extent of
the damage produced by these agents depends
largely on the quality of the concrete, although
under extreme conditions any unprotected
concrete will deteriorate. Comprehensive
ground
and
chemical
investigations,
undertaken
with
appropriate
safety
precautions, are essential to define the full
extent of the potential problem on site. Since
there are many chemical, physical and
mechanical factors involved which can act in
complex combinations, it is advised that
specialists in this field be consulted especially
in highly aggressive environments.
MATERIALS
AGGREGATE
COARSE AGGREGATE
The material shall consist of clean, crushed or
processed rock, or clean natural gravel,
suitably screened. It shall comply with the
requirements given in Chapter 2, Materials
Standards.
The shrinkage characteristics of the aggregate
shall be such that concrete made with these aggregates shall exhibit shrinkage less than 0,04
percent in the case of prestressed concrete and
concrete pavements, and 0,05 percent for other
concrete as determined according to
SABS 1085.
page 6-80
The material shall consist of natural sand

and/or crusher dust and shall comply with the
requirements of Chapter 2. In addition it shall
not have a shrinkage of more than 0,25 percent
when tested in accordance with SABS Method
836.
CEMENT
The cement used shall comply with the specifications given in Chapter 2.
The type of cement selected will depend on the
following:
Any special precautions which are
required in order that the concrete can
withstand the effects of various degrees of
aggressive chemical exposure and type of
exposure (e.g., sulphate resisting cement);
The chemical reactivity of the aggregates
e.g., potentially alkali aggregate reactive
aggregates may require low alkali cement
(refer Chapter 2, Reactivity of Aggregate in
the Cape Province), i.e., a cement with a total
alkali content expressed as percentage Na2O
equivalent, of less than 0,6 percent. For such
cases the total alkali content per cubic metre of
concrete shall also be limited in relation to the
severity of the expansiveness tested. For the
slowly expanding group, the total alkali
content shall not exceed 2,80 kg/m3, and for
the rapidly expanding group67 (e.g.,
Malmesbury Group, or rocks containing 40
percent strained quartz) it shall not exceed
2,10 kg/m3.
The introduction of effective measures to
reduce the maximum or peak temperature as a
consequence of the heat being produced during
the hydration of the cement68. The thermal
gradient between the peak temperature of the
67. Bell, F.G. How aggregates affect concrete quality.
Civil Engineering, July & August 1977.
68. A Guide to Bridge Repairs. Cape Provincial Roads
Administration, 1978, pp 6-6 to 6-9.
June 19, 2008
concrete (generally within 24 hours) and

ambient temperature induces thermal cracking
in the uncured concrete. The extent of the
cracking is dependent on the initial
temperature of the concrete the thickness of
structural section, the type and colour of
shutter used , the cement content and the type
of cement. The initial temperature is affected
by:
hot weather conditions,

unprotected aggregated exposed to the
sun,
the temperature of the mixing water.
Early release (striking) or removal of shutters

and wetting with cold water (could be termed
false curing) could result in thermal shock,
which would exaggerate thermal cracking.
Problems reported in this regard may justify
the use of a cement type with a lower and/or
slower rate of heat of hydration. For example
the use of sulphate resisting cement, using a retarder, by replacing cementitious binder with
pulverized fuel ash (maximum permissible is
25 percent replacement, expressed as percentage of total cementitious binder), or using a
slagment (maximum permissible content of 50
percent and for the substructure only).
WATER
Water for concrete shall be clean and free from
oil, acid, alkali, and organic or vegetable
matter. It shall not contain impurities which
cause a change in the time of setting of cement
of more than 25 percent nor a reduction in the
compressive strength of more than 5 percent
when compared with the results obtained when
using distilled water. It shall generally be
suitable for use as drinking water without
further treatment. Refer to Chapter 2 for
detailed guidelines.
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures such as plasticizers and air
entraining agents shall not be used unless
authorized by the Materials Engineer.
DESIGN CRITERIA
The durability of the concrete is determined by
the water-cement ratio of the mix (which

also impacts on strength),
the minimum cementitious binder content, and
the type of cement.
The latter is determined by the degree of
aggressive chemical exposure and/or chemical
reactiveness of the aggregates (COLTO
SSRBW Clause 8105(f)(ii)69). Within a range
of 30 km of the coast concrete structures are
exposed to a very severe environment, which
requires precautionary measures as indicated in
COLTO SSRBW69 Table 6306/1. For all
structural concrete a minimum cementitious
binder content of 300 kg/m3 shall apply
(irrespective of cube strengths attained).
Low water-cement ratios produce less permeable concrete and thus provide greater assurance against corrosion. A water-cement ratio70
of 0,4 is recommended for concrete exposed to
sea or brackish water, or in contact with more
than moderate concentrations of chlorides at
the water or ground line or within the range of
fluctuating water level or spray. Within the
30 km coastal belt range the water-cement ratio should not exceed 0,5 by mass. For sulphate
attack of mild to moderate exposure a minimum water-cement ratio of 0,5 shall apply,
while for more aggressive conditions a maximum of 0,45 shall apply.
A low water-cement ratio does not of itself assure low permeability concrete. Well-graded
coarse and fine aggregates are also necessary
for low permeability.
The amount of coarse aggregate in the mix
depends on the maximum size of coarse
aggregate, the quantity of sand and the
workability of the concrete. The larger the
maximum size of coarse aggregate, the lower
the water requirement of the mix. Size
limitations should be obtained from structural
drawings.
69. Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Works

for State Road Authorites. COLTO, Pretoria, 1998.
70. Journal of the American Concrete Institute-Guide to
Durable Concrete, Reported by ACI Committee 201,
No 12, Proceedings V74, December 1977, pp 573609.
June 19, 2008
page 6-81
C
O
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C
R
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T
E
If the sand is coarse, less coarse aggregate can

be accommodated and, conversely, with a fine
sand of low fineness modulus, more coarse
aggregate will be needed.
DEGREE OF
WORKABILITY
SLUMP
mm
VEBE
SECONDS
The lower the workability of the mix the

greater the quantity of coarse aggregate that
can be used.
Very low
0-20
10-20
Low
20-35
5-10
Medium
35-70
3-5
The amount of water required per unit volume

of concrete for a given consistency and given
aggregates is relatively constant. This is
regardless of the cement content, water-cement
ratio, or the relative proportions of aggregate
and cement.
High
70-120
1-3
With any specified aggregates the quantity of

water required to produce one cubic metre of
concrete of the desired workability, is known
as the water requirement of the mix. In the
particular case where the nominal size of the
coarse aggregate is 19 mm and the slump is 35
mm, the quantity of water required for one
cubic metre of concrete is known as the water
demand of the mix.
C
O
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T
E
Table 6-44: Workability related to slump and

vibro-consistometer
DESIGN OF A TRIAL MIX

WATER-CEMENT RATIO
The maximum water-cement ratios for
different concrete strengths are given in
Table 6-45 on page 6-82. However, to
maintain adequate durability the water-cement
ratio shall be not exceed 0,5 by mass to
maintain adequate durability.
Table 6-45: Maximum water-cement ratio for different cement strength
MIX
MINIMUM
STRENGTH OF
WORKS CUBES
MPa AT 28 DAYS
MAXIMUM
WATER-CEMENT
RATIO
20
20
0,66
25
25
0,59
30
30
0,52
35
35
0,47
40
40
0,43
45
45
0,40
The sum of the absolute volumes of water,

cement, coarse aggregate and sand making up
one cubic metre of concrete must equal one
cubic metre. This assumes that the concrete is
fully compacted and that there are no air voids
in the mass. In fact, some entrapped air
remains in the mix after compaction, but this
usually amounts to less than 1 percent and, for
practical purposes, it may be ignored.
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

INTRODUCTION
Trial mixes shall be made using varying water
contents. The workability of each mix shall be
determined by measuring the slump and by
using the vibro-consistometer (vebe).
Table 6-44 on page 6-82 gives a rough
indication of the order of slump and vebe
seconds for different degrees of workability.
page 6-82
WATER CONTENT
The amount of water required to produce
concrete of the desired workability with the
aggregates to be used, shall be estimated. This
may be done by visual examination, or from
previous experience with the aggregates
concerned.
The average figures of water content for various aggregate sizes using typical sands are
given as a guide for the trial mix in Table 6-46
on page 6-83.
June 19, 2008
Mass of coarse aggregate =

Table 6-46: Water content
NOMINAL
AVERAGE WATER
1,2
3
MAXIMUM SIZE
CONTENT (litre/m ) OF
OF AGGREGATE CONCRETE TO PRODUCE A
3
SLUMP OF 35 mm
9,5
225
13,2
215
19,0
200
26,5
190
37,5
180
75
160
150
140
D
B
C
1520
CA
CA
where
MCA:
Mass of Coarse Aggregate from

Figure 6-20 on page 6-84.
CBDCA: CBD of Coarse Aggregate
FINE AGGREGATE CONTENT
Notes
3
1. For poorly shaped materials add up to about 15 l/m .
3
2. For better-shaped materials subtract about 10 l/m .
3. For 100 mm slump add about 15 l/m3.
The fine aggregate (sand) content is

determined by first calculating the absolute
volumes occupied by the water, cement and
coarse aggregate. These are added together and
subtracted from unit volume, i.e., 1 m3. The
shortfall must be made up by the sand. The
mass of fine aggregate required in the mix is
then calculated by multiplying the absolute
volume of fine aggregate by its bulk relative
density in kg/m3. Refer also to Fultons
Concrete Technology71.
CEMENT CONTENT
The required cement content is obtained by
dividing the estimated water content in litres
by the water-cement ratio (w/c) previously
chosen.
Cement content, kg/m3 of concrete
= water content / (w/c)
To ensure long-term durability the minimum
cementitious binder requirement is 300 kg/m3
for all structural concrete irrespective of
characteristic strength specified.
COARSE AGGREGATE CONTENT

The mass of coarse aggregate to be used in the
mix per cubic metre of concrete shall be read
off from Figure 6-20 on page 6-84.
REMARKS ON DESIGN PROCEDURE

Once the proportions of the ingredients per
cubic metre of concrete have been determined,
the masses per batch are calculated. A trial mix
is then made up on this basis and its
workability assessed. If the workability is as
specified, the constituents have been accurately
assessed and the mix may be used.
If the concrete appears to be very wet, and/or
the aggregates are of better quality than
originally estimated, another mix shall be
made up using a reduced water content.
Conversely, if the concrete is very stiff, and/or
the aggregates are of poorer quality than
originally estimated then another mix using
increased water content must be made up.
The quantities shown are based on the

assumption that the compacted bulk density
(CBD) of the coarse aggregate is 1520 kg/m3.
If the coarse aggregate has a different CBD the
mass of coarse aggregate required must be
adjusted pro rata.
71. Fultons Concrete Technology. Ed. B.J. Addis,

Portland Cement Institute, Midrand, South Africa,
1986.
June 19, 2008
page 6-83
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
1500
1400
1300
AGGREGATE
SIZE
1200
37,5 mm
1100
1000
19,0 mm
900
800
13,2 mm
700
9,5 mm
600
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,2
2,4
2,6
2,8
3,0
3,2
FINENESS MODULUS OF SAND
85 mm SLUMP
3,4
3,6
3,8
35 mm SLUMP
Figure 6-20: Optimum coarse aggregate content
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
A graph is then plotted of workability against

water content and the water requirement
corresponding to the required workability of
the mix may be read off the graph.
RATIO OF FINE TO COARSE

AGGREGATE
For a given water-cement ratio and given
aggregates, there is a specific value of the fine
to coarse aggregate ratio that gives the highest
workability. Conversely, for a given
workability there is one value of fine to coarse
aggregate ratio, using given materials, which
requires the lowest water content.
This ratio can be determined by using the vibro-consistometer and by making further trial
mixes with higher and lower coarse aggregate
contents than that used in the first trial mixes.
By plotting a graph of water requirement
against vebe for each coarse aggregate content
and of water requirement against percentage
sand for a specific vebe, the percentage sand
that gives the highest workability can be
determined.
page 6-84
NOTES
Water
The amount of water added should be carefully
controlled. The fact that most mixes are
sensitive to changes in water content means
that if the required degree of workability is
reasonably accurately controlled, the variation
in concrete strength due to this factor will be
relatively small.
Fine Aggregate
The fine aggregate controls the consistency of
the mix. Poorly graded fine aggregate
contributes to segregation and bleeding and
results in a harsh mix lacking in cohesion. If a
well-graded fine aggregate is not available, the
use of a blended fine aggregate should be
considered. The addition of a fine aggregate
(pit sand) to a river sand lacking fines is the
most common example of the blending of
concrete fine aggregates.
Coarse Aggregate
The coarse aggregate controls the harshness of
the mix. Harsh concrete may often be
improved by increasing the ratio of sand to
coarse aggregate, i.e., by increasing the sand
June 19, 2008
content and reducing the coarse aggregate

content.
For nominal size aggregates of up to 26,5 mm
it is usually best to use a single-sized coarse
aggregate. When working with a coarse
aggregate size up to 37,5 mm, a blend of
approximately two parts of the large coarse
aggregate with one part of single-sized 19 mm
or 13,2 mm aggregate should be used.
Table 6-47: Approximate relative density for

components of concrete
MATERIAL
RELATIVE
DENSITY
Cement:
Normal Portland cement
3,14
High early strength cement
3,14
Slagment
2,90
Portland Blast furnace cement
3,02
Pumpable Concrete
Coarse aggregate:
For concrete to be pumped satisfactorily, the

mix must be more cohesive and plastic than
normally considered desirable for conventional
mixes. In order to achieve this it is important
that the correct type and quantity of sand is
used in the mix. The sand must be well graded
with a good particle shape. The sand content
will normally be about 3 to 8 percent higher
than for a conventional mix and should be
between 38 and 55 percent by mass of total
aggregate.
Granite, Felsite
A high degree of workability is required and a

slump range of between 60 mm and 90 mm is
regarded as the optimum for piston pumps and
100 mm to 125 mm for pneumatic pumps.
Sand:
Tillite
Densities of Materials
Approximate relative density for the most
commonly used materials are given in Table
6-47 on page 6-85. It is, however, preferable to
determine the actual apparent and bulk relative
densities.
2,60 - 2,75
Quartzite
2,70
Dolomite
2,85
Dolerite
2,90 - 3,00
Norite
3,00
Andesite
2,85
Hornfels
2,70
Natural (Quartz)
Crusher
Tremi Concrete
Concrete placed under water should be done
using a tremi technique. The tremitube is
placed at the lowest point of the pour (beneath
the water) and the concrete is either gravity fed
or pumped into place. The tremitube discharge
is kept within the concrete, which in turn
displaces the water. The tremi concrete mix
should be similar to that of pumpable concrete.
Under no circumstances should a low water
content/low workability mix be used.
2,65
2,65
Depends on RD
of parent rock.
DURABILITY
AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Concrete can be made which will perform
satisfactorily when exposed to most
atmospheric conditions, to most waters and
soils containing various chemicals of different
concentration, and to many other kinds of
chemicals and abrasive actions (structural
actions not included). There are, however,
some chemical environments under which the
useful life of even the best concrete will be
short. The water, soil or air in contact with the
concrete should be assessed for aggressiveness
and chemical attack, and appropriate measures
should be taken to ensure the durability of the
concrete. The mechanisms of attack or of
deterioration are quite varied, but they can
basically be divided into the following types:
June 19, 2008
page 6-85
C
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C
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T
E
CORROSION BY LEACHING
This is a process by which constituents of the
concrete, usually the hardened cement paste,
are dissolved and removed by water. The dissolution can be caused by soft waters, acids, or
ion exchange reactions.
DETERIORATION AS A RESULT OF
EXPANSION
The formation of insoluble compounds in
concrete that have volumes larger than those of
the constituents from which they are formed,
cause expansion or swelling, and hence
cracking and deterioration. Sulphate attack and
chloride corrosion of steel are typical examples
of this type of reaction.
DEGRADING OF CEMENT BINDERS
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
Acids are the principal form of attack. Strong

alkalis and some salts also attack cement
hydrates, resulting in degrading of the cement
binder. The rate of attack depends on
concentration and availability of the attacking
chemical, and on the nature of reaction
product, which, if of low solubility, may
inhibit further attack.
like cavities of water vapour. The cavities of

water vapour form at the upstream edge of the
zone, pass through it and then collapse from an
increase in pressure within the water flow at a
point just downstream. Water from the
boundaries of the cavities rushes toward their
centers at high speed when the collapse takes
place, thus concentrating a tremendous amount
of energy. This energy can be extremely
destructive to any flow surface (especially if
the velocity of flow exceeds ~12 m/s). It can
produce the typical spongy appearance that is
usually associated with cavitional erosion.
WATER IN CONTACT WITH

CONCRETE
Corrosive attack by water is one of the most
serious conditions of exposure. The bulk of
concrete used in roadworks is generally for
structures exposed to flowing water and natural
groundwater. There are large areas where
corrosive groundwaters occur and where a
simple chemical analysis of the water followed
by appropriate precautionary measures, may
avoid costly remedial measures later on.
Typical examples in the Western Cape
Province include:
surface waters off the Table Mountain
SALT CRYSTALLISATION
sandstones in the Worcester area with an

apparently harmless pH of 7,0 but with a
Langlier index of -3,1. These waters will
leach holes in concrete at an alarming rate
soft waters of Oudtshoorn, and
highly mineralised chloride/sulphate
groundwaters of the Northern and Eastern
Cape (a useful indication of the location of
possible aggressive groundwaters in the
Cape Province is Bonds72 water map given
in Figure 6-21 on page 6-87). In order to assess the possible aggressiveness of water to
concrete an accurate chemical analysis is required.
Salt crystallisation occurs within the concrete

pores and can cause damage by physical
expansion. The extent of the damage depends
on exposure to wetting and drying cycles, and
on the quality of concrete.
ABRASION
Abrasive solids carried by wind and water can
erode concrete by mechanical action. This can
be particularly severe in fast-flowing rivers
transporting large quantities of solids.
CAVITATION
On concrete surfaces subjected to high velocity
flow, an obstruction or abrupt change in
surface alignment causes a zone of severe subatmospheric pressure to be formed against the
surface immediately downstream from the
obstruction or abrupt change. This zone is
promptly filled with turbulent water
interspersed with small, fast moving, bubble
page 6-86
72. Bond, Dr. G.W. A geochemical survey of the underground water supplies of the Union of South Africa. Department of Mines, Geological Survey,
Memoir No.41, 1945.
June 19, 2008
ANALYTICAL TESTS REQUIRED

Unless it is known with certainty that the
sample does not contain more than trace
quantities of one or more of the ionic species
listed, all the tests shown in Table 6-48 on
page 6-88 (or other tests which give equivalent
values) should be conducted to assess the
aggressiveness of the water73. Additional tests
may be specified in special circumstances at

the discretion of the Materials Engineer, e.g.,
brines in saltpans, and water from hot mineral
springs.
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
Figure 6-21: Water map of South Africa giving an indication of potential aggressive ground waters74
73. Basson, J.J. Deterioration of concrete in aggressiveness waters - measuring aggressiveness and
taking countermeasures. Portland Cement Institute,
Midrand, 1989.
74. Bond, GW, A Geochemcial Survey of the underground water supplies of the Union of South Africa,
Department of Mines, Union of South Africa, Pretoria, 1946.
June 19, 2008
page 6-87
Table 6-48: Tests required for testing aggressiveness for water

CHARACTERISTICS TEST METHOD
pH
SABS
Method 11
Langeliers Index
(pH - CaCO3 pHs)
Calcium Hardness content (CaCO3)
SABS
Method 216
Total ammonium
ion content (NH4)
SABS
Method 217 &
218
Magnesium ion content

(Mg)
SABS
Method 1071
Total sulphate ion content (SO4)
SABS
Method 212
Chloride ion
content (Cl)
SABS
Method 202
Conductivity
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
Temperature
Total dissolved
solids (TDS)
SABS
Method 213
REMARKS
Cementitious binders are more soluble in acidic solutions than in alkaline solutions.
Low pH values indicate corrosive conditions, high values (up to 12,5) are indicative
of non-corrosive or even corrosion-inhibiting environments.
An additional measure of the degree of aggressiveness of water towards Ca compounds (i.e., most vulnerable to leaching). LI = pH (of untreated sample) - pHs (of
CaCO3-saturated sample). LI is an excellent indicator (sign & magnitude) of the
leaching propensities of water, a negative index indicates that CaCO3 will be picked
(and that the water will be aggressive to cement-bound materials1`
Hardness of water is caused by presence of both calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in the water. Prior presence of Ca salts in water limits the amount of Ca that
can be leached from concrete water2.
Total ammonium-ion is defined as the sum of the contents of available (Method
217) and potential (Method 218: NH4 = N x 1,3) ammonium ion. Ammonium compounds enhance the corrosion rate of dissolved salts and are grouped with those
responsible for causing spalling corrosion3.
Magnesium is commonly found in association with calcium. Water associated with
dolomitic lime contain significant quantities of Mg salts, which contribute to the
hardness of water. The magnesium ion can also be readily exchanged for calcium
within the concrete binder4.
Total sulphate ion is defined as the sum of the contents of available (Method 212)
and potential (Method 1056: SO4 = S x 3) sulphate ion, i.e., it measures both the existing sulphate ions dissolved in the water as well as those formed by microbiological oxidation of any sulphides that may be present5.
This test is only required in the case of reinforced or prestressed concrete. The
chloride ion can be extremely corrosive if any steel steel reinforcement should be
exposed to it as a result of porosity or cracking of the concrete cover.
High conductivity/low resistivity is indicative of very aggressive waters, TDS ~ Conductivity (mS/m) x 6 for NaCl waters. (Tap water ~ 0,010 S/m, while sea water ~ 1
S/m).`
Warm water is usually more aggressive than cold water.
It is a measure of the crystallisable salt content of the water sample. Its main significance is that it is one of the factors that influences the stresses operating on
concrete surfaces that are subjected to wetting and drying cycles. It can also indicate that the water sample contains other materials not accounted for in the chemical analysis and that further test are required.
Notes
1. A useful graphical method of determining the CaCO3 saturated pH is given by Fulton71. This graphical method requires the
temperature and pH of the water, and the following concentrations: Total dissolved salts, Ca (expressed as CaCO3) and Alkalinity (expressed as CaCO3). Alternatively, PCI Test Method 9.28 can used to determine the CaCO3-saturated pH of water.
2. The direction of chemical reactions is always towards establishing an equilibrium and if the water is already saturated with
Ca salts, then those present in the concrete remain unaffected and essentially intact. At supersaturation levels, protective
layers of CaCO3 deposit on concrete surfaces and this is beneficial.
3. Where the ammonium ion is exchanged for calcium in the concrete, it is converted to ammonium hydroxide, which, when
exposed to the very alkaline conditions (present in the concrete) is volatilised and lost to the atmosphere as ammonia. This
results in the formation of voids in the concrete and a loss of alkalinity (or rise in acidity) of the water (which becomes even
more corrosive).
4. This results in magnesium hydroxide replacing calcium hydroxide, which is accompanied by a drop in the alkalinity of the
binder (this pH shift causes destabilization of the calcium silicates and a significant loss of binding power).
5. Solutions of naturally occurring sulphates of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium present in some ground waters
can cause expansion and disruption of concrete. The three possible mechanisms of sulphate attack on concrete are:
(i) conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete to calcium sulphate, and the crystallization of this compound, with consequent expansion and disruption,
(ii) conversion of hydrated calcium aluminates and ferrites to calcium sulpho-aluminates with double the molecular volume of
the original compound, and consequent expansion and disintegration,
(iii) decomposition of hydrated calcium silicates with resultant serious loss in strength. With calcium sulphate only reaction (ii) can occur, while with sodium sulphate reaction (i) can take place. With magnesium sulphate all three reactions can
take place75.
75. Muller, J.R. Deterioration of portland cement concrete in natural waters. Corrosion and Coatings
South Africa, February 1978, pp 11-23.
page 6-88
June 19, 2008
ASSESSMENT OF ANALYTICAL
RESULTS AND RECOMMENDED
COUNTERMEASURES
Recommended limits for assessing the
aggressiveness of water are given by Basson73
in Table 6-49 on page 6-89. These are
applicable to local standard condition, i.e.,
water temperature ~ 20C, laminar flow
conditions and corrosive ions present in their
least corrosive form.
In an annexure to SABS 0100-2:199276,
Concrete subjected to wet conditions aggressiveness
of
water,
and
countermeasures, it is suggested that the
Basson Index (BI) be determined to assess the
aggressiveness of water, and to identify
suitable countermeasures. The Basson Index
(BI) is a measure of the total aggressiveness of
water, and is expressed as a single index
derived from a number of sub-indices. Each
sub-index is calculated from the value obtained
for the corresponding analytical result (as
given in Table 6-49 on page 6-89).
The anti-corrosion measures recommended in
the annexure to SABS 0100-2:1992 should be
applied judiciously (other sources should
also be consulted for more detailed and specialized information).
In the case of highly aggressive waters specialists in this field should be consulted for recommendations applicable to the specific problem being investigated. Should concrete be exposed to sulphate attack, i.e. be exposed to sulphate containing soils (with a total SO3 content
greater than 0,2%) or groundwaters (with a
sulphate content greater than 0,3g/l), such
concrete should be specified in accordance
with the recommendations given in BRE Special Digest 1 (2005)77 and taking into consideration requirements of SABS 0100-2:1992.
When selecting the concrete cover, it is important to take the nature of the surrounding environment into consideration. This is because
the degree of protection provided by the concrete to the reinforcement is related to cover
thickness. The recommended minimum concrete cover over reinforcement should not be
less than that specified in COLTO, SSRBW69,
Table 6306/1.
It is important to note that the first and
foremost line of defence against aggressive
waters is to use a sound, dense and
impervious concrete properly vibrated and
cured, and made from the appropriate
materials.
Table 6-49: Recommended limits for assessing aggressiveness of water
PROPERTY OF WATER
DEGREE OF AGGRESSIVENESS
2
3
Severe
Very Severe
5,0 - 6,0
4,5 - 5,0
0,3 - -0,4
-0,4 - -0,5
100 - 200
50 - 100
50 80
80 - 100
500 - 1000
1000 - 1500
1000 - 2000
2000 - 3000
1000 - 2500
2500 - 5000
pH
Langlier Index
Calcium Hardness (CaCO3 ppm)
Total Ammonium (NH4 ppm)
Magnesium-ion (Mg ppm)
Total Sulphate-ion (SO4 ppm)
Chloride-ion (Cl ppm)
Moderate
6,0 - 8,0
-0,2 - -0,3
200 - 300
30 - 50
100 - 500
150 - 1000
500 - 1000
Extreme
< 4,5
< -0,5
< 50
< 100
< 1500
< 3000
< 5000
Notes
The protective measures required for each degree of aggressiveness are listed below:
1. Moderate: special concrete technology using standard cement.
2. Severe: special concrete technology using standard cement or special cement and standard concrete standard
cement.
3. Very severe: special concrete technology using special cement or special concrete technology using standard cement with additional protective measures.
4. Extreme: Permanent isolation of concrete from the aggressiveness environment.
76. SABS 0100-2:1992: The structural use of concrete,

Part 2: Materials and execution of work. SABS,
Pretoria, 1992.
77. Concrete in Aggressive Ground Building Research

Establishment Special Digest 1, 2005
June 19, 2008
page 6-89
C
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SOILS IN CONTACT WITH

CONCRETE
REDOX POTENTIAL
All reliable information about the site should

be examined when assessing the need for
extensive analysis of the soil. The
information should include an estimate of the
various ion contents of any groundwater
samples obtained during site investigation.
The main danger in classifying sites on the
basis of groundwater analysis alone lies in the
diffculty in obtaining samples that are not
diluted with surface waters. Suitable soil
samples may be obtained from the test
boreholes made for other engineering
purposes. They should be taken at 1 to 2 m
intervals and wherever an obvious change in
stratum occurs. Economic considerations will
govern the number of soil samples analysed.
C
O
N
C
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T
E
The relative aggressiveness of different soil

types has been generalised by King78, in
ascending order of aggressiveness, as
follows: gravelly soils, sand, silt, clays, peat
and other organic soils, and made ground
(fill).
ANALYTICAL TESTS REQUIRED

The principal parameters, which influence
natural soil corrosiveness below ground are
listed below. Each of these factors, when
measured, can contribute to the estimation of
soil corrosiveness79.
RESISTIVITY
This is usually the most important parameter.
Low resistivity (i.e., high conductivity),
caused by increased soil porosity, increases
the risk of corrosion. This explains the
corrosion significance of soil compaction, or
lack of it, in undisturbed soils.
78. King, R.A. A review of soil corrosiveness with particular reference to reinforced earth. Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Supplementary
Report 316, Crowthorne, 1987.
79. Barry, D.L. Material durability in aggressive
ground. CIRIA, Report 98, London, 1983.
page 6-90
Redox potential gives guidance on the risk of

microbiological corrosion (created in heavy
clay soils) and the estimation of potential
life-line corrosion. The latter form of attack
is possible when a metal passes from a high
redox area to a low redox area. This characteristic is inter-related with oxygen transfer.
MOISTURE CONTENT
High moisture content (over 20 percent) is
considered aggressive. Clay and soils of high
organic content retain considerable amounts
of water of high salt content (and low pH).
Good drainage is essential to reduce potential
areas of stagnant water (which can induce
micro-biological corrosion).
SALT CONTENT
Resistivity is reduced as the salt content
increases. Most salts are harmful, except
carbonates, which can reduce the corrosion
rate of most metals by forming a scale.
INFLUENCE OF PH VALUE
In general as the pH value decreases i.e., becomes more acidic, corrosion rates increase.
However, pH values can be misleading, and
total acidity or alkalinity is more definitive.
ORGANIC MATERIAL
Organic material is generally oxidised by
microbial growth, under aerobic conditions,
to organic acids. Under anaerobic conditions
(free of air), methane can be produced.
SOLUBLE IRON CONTENT

The greater the soluble iron content, the more
aggressive the soil, but only if corrosion by
sulphate reducing bacteria is possible, or
where soil is oxidising (e.g., converting
ferrous salts to ferric salts).
OXYGEN TRANSFER
Oxygen concentration significantly affects
the rate of corrosion. Alternate wetting and
drying results in degrading, while well
June 19, 2008
drained soils provide a less aggressive

environment than those which are poorly
drained.
SOIL COMPACTION
Uniformity of compaction reduces corrosion
potential, while increased compaction usually
reduces conductivity (i.e., increases resistivity by reducing permeability).
SULPHATES
The corrosive effects of sulphate compounds
have been dealt with in Water In Contact
With Concrete on page 6-86.
CHLORIDES
Good quality concrete is not normally affected by chlorides in the ground. However,
chlorides can cause and accelerate galvanic
corrosion of steel reinforcement. The result is
cracking and spalling of the concrete through
production of iron oxide.
The selection of the parameters to be tested
should take into consideration the location,
past history and geology of the site.
Figure 6-22 on page 6-91 sets out the principal requirements of a corrosion (i.e., aggression) survey for soil. The criteria given in
Table 6-49 on page 6-89 for assessing the degree of aggressiveness may be used as a
guideline to assess aggressive soils.
SURVEY
Site tests
Stray DC*
Resistivity
Sampling for laboratory tests

Redox
Large samples
Resistivity
Small samples
Redox
pH
Total
acid
Sulphate
chloride
(nitrate)
Water
content
*Effects of stray DC current are
important where metals are concerned.
Proximity to such features as electrical
railways, welding plants and pipelines
should be considered.
Sulphate bearing
bacteria
Organic
content
Figure 6-22: Requirements for a corrosion survey
June 19, 2008
page 6-91
C
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RECOMMENDED COUNTERMEASURES
Anti-corrosion measures recommended for
concrete in contact with aggressive waters
can also be applied to aggressive soils, but
other sources should be consulted for more
detail and specialized information. The
recommended minimum concrete cover over
reinforcement should not be less than that
specified in COLTO Standard Projects
Specifications69.
No cement offers good resistance to strong

acids, but, by virtue of a reduced calcium
hydroxide content in the set cement, ground
granulated slag or fly ash combined with
Portland cement, it gives a slightly better
resistance than Portland cement alone.
As previously mentioned, the first and
foremost line of defence against aggressive
attacks is to use sound, dense and impervious
concrete, made from the appropriate materials
and properly vibrated and cured.
Table 6-50 on page 6-92 identifies the

suitable measures for protecting concrete
piles (after Bartholomew80), many of which
are applicable to concrete in general.
Table 6-50: Precautionary measures to protect concrete piles
REQUIREMENT OR MEASURE
C
O
N
C
R
E
T
E
NORMAL
CONDITIONS
MODERATELY
AGGRESSIVE
CONDITIONS
HIGHLY
AGGRESSIVE
CONDITIONS
VERY HIGHLY
AGGRESSIVE
CONDITIONS
Dense impermeable concrete
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Portland cement (CEMI)
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Minimum cement content and

maximum water/cement ratio
specified
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Special aggregates
No
Limestone aggregate are sometimes used in acidic

conditions
Sacrificial layer
No
Yes, but rarely relied upon by itself
Minimum cover specified
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Use of permanent liner:

steel
rigid PVC
flexible PVC
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Sulphate resisting Portland cement

or
Other special cement or pozzolans
Use of coating (e.g. epoxy, resin,

bitumen) on pre-cast concrete or
steel casing
No
80. Bartholomew, R.F. The protection of concrete

piles in aggressive ground conditions: an international appreciation. Proceedings of the Conference on Recent Developments In The Design And
Construction Of Piles, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1979.
page 6-92
June 19, 2008
SEGMENTAL PAVING BLOCKS

be consulted to address specific needs.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete block pavements are well suited to
the following uses:
Trafficked zones in built-up regions (e.g.,
pedestrian walkways, residential streets, parking lots, bus stops and fuel stations). In these
areas there are frequently cables and piping,
low traffic speed, spillage of oil and fuel. This
is where a functional division is often desired
and where aesthetics are important
Trafficked zones in rural areas, especially
rural roads and farmyards in which both traffic
intensity and traffic speed are low, but axle
loads are heavy and contamination by soil
frequently occurs
Industrial yards like factory grounds and
container terminals in which settlement often
occurs (almost all container terminals are
situated on reclaimed land in alluvial areas),
the traffic loads are heavy, and the contact
pressure is often high (stacked containers)
Small and irregular surfaces
Temporary pavements (recycling)
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87
Segmental paving blocks are generally applicable only to low speed traffic.
JUNCTION OF ASPHALT AND

CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING
SURFACING
Suitable edge restraints shall be provided at the
interface of asphalt and concrete block paving
surfacing to prevent the migration of the
concrete paving blocks.
In new construction the transition between asphalt and concrete block paving is achieved by
the use of edge restraints, such as cast in situ
reinforced concrete beams, or kerbs which
provide the lateral support for the concrete
block paving. The dimensions of the beam and
amount of reinforcement depends on whether
traffic is heavy or light.
With the reconstruction of an existing asphalt
surfaced intersection in concrete block paving
the junction detail will depend on the thickness
of the asphalt surfacing and the asphalt
forming the base.
DESIGN
Additional references
CONSTRAINTS
should
Clifford, J.M. Segmental block paving in southern

Africa: a review and structural design guide. CSIR,
NITRR, Technical Report PR/27, Pretoria, September 1986.
Clifford, J.M. Structural design of segmental block
pavements for southern Africa. CSIR, NITRR,
rp/9/84, Pretoria, 1984.
Guidelines for the provision of engineering services
in residential townships. Department of Community
Development. Pretoria, 1983.
Draft UTG 1: Guidelines for the geometric design of
urban arterial roads. CSIR, Pretoria 1986.
Paving Block Manual, Concrete Masonry Association, 1988.
Draft UTG 2: Structural Design of Segmental Block
Pavements for southern Africa. Committee of Urban Transport Authorities, Pretoria, 1987.
If the asphalt surfacing and asphalt thickness

exceeds 100 mm then the asphalt base is considered as providing adequate support for the
concrete block paving. The asphalt base is cut
with a masonry saw to give a clean straight
edge down to a depth of 100 mm. The paving
block surface should be 1 - 3 mm proud of the
asphalt surface after compaction, to allow for
further compaction under traffic.
Where the asphalt thickness is less than
100 mm, then some means of lateral support is
required for insertion into the pavement. The
use of a 10 mm mild steel plate let into the
subbase and roadbed is the quickest and easiest
87. Shackel, B. Lockpave computer programme. Copy-
right (c) 1987 by Hynchime (Pty) Ltd.
June 19, 2008
page 6-93
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B
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method of providing lateral support. If the time

of restoring the intersections to a working condition is not a constraint, then the use of in situ
reinforced concrete beams should be considered.
S
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B
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page 6-94
June 19, 2008
CONSTRUCTION WATER
taken from the compacted layer (namely for
subbase and base) within 24 hours, and before
the prime coat is applied89.
DETERMINING QUALITY AND

SUITABILITY
Extracts from the Materials Report of a
particular Road Contract in the Eastern Cape
Region88 are given below, together with any
additional comments:
Water samples were taken from various
boreholes from properties (farms) along the
route. The water samples were tested for
various properties to determine its quality and
suitability. The samples were tested for pH
values, soluble salts (sulphates and chlorides),
alkalinity (carbonates and bicarbonates) and
electrical conductivity.
Based on test results in Table 6-51 on page

6-95, the high concentrations of chlorides (Cl-)
present in the water requires special attention
regarding the stabilization of road materials for
the subbase and the compaction of the crushed
stone base of the trunk road. The water can be
used for mixing the road layer materials with
the stabilizing agents and for compaction.
However, due to the high chloride (Cl-)
concentrations it is recommended not to use
the water for the curing of the stabilized layers
as this can result in the formation of salt
crystals which can migrate upwards to the road
surface and cause blistering of the road seals. It
is recommended that for the curing of the
Table 6-51: Water sample test results
POSITION
RESULTS
SOURCE
AND
OFFSET
m
pH
ELEC.
TDS
CONDUCT (%)
S/m
SULPHATE CHLORIDE CARBONATE BICARBONATE

(SO4)
(Cl)
(CaCO3)
(HCO3)
mg/litre
mg/litre
mg/litre
mg/litre
3,2
(50mL)
Borehole 8,00
0,4200
0,273
210
1440
272
332
6,2
(200mR)
Borehole 7,95
0,4660
0,303
190
1660
272
332
12,7
(300mL)
Borehole 7,00
0,462
0,300
142
1026
7,5
Borehole 7,20
0,395
0,257
167
899
Notes
1. TDS (%) ~ 0,65[Electrical Conductivity (S/m)]
ANALYSIS OF WATER RESULTS FOR

ROADWORKS
Where the salinity of the water to be used for
compaction purposes is so high as to cause a
considerable increase in the salinity of the
material, it is strongly recommended that the
soluble salinity be determined from samples
stabilized subbase layer that the base material

(crushed stone) be placed as soon as possible
over the subbase layer. The compaction of the
crushed stone base with water will require
regular brushing off of the salt crystal
formations from the surface of the base, before
applying the road seals.
Based on detailed review of recommended
maximum salt limits by Obika et al.18, a max.
salt limit for construction material should
88. Contract No. C379.1 for the construction of 19 km of
TR45/1 and related works between Nanaga and

Fonteinskloof. Materials Report: Book 1, Provincial
Administration, Department of Roads, 1992.
89. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works,
Volume 2. CSRA, 1987.
June 19, 2008
page 6-95
C
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A
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generally not exceed 0,2 %. Since the salinity

of waters in question is relatively high, it is
recommended that the soluble salinity of the
material be measured within 24 hours after
compaction. It has also be found by Obika et
al. ...that chloride salt migration is rapid and
occurred mostly in the first five days after
compaction. It is therefore recommended that
the base/seal be placed as soon as possible,
preferably within a week.
C
O
N
S
T
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W
A
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Although the conductivity of the water is

relatively high, it is more important to consider
the total amount of salts - or conductivity - that
will be imparted to the various layerworks
material. For example, if the above mentioned
crushed stone base is to be compacted at 7
percent moisture content, this would then
imply that only 0,02 percent Total Dissolved
Solids (i.e., 0,007[0,303TDS]) is to be added to
the base material. Since most literature
recommends maximum salt limits of
0,2 percent for road materials, the amount of
TDS contributed by the construction water is
negligible. Notwithstanding this, it is still
strongly recommended that the soluble salinity
of the base material be measured after
compaction to ensure that that TDS is below
0,2 percent, or preferably below 0,1 percent.
(The TDS in water can be estimated to an
accuracy of ~15 percent by the conductivity
method).
Additional information
Bituminous emulsion primes appear to be more
resistant to salt damage than cutback
bituminous primes such as MC 30. However,
Obika et al ...found that bituminous cutback
primes could be used...when the initial chloride
content of the pavement material was below
0,2 %, and below 1,0 % at the surface prior to
priming.
chloride concentrations of between 899 mg/l to

1660 mg/l.
The cement and water requirements for one
cubic metre of concrete mix (35 mm slump)
with a maximum size stone of between 10 and
40 mm are:
Water = 205 kg
Cement = 325 kg
Based on the maximum chloride concentration
(1660 mg/l) of the proposed borehole waters,
the chloride content expressed as a percentage
by mass of cement is ~0,11 percent. Although
the Chloride content is below the
recommended maximum limit of 0,15 percent
(m/m), as given in SABS 0100: Part II - 1992,
it would still be advisable to reject the
proposed water sources (based primarily on the
limits recommended in Fulton71), especially for
use in reinforced and prestressed concrete. Dr
Brian Callaghan90, a specialist in the corrosion
field, also favours the limits given in Fulton;
these limits also conform with the British
Standards91.
Other soluble salts present in the water such
as sulphates and alkali carbonates and
bicarbonates, as tested, are acceptable for
concrete mixes. Further tests should be carried
out during construction to assess the
concentrations of the soluble salts, particularly
the chlorides, present in the water.
Although the quality of the water in question
may suffice for mass concrete, it is not
recommended for use in reinforced/prestressd
concrete (or any other concrete containing
embedded metal). For the purposes of this
example the possible deleterious effects of
efflorescence on the concrete have not been
considered.
ANALYSIS OF WATER RESULTS FOR

CONCRETE
According to the test results in Table 6-51 on
page 6-95, ...the concentrations of chloride
(Cl-) as soluble salts are higher than the
maximum limit as suggested by Fultons
Concrete Technology.... The maximum limit is
500 milligram per litre. The tests show
page 6-96
90. Callaghan, B (Head, Corrosion Section, Organic Ma-
terials Division, NBRI, CSIR), Personal communication, 1992.

91. Tests for water for making concrete. British Standards Institution, Appendix to BS 3148: 1980.
June 19, 2008
REFERENCES
JOURNALS
Asphalt-rubber Cape seals. The Manhole Messenger, Volume 3, No. 3, Manhole Adjusting Inc., Monterey
Park, California, September 1992, 7p.
Barry, D.L. Material durability in aggressive ground. CIRIA, Report 98, London, 1983.
Bartholomew, R.F. The protection of concrete piles in aggressive ground conditions: an international appreciation. Proceedings of the Conference on Recent Developments In The Design And Construction Of
Piles, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1979.
Basson, J.J. Deterioration of concrete in aggressiveness waters - measuring aggressiveness and taking
countermeasures. Portland Cement Institute, Midrand, 1989.
Bell, F.G. How aggregates affect concrete quality. Civil Engineering, July & August 1977.
Bergh, A.O. and Thomson, H.C. Simplified design method for bitumen rubber seals for lightly trafficked
roads. SABITA Modified Binders Seminar, 1991, 4p.
Bond, Dr. G.W. A geochemical survey of the underground water supplies of the Union of South Africa. Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Memoir No.41, 1945.
Button, J.W. Maximizing the beneficial effects of lime in asphalt pavement mixtures - evaluation and prevention of water damage to asphalt pavement materials. ASTM, SPT 899, Philadelphia, 1984, pp 134-146.
Carpenter, S.H. and Freeman, T.J. Characterising premature deformation in asphalt concrete placed over
Portland cement concrete pavements. TRB, TRR 1070, 1986, pp 30-41.
Clifford, J.M. Segmental block paving in southern Africa: a review and structural design guide. CSIR,
NITRR, Technical Report PR/27, Pretoria, September 1986.
Clifford, J.M. Structural design of segmental block pavements for southern Africa. CSIR, NITRR, RP/9/84,
Pretoria, 1984.
Coetzer, K. and Verhaeghe, B.M.J.A. Engineering properties of bitumen-rubber asphalt. CSIR, DRTT, Unpublished progress Report PR89/151, S.A. Roads Board, Pretoria, 1992.
Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils and groundwater. Building Research Establishment Digest 250, 1981.
De Beer, M. Aspects of the design and behaviour of road structures incorporating lightly cementitious layers. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, February 1990.
De Beer, M. Developments in the failure criteria of the South African mechanistic design procedure for asphalt pavements. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements: Design and Performance, Vol. 3, Nottingham, August, 1992, pp 54-76.
De Beer, M. and Visser, A.T. Erodibility of cementitious subbase layers in flexible pavements. Proceedings
of the Fifth Conference for Asphalt Pavments in Southern Africa, Swaziland, June 1989, pp vii-1 - vii-15.
De Villiers, E.M. A cost effective bitumen-rubber asphalt overlay on a highly flexible pavement. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Transportation Convention, Session 5B, Pretoria, 1990, Paper 7, pp 1-19.
Dinkinson, E.J. Assessment of the deformation and flow properties of polymer modified paving bitumens.
National Seminar on Asphalt-Rubber, Federal Highway Administration, San Antonio, Texas, October 1981,
pp 265-272.
Hanafy, E. Swelling/Shrinkage Characteristic Curve of Desiccated Expansive Clays. Geotechnical Testing
Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 14, No. 2, June 1991, pp 206-211.
Horak, E. Aspects of deflection basin parameters used in a mechanistic rehabilitation design procedures for
flexible pavements in South Africa. Ph D. Thesis, University of Pretoria, 1988.
Horta, J.C. Salt Heaving in the Sahara. Geotechnique, Vol. XXXV, No. 3, Sept. 1983.
Journal of the American Concrete Institute-Guide to Durable Cincrete, Reported by ACI Committee 201, No
12, Proceedings V74, December 1977, pp 573-609.
Kantey, B.A. and Brink, A.B.A. Laboratory criteria for recognition of expansive soils. NBRI Bulletin no. 9,
1952, pp 25 - 28.
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page 6-97
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King, R.A. A review of soil corrosiveness with particular reference to reinforced earth. Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Supplementary Report 316, Crowthorne, 1987.
Monismith, C.L. Fatigue characteristics of asphalt paving misctures and their use in asphalt pavements.
Proceedings of the Annual Pavement Conference, Symposium on Fatigue in Asphalt Pavements, University
of New Mexico, 1981.
Monismith, C.L., Finn, F.N. and Vallerga, B.A. A comprehensive asphalt concrete mixture design system.
ASTM, Asphalt Concrete Mix Design, Development of More Rational Approaches, STP 1041, Philadelphia,
1989, pp 39-71.
Muller, J.R. Deterioration of portland cement concrete in natural waters. Corrosion and Coatings South Africa, February 1978, pp 11-23.
National seminar on asphalt rubber. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Texas, October 1981.
Netterberg F. Salt damage to roads- an interim guide to its diagnosis, prevention and repair. IMIESA 4,
1979.
Obika, B. and Freer-Hewish, R.J. Soluble salt damage to thin bituminous surfacings of roads and runways.
Australian Road Research, Vol. 20(4), December 1990, pp 24-41.
Roux, P.L. and Netterberg, F. Bibliography on soil stabilization work carried out at NITRR from 1957 until
November 1984. CSIR, NITRR, Technical Report RP/22, Pretoria, December 1985.
Ruiz, A., Alberole, R., Prez, F. and Snchez, B. Porous asphalt mixtures in Spain. TRB, TRR 1265,
Washington D.C., 1990, pp 87-94.
Rust, F.C., Coetser, K. and Verhaeghe, B.M.J.A. The evaluation of six modified binders for retardation of
crack reflection through laboratory studies and field work. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Asphalt Pavement Nottingham UK, August, 1992.
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Rust, F.C., Grobler, J.E., Myburgh, P.A. and Hugo, F. Towards analytical mix design for large-stone asphalt
mixes. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Asphalt Pavements- Design and Performance, Volume 13, Nottingham, 1992, pp 311-325.
Rust, F.C., Servas, V.P. and Van der Walt, N. Performance of various modified binders in road trials and
under simulated crack movement in the laboratory. Proceedings 5th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for
South Africa, Swaziland, June 1989, pp vi-56 to vi-68.
Sainton, A. Advantages of asphalt rubber binder for porous asphalt concrete. TRB, Transportation Research Record 1265, 1990, pp 69-81.
Sampson, L.R. and Paige Green, P. Recommendation for suitable durability limits for lime and cement stabilised materials. Draft Research Report, DPVT/130, March 1990, Roads and Transport Technology, CSIR.
Shackel, B. Lockpave computer programme. Copyright (c) 1987 by Hynchime (Pty) Ltd.
Skinner, J.D. and R.H.N. Smithers. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria
Press, 1990.
Taylor, M.A. and Khosla, N.P. Stripping of asphalt pavements: State of the art. TRB, Transportation Research Record 911, 1983.
Tentative Skid-Resistance Requirements for main rural highways. Skid Resistance of Roads and Airfields.
NCHRP Report 37. Highway Research Board, 1967.
Tielking, J.T, Roberts, F.L. Tyre contact pressure and its effects on pavement strain. Journal of Transport
Engineering, Vol. 117, No. 1, Jan 1987, pp 56 - 71.
Van Heystraeten, G. and Moraux C. : Ten years experience of porous asphalt in Belgium. TRB, Transportation Research Record 1265, 1990, pp 34-40.
Van Wyk and Louw. Various reports on project C404, Danilskuil to Kuruman.
Weston, D.J. Compaction for collapsing sand roadbeds. Proceedings of the Seventh Regional Conference
for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Accra, 1980.
Weston, D.J. Expansive roadbed treatment for southern Africa. Proceedings of the International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, 1980, pp 339-360.
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MANUALS AND SPECIFICATIONS

A Guide to Bridge Repairs. Cape Provincial Roads Administration, 1978, pp 6-6 to 6-9.
AASHTO guide for Design of Pavement Structure. AASHTO, Washington D.C., 1986.
Aggregate grading for highways: simplification, standardization and uniform application and a new graphical
chart for evaluating aggregate grading. U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Public Roads, Washington
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BS 1377 : Part 5 : Compressibility, permeability and durability tests. British Standard Methods of Tests for
Civil Engineering Purposes, 1990.
Concrete pavement construction over expansive soils. Portland Cement Institute, 1970.
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Draft TMH 9: Pavement management systems: standard visual assessment manual. CSRA, Department of
Transport, Pretoria, 1990.
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seals used in the Republic of South Africa. CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1986.
Draft UTG 1: Guidelines for the geometric design of urban arterial roads. CSIR, Pretoria 1986.
Draft UTG 2: Structural Design of Segmental Block Pavements for southern Africa. Committee of Urban
Transport Authorities, Pretoria, 1987.
Fultons Concrete Technology. Ed. B.J.Adddis, Portland Cement Institute, Midrand, South Africa, 1986.
Guidelines for the provision of engineering services in residential townships. Department of Community Development, Pretoria, 1983.
Journal of the American Concrete Institute-Guide to Durable Concrete, Reported by ACI Committee 201, No
12, Proceedings V74, December 1977, pp 573-609.
Paving Block Manual. Concrete Masonry Association, 1988.
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1992.
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Administration Branch, Volume 4, Cape Town, 1993.
Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Works. CSRA, Pretoria, 1987.
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TRH 1: Guide on prime coats, tack coats and temporary surfacings for the protection of bases. CSIR,
TRH 4: Structural design of interurban and rural road pavements. CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria,
1985.
TRH 10: The design of road embankments. CSRA, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1992.
TRH 15: Subsurface drainage for roads. CSIR, NITRR, Pretoria, 1984.
TRH 8: Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for highways. CSRA, Department of Transport,
Pretoria, 1987.
TRH 9: Construction of road embankments. CSIR, NITRR, Pretoria, 1982.
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2001.
June 19, 2008
page 6-99
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Materials Selection, Constraints

Western Cape Provincial Administration

Western Cape Provincial Administration

SET: ISBN 0-620-29823-5

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

MATERIALS SELECTION, CONSTRAINTS AND

Other Problems ................................................................................................................................. 6-10

Objectives Of Stabilization ................................................................................................................ 6-12

BITUMEN EMULSION TREATMENT ..................................................................6-20

Objectives Of Emulsion Treatment.................................................................................................... 6-21

HOT-MIX ASPHALT BASE .............................................................................6-23

June 19, 2008

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

Compatibility Of Bituminous Binders With Various Aggregates .............................................................. 6-25

Aggregate Selection .......................................................................................................................... 6-29

General Constraints .......................................................................................................................... 6-33

Weather Limitations........................................................................................................................... 6-34

Prime Coat .....................................................................................................................6-37

Otta Seals ......................................................................................................................6-39

Sand Seal ......................................................................................................................6-42

Single Seal Of 6,7 mm Chips .........................................................................................6-43

Single Seal Of 9,5 mm Chips Plus Sand Blind...............................................................6-44

Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips .......................................................................................6-46

Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips Plus Sand Blind............................................................6-47

Single Seal Of 13,2 mm Chips Plus Grit ........................................................................6-48

June 19, 2008

6 Selection, constraints & design procedures

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

Double Seal Of 13,2 mm & 6,7 mm Chips .....................................................................6-49

Cape Seal ......................................................................................................................6-51

Design Sheet ..................................................................................................................................... 6-53

Conventional Slow Setting Anionic Coarse Slurry .........................................................6-54

Rapid Setting Rubber Modified Coarse Slurry ..............................................................6-56

HOT-MIX ASPHALT SURFACING ....................................................................6-58

Initial Mix Design ............................................................................................................................... 6-62

Asphalt With Conventional Binder .................................................................................6-64

Porous Bitumen-Rubber Asphalt....................................................................................................... 6-72

6 Selection, constraints & design procedures

June 19, 2008

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

CONCRETE ................................................................................................ 6-80

Design Criteria................................................................................................................................... 6-81

SEGMENTAL PAVING BLOCKS...................................................................... 6-93

CONSTRUCTION WATER .............................................................................. 6-95

REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 6-97

June 19, 2008

6 Selection, constraints & design procedures

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

6 Selection, constraints & design procedures

June 19, 2008

WCPA Transport and Public Works Department

Materials Manual Volume 2 Chapter 6

MATERIALS SELECTION, CONSTRAINTS AND

This chapter gives the background needed to

The chapter is laid out in accordance with the

Figure 6-1: Layout of the Materials Manual

6 Selection, constraints & design procedures

June 19, 2008