GSM Coverage v4-0 Notes

The Cellular Academy
GSM Radio Network Planning and Optimisation

Coverage and Cell Structure Planning
Capacity and Frequency Planning
Network Growth and Network Optimisation
Advanced Topics
Version 4.0
Coverage Planning v 4.0
Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005
Contents
2 Introduction
89 Improvement measures
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost
10 Radio Engineering Basics

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets
24 GSM Air Interface

Frequency allocations
TDMA structure
Transmitter specifications
Receiver specifications
36 Propagation Mechanisms
Distance attenuation
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Intersymbol interference
Ducting
Doppler
60 Propagation modelling
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Deterministic models
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Mast-head pre-amplifiers
Examples
Power output
Sensitivity
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components
Site RF configuration
145 Network dimensioning

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
Antenna configuration
Neighbour list planning
Introduction
Introduction
Design aims:
Maximise coverage
Best coverage for minimum expenditure
Minimise interference
Giving customers acceptable quality
Maximise capacity
Provide customers with service at acceptable
quality
Limited by frequency allocation
Introduction
Coverage
Breadth of coverage
Cities?
Suburbs?
Roads?
Rural areas?
Depth of coverage
Outdoors?
In car?
In building?
Excellent / good / fringe?
Introduction
Capacity
Operator allocated a number of channels
eg 2 x 10MHz
Cellular principle is frequency re-use

Close re-use
Many channels per cell
Less chance of blocking or congestion
More chance of interference
Loose re-use
Fewer channels per cell
More chance of blocking / congestion
Less chance of interference
Introduction
Quality
Is a function of
Coverage probability
Interference probability
Blocking probability
If the mobile cannot hear the base station or the base station cannot hear
the mobile, there is not enough coverage. If other mobiles are received at
the base station, or the mobile can receive signals from other base stations
on the same or the adjacent radio channel, then there is interference. If too
many users want to use the channels available on the base station at the
same time then there is blocking.
Introduction
Costs
Base Station Hardware

Network Planning
Site Acquisition and Contract
Power
Communication Links
Rent
Construction
Maintenance
Base Station Hardware

The equipment in the base station is not the only cost associated with the
cell site, but it is the one that is visible on the financial quotation from
suppliers. However, it is often difficult to price a base station from these
quotations. Normally the price includes many other services and products,
and will inevitably depend on the number of base stations being ordered.
Nowadays there is also a tendency for the equipment vendors to include a
finance deal, whereby the operator pays no money at the start, but
effectively borrows the equipment from the vendor and pays the money over
a period of time.
Introduction
Balancing quality and cost
Cost & revenue vs coverage quality
$100,000 / km
5.0
4.5
Cost related to quality
4.0
Revenue vs quality
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Max?
1.0
0.5
0.0
50
60
70
80
90
100
% probability of coverage
Introduction
Capacity
Cost
Quality
The compromise between cost, quality and capacity is a little bit like
squeezing a balloon. The volume of air inside the balloon is constant so if
one side is squeezed, the volume of air must push out somewhere else.
In the diagram, squeezing the balloon from the capacity side (improving
capacity is squeezing towards the red dot), will make the quality worse and/
or the cost more expensive. Improving the quality will either make capacity
less or cost higher, and trying to reduce the cost can only be done at the
expense of either a reduction in capacity or quality or, more likely both.
The network planning and optimisation engineer aims to improve on all the
variables at once, or to continue the analogy, he tries to reduce the volume
of air in the balloon.
It is important that the same person is responsible for the capacity and the
quality planning, otherwise a reasonable compromise cannot be made
between the two aims.
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Sensitivity / planning thresholds
Fade margin
Building attenuation
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
10
Radio Engineering Basics
10

Units
Exponential:
y = 10x
Inverse:
x = log10 (y)
dB:
[x] dB = 10 log [y/10]
y = 10[x/10]
11
Signal amplitude vary enormously, often by a ratio of billions to one.

Therefore exponential notation is useful in engineering, to avoid the need to
write down many zeros.
The inverse of the exponent function is the logarithm function. The inverse
or y=ax is x=logay. (Pronounced x = log to the base a of y)
The decibel is one tenth of a Bel, and is the normal expression of a ratio in
engineering.
11

Units
10log(x y) = [X]dB + [Y]dB
10log (x/y) = [X]dB [Y]dB
12
Multiplying in linear units is equivalent to adding in logarithmic or dB units.

Dividing is equivalent to subtracting.
12

Units
10log(x 1mW) = [X]dB + [0]dBm = [X]dBm
1nW
=
1mW
=
1W = 1000mW =
2W = 2000mW =
4W = 4000mW =
5W = 5000mW =
10W = 10000mW =
-30 dBm
0 dBm
30 dBm
33 dBm
36 dBm
37 dBm
40 dBm
13
The dB unit is a simple ration. If we want to express an absolute level we

have to define a base unit. In radio signal levels the base unit is usually the
milliwatt, so levels are expressed as a ratio relative to one milliwatt, or dBm.
Doubling the signal is the same as adding 3dB. Multiplying by 10 is the
same as adding 10dB.
13

Antennas
Isotropic radiation
14
An Isotropic Radiator is a theoretical point source of radio waves which

radiates in all directions in three dimensions. No real isotropic radiator exists
because it is impossible to make an antenna which is only a single point.
Real antennas must have electric current flowing in them to generate the
electromagnetic waves, which means that they must have some length.
An isotrope is defined to have a gain of 1, since the energy is not focussed in
any particular direction. Its gain is normally referred to as 0 dBi. The i
indicates 0 dB relative to an isotropic radiator.
14

Antennas
Directional radiation
Directional pattern
Isotropic pattern
Gain
15
Real antennas focus the radiated power so that it does not transmit equally
in all directions. The power which is not transmitted in one direction is
instead transmitted in another direction. The ratio of the power transmitted
in any direction, to the power which would result if all the energy had been
transmitted equally in all directions is known as the Directivity of the antenna
in that direction. If losses in the antenna are taken into account, this is known
as the Gain. Each direction has its own Gain value, but the Maximum Gain is
normally known as the Gain.
The Gain is a ratio, so can be expressed in dB. However, the gain is relative
to an Isotropic Radiator, so the units are dBi.
Sometimes the gain is expressed relative to a dipole radiator in dBd. A
dipole has a gain of 2.2dBi.
15

Antennas
Aperture
Small aperture = wide beam = low gain
Large aperture = narrow beam = high gain
Half power beamwidth
3dB
16
The gain is related to the aperture by the equation:
D=
4Ae
Where
Ae is the effective aperture area
and
is the wavelength
and
D is the directivity
16

4: -3dB
Antenna downtilt
Interference:
-18dB?
Typical vertical
beam pattern
Coverag
14: -18dB
Possible loss
of coverage
In practice, reflections fill up nulls and sidelobes
17
17

Antenna array: how it works
Waves not
in phase
Equal distance
to each element
(waves in phase)
Elements
fed in phase
D2
Near field
Far field
18
18

Antenna array: how it works
Feed elements
out of phase
Waves
in phase
19
19

Path loss
As the signal gets further from the source it
dissipates and its Power Density becomes
less
The ratio of the transmitted power to the
power which would be received by an
isotropic antenna is the Path Loss
The Path Loss ratio is normally very large
(1080 to 10100), so it is normally expressed in
dB
20
20

Path loss
Pt
Pr
= 10 log Pt 10 log Pr
21
21

Sensitivity
The lowest power that can be received and yet
the message can still be heard
Quality
Required
quality
Sensitivity
Signal
22
22

Sensitivity
Defined by
Thermal noise
kTB
k = Boltzmans Constant = 1.38 x 1023 W/Hz/K
T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (0 K = -273 C)
B = Bandwidth in Hz
Minimum required Signal/Noise ratio

Normally about 3 9 dB for digital
About 12dB for analogue FM
23
23
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
24
GSM Air Interface
24
GSM Air Interface

GSM standards
Air interface, physical layer:
05.01: Physical layer on the radio path: general description
05.02: Multiplexing and multiple access on the radio path
05.03: Channel coding
05.04: Modulation
05.05: Radio transmission and reception
05.08: Radio subsystem link control
05.10: Radio subsystem synchronisation
25
The GSM standards are available from the Internet. If they were printed out
they would use and enormous a mount of paper. Many are to do with fixed
networking and with detailed protocols. The ones mainly relevant to the
radio interface are the 05 and 08 series. It is thoroughly recommended that
radio planners and optimisation engineers read the 05 and 08 series
specifications entirely.
25
GSM Air Interface

GSM Standard 05.05
Reference sensitivity performance
Channel
SDCCH
FER
RACH
FER
SCH
TCH/F9.6&H4.8
TCH/F4.8
BER
TCH/F2.4
BER
TCH/H2.4
FER
TCH/FS
FER
class Ib
class II
0.1%
0.5%
FER
BER
0.1
%
RBER
RBER
Propagation Conditions
Static
TU50
TU50
no FH
ideal FH
9%
9%
8%
13%
13%
12%
1%
19%
19%
10-5
0.4%
0.4%
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-5
10-5
10-4
10-4
10-4
4
%
3
%
2
%
(0.4/)
)% (0.3/)
)% (0.3/)
)%
)
)
)
2%
8%
8.1%
RA250
no FH
13%
13%
15%
0.1%
10-4
10-5
10-4
7
%
(0.2/)
)%
)
7%
HT100
ideal FH
25%
0.7%
(0.5/)
)%
)
9%
26
For the purpose of type approval, the specifications define a reference

sensitivity level, and define the performance in terms of Bit Error Rate and
Frame Erasure Rate for various channel types (e.g. speech, control, data
etc) under various defined propagation environments. (TU = Typical Urban,
RA = Rural Area, HT = Hilly Terrain, numbers show mobile speed in km/h).
26
GSM Air Interface

Sensitivity
GSM value:
B = 200 000 Hz
T = 290 K
k = 1.38 x 1023
kTB = 8.28 x 10-16 W = 8.0 x 10-13 mW
10 log (8.28 x 10-13 mW) = -121 dBm
27
The GSM reference sensitivity comes about from thermal noise, the noise
figure of the receiver, and the minimum required Signal to Noise ratio.
27
GSM Air Interface

Sensitivity
Official GSM value:
Thermal noise = -121 dBm
Additional noise due to receiver amplifier = 8 dB
Required Eb/No (signal/noise) = 9 dB
-104 dBm
9 dB
-113 dBm
8 dB
-121 dBm
Minimum required signal = -121 + 8 + 9 = -104 dBm

This is the Reference Sensitivity of a GSM BS
28
28
GSM Air Interface

Sensitivity
Typical GSM value:
Thermal noise = -121 dBm
Additional noise due to receiver amplifier = 4 dB
Required Eb/No (signal/noise) = 7 dB
Minimum required signal =
-121 + 4 + 7 = -110 dBm
This is the sensitivity of a typical GSM BS
29
The reference sensitivity assumes a relatively poor system noise figure of

8dB, while 4dB is easily achievable. It also includes a 2dB implementation
margin. If realistic parameters are used it is found that a sensitivity of
110dBm is easily achievable.
29
GSM Air Interface

18
75 MHz
90
60 MHz
19
50
60 MHz
18
GSM 900
80
17
8
18 5
05
10
75 MHz
19
1
19 0
30
25
91
93 5
5
96
0
89
25
GSM 1800 / DCS1800
17
92
0
88
GSM 400
E-GSM
GSM PCS 1900
30
GSM was originally allocated 2 x 25MHz in the 900MHz region. In 1992 the
UK government introduced PCN or Personal Communications Networks.
These were licensed in the 1800MHZ band and eventually it was decided to
base them on the GSM standard, so they became DCS1800 or
GSM1800. The Americas already have this band used for other things, so
it was necessary to use the 1900MHz band there. This was called PCS or
PCS1900, although now all systems are simply called GSM900 or GSM1800
or GSM1900.
An attempt was made to define GSM400, so that ex NMT analogue
frequencies could be migrated to GSM. However, this was not successful.
30
GSM Air Interface

Multiple access method
GSM uses an FDMA /TDMA method of
allowing many channels at once
FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
200 kHz radio channels
124 in 900 MHz band
374 in 1800 MHz band
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

8 time slots per radio channel
Each time slot 577 ms long
8 time slots 4.615 ms long
31
31
GSM Air Interface

Multiple access method
FDMA /TDMA
4.615
4.038
3.461
Time, ms
TS4
2.308
1.154
TS5
ing
d
a
h
es
h
t
t
u
TS3
TS2
TS1
0.577
TS6
tho
i
w
nt
i
r
P
B:
2.885
1.731
TS0
TS7
on
i
t
a
anim
TS0
0
890.2
890.4 890.6 890.6 890.8 891.0 891.2 891.4 891.6 891.8 892.0 892.2 892.4 892.6 892.8 893.0
Frequency, MHz
32
32
GSM Air Interface

Receiver characteristics
Receiver sensitivities (nominal)
-104 dBm (all BS and GSM900 class 1 to 3 MS)
-102 dBm (GSM900 class 4 / 5 MS & GSM1800 MS from 1/2001)
-100 dBm (all GSM1800 MS to 12/2000)
Carrier/Interference ratio (co- and adjacent channel)

C/Ic = 9 dB, C/Ia1 = -9 dB
Equaliser performance
Maximum time dispersion: 16s
33
33
GSM Air Interface

Transmitter characteristics
MS 900 MHz
Class 1: 20 Watts, 43 dBm
MS 1800 MHz
Class 1: 1 Watt, 30 dBm
Class 2: 0.25 Watts, 24 dBm
34
34
GSM Air interface

Manufacturer specifics
Actual BTS and MS transmit powers
Tolerance +0 dB/ -2 dB
Actual receiver sensitivities

BS sensitivity from 107 dBm to 110 dBm
Hardware configuration
TRX per cell/site, antenna / combiner types, preamplifiers, cable losses
Feature availability
frequency hopping, power control, handover
algorithms, underlay/overlay
35
35
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
36
Propagation Mechanisms
36
(Nominal
units on the
graph axes)
1000
900
800
Signal power
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Distance
37
37
(Nominal
units on the
graph axes)
40
35
10 log (sig pwr)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
log distance
38
38
Free space propagation
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr + 20 log( 4 ) 20 log r
Pr : Received power, dBunit
Pt
Gt
Gr
r
: Transmitted power, dBunit

: Transmitter Antenna gain, dB
: Receiver Antenna Gain, dB
: Range between the antennas
: Wavelength
Free space propagation rarely occurs in mobile radio environments
39
39
Free space propagation
Pr :
Received power = -104 dBm
Pt :
Gr :
Gt :
F :
C :
r :
Transmitted power = 33 dBm

BS antenna gain = 16 dBi
MS antenna gain = 0 dBi
Frequency = 900 MHz
Speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
What is the maximum range
between the antennas?
40
40
Reflection
is the reflection
coefficient: a complex
value, containing both
amplitude and phase
P
41
41
Reflection
Plane earth propagation
Pr = Pt + 20 log hbhm 40 log r

hb
hm
r
42
42
Diffraction
Bending around obstacles
43
43
Diffraction
Knife edge diffraction model
d1, d2 >> h >> 1
h
d1
v=h
2 1 1
+
d1 d 2
d2
v is the effective
obstruction height
expressed in the
number of fresnel
zones obstructed
44
44
Diffraction
Fresnel zones
Fresnel Loss
5
0
Loss (dB)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
v
0.5
1.5
2.5
45
Fresnel Loss
5
0
Loss (dB)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
45
Diffraction
Calculation of diffraction loss
Ld (dB) = 0
-1
)
Ld (dB) = 20log(0.5 - 0.62
-1 0
Ld (dB) = 20log[0.5exp(- 0.95

)]
0 0.8
Ld (dB) = 20log[0.4 -
(0.1184-(0.38-0.1
)2 )]
0.8 2.4
Ld (dB) = 20log(0.225/
)
> 2.4
46
46
Diffraction
Fresnel zones
the space bounded by an ellipsoid, which has the focii
at the transmitter and receiver
d+n/2
nth Fresnel zone:

The path from transmitter to receiver via any point on the
ellipse is n
/2 longer than the direct transmitter to receiver
distance d
Shadowing occurs if an obstruction lies within the first
Fresnel zone
47
47
Refraction
Waves bend when they meet the boundary
between two materials (e.g. atmospheric
layers)
48
This is the same principle by which light bends when it passes through a
prism. It occurs when radio waves pass through the atmosphere and through
buildings.
48
Multi-path (Rayleigh) fading
Many rays take different paths to the final
destination
Path lengths are different, so phases are different
In-phase waves add up, out of phase cancel out
49
In an urban area a typical mobile receives waves from the base station from
all 360 degrees.
49
Relative signal, dB
0
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
-5
-10
-15
-20
Distance, metres
50
The phasor combination of a number of waves results in dramatic variations

in amplitude. It is emphasised by the dB scale. Zero in linear terms is -dB!
50
Stationary and slow moving mobiles
particularly affected
Problems when trying to measure a
representative signal level
Improvement measures:
Antenna diversity
Motion of the mobile
Frequency hopping
Wideband channels
51
If the signal is a bit weak, a good way to maintain a call is to pace up and
down the room very fast.
51
Shadow (log-normal) fading
Shadowing behind objects that are too small to appear
in the terrain database (e.g. buildings)
Shadowing and diffraction that is not calculated

deterministically
52
Diffraction or shadowing occurs over the tops of buildings and around

obstacles. Often this local diffraction effect is considered statistically rather
than deterministically and referred to as shadow fading, or log-normal fading
because of the nature of the probability density function.
52
Intersymbol Interference (Time dispersion)
Multipath propagation with long path delays
Impulse response:
Late echoes overlap with following bits
Increased bit error rate
Countered by equaliser in the GSM receiver
53
Waves which bounce off distant obstacles arrive some time after those that
take a direct path or which bounce off nearer structures.
By the time the wave which has travelled the longer distance has arrived, the
next bit has also arrived via the shorter path, and the two bits will interfere
with each other, causing Intersymbol Interference.
53
Intersymbol Interference
Critical are strong
echoes with a delay
of more than 4
bit-lengths (15
s)
Exercise: Calculate
critical length of
path difference
Have to be avoided by means of
Site location
Antenna azimuth and tilt
Cell splitting
54
The GSM equaliser will counteract the effects of intersymbol interference up

to 15 microseconds, but delays beyond this will cause problems. This is
particularly noticeable in mountainous regions, e.g. Switzerland, Austria etc.
54
Inter-symbol interference
Test Propagation conditions (GSM 05.05)
Received signals (rel. dB)
-5
-5
Typical Urban
TU50 (50 km/h)
-10
-15
-15
-20
5 s
Rural Area
RA250 (250 km/h)
-10
5 s
0
-5
-10
-15
Hilly Terrain
HT100 (100 km/h)
0
10
15
20
Propagation delays (
s)
55
The GSM specifications define various delay profiles which are meant to
simulate the multipath propagation in various environments. The speed of
travel must also be defined, since each signal will also be experiencing
Rayleigh fading.
55
Can be measured with a channel sounder
Using test transmitter with a known bit sequence or
the training sequence from a live GSM base station
P
nr
ive
r
D
te
ou
t
56
A channel sounder is effectively a radar system used to measure echoes.

Many of them transmit a psuedo random binary sequence correlated with
the same sequence at the receiver to extract the delay profile. A similar
technique actually uses a known sequence transmitted from each cell, called
the training sequence. Thus it is possible to measure delay profiles from
standard GSM base stations.
56
Doppler Effect
Frequency shift due to speed v: f=v/
ca. 200 Hz at 900 MHz and 250 km/h
f-f
55
Network
Consultants
/ TNC Ltd 2005
Network
Consultants
f+f
f
55 57
Doppler shift is exactly the same effect experienced when a car passes at
high speed. The frequency of the noise is higher as the car is travelling
towards you, and drops to a lower frequency as it drives away.
You experience the same thing travelling at speeds close to the speed of
light. Stars you are moving towards appear to turn blue, while ones you are
moving away from appear to turn red.
57
Ducting
Waveguide effects, e.g.:
Tunnels
Narrow valleys/gorges
Different layers in the atmosphere
Street canyons
58
If the radio waves do not spread out, but are instead confined within a
guide, the free space loss equation does not apply. If there is no loss in
the walls of the guide, then the signal can propagate long distances (e.g.
optical fibres).
58
Ducting
Extended propagation
often causes more
problems than it solves:
Frequency re-use
Neighbour cell definitions
Interference with neighbouring countries
across water
Norway
Scotland
59
Good propagation along street canyons results in very unevenly shaped cells
and undesired interference.
Very long distance propagation is possible over the sea in certain weather
conditions. TV interference sometimes exists between France and Britain,
while Cellnet experienced interference from Norwegian networks.
59
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
60
Propagation Modelling
60
Statistical models
Rx
Tx
No reflections or obstructions - free space

slope = 20
Ground reflection and line of sight - plane earth

slope = 40
Diffraction over many building tops multi-screen diffraction, slope 38
61
Real life propagation is usually a combination of free space, reflections and

diffraction, depending on the environment between the transmitter and the
receiver.
It is virtually impossible to model these effects deterministically since data of
sufficient accuracy and resolution is not available. Instead propagation
models normally attempt to describe the situation statistically.
61
Clutter loss
Shadowing behind objects that are too small
to appear in the terrain database (e.g.
buildings and trees)
Shadowing and diffraction that is not

calculated deterministically
62
Many researchers have established that the path loss is heavily influenced
by the density of the buildings or clutter in the immediate vicinity of the
mobile. Certain clutter loss figures in dB can be defined, which model the
average additional loss due to this clutter. For example, a dense urban area
might exert 30 dB more loss than open plains.
62
Statistical models
Most propagation effects are contained in the
clutter correction factor Lc for the target pixel,
and are therefore characterised by the vicinity
of the MS only
Lc
This assumption is valid if the BS antenna is well

above the surrounding clutter
63
Propagation models in a computer tool are used to calculate the path loss
from each base station to all pixels on a grid within a certain radius. Each
pixel is allocated a terrain height, so that diffraction loss can be calculated,
and a clutter type, so that clutter loss can be allocated.
63
Statistical model: Hata formula
Based on measurements by Okumura in 1968
L=69.55+26.16 log(f)-13.82 log(hb)-a(hm)+(44.9-6.55 log(hb))log(d)-Lc
L
Path loss (dB)
f
Frequency (MHz)
hb
BS antenna height (m)
hm
MS antenna height (m)
a(hm) = (1.1log(f)-0.7)hm-(1.56log(f)-0.8),
MS antenna height correction
d
Distance BS - MS (km)
Lc
Clutter correction factors (dB)
Clutter correction factors Lc (COST231):

U2:
U1:
S3:
S2:
S1:
F2:
O2:
W:
(0dB)
(3dB)
(8dB)
(5dB)
(11dB)
(9dB)
(19dB)
(29dB)
Dense Urban
Low Density Urban
Dense Suburban
Leafy Suburban
Low Density Suburban
High, dense forest
Open, few obstructions
Water
COST 231: L=46.3+33.9 log(f)-13.82 log(hb)-a(hm)+(44.9-6.55 log(hb))log(d)-Lc

64
In 1968 Okumura did a very large measurement campaign in Japan. He

derived various propagation graphs to model these results. It was not until
1980 when computers became more generally available at least to
academics, that Hata developed these graphs into a path loss formula.
He also derived various formulae for different environments, e.g. small city,
large city, rural, etc, but these have generally been superseded by clutter
loss values derived by the COST231 working group funded by the European
Commission.
COST231 also compared the formula with measurements made at 1800MHz
and found that it was necessary to modify the coefficients slightly to extend
the validity of the equation to 2GHz.
64
Statistical model: Hata formula
Important limitations
f: 200 - 2000 MHz for COST231
(Original Okumura/ Hata : - 1500 MHz)
hb: 30 - 200 m, effective antenna height
(above the target area),
BS antenna above surrounding clutter
hm: 1 - 10 m
d: 1 - 20 km
65
Any model is only valid over the range of values for which input data was
used to derive it. In the case of Hata the most significant limitation is the cell
range (1km, while many cells are less than this today) and the base antenna
height (many are less than 30 m today). This emphasises the need for
planners to do their own measurements and to calibrate their own
propagation models for the cities in which they will be used.
65
Hata propagation formula: Exercise!
Pr : Received power = -104 dBm
Pt :Transmitted power = 33 dBm
Gr :BS antenna gain = 16 dBi
Gt : MS antenna gain = 0 dBi
f:
frequency = 900 MHz
hm: Mobile height = 1.5 m
hb: Base antenna height = 25 m
Lc: Clutter correction factor = 0 dB
d:
What is the maximum range
between the antennas?
66
66
Critical cases for statistical models
Clutter type boundaries, e.g.:
Sea-Land
Forest-Open
Some propagation models

also take into account several
pixels before the target pixel
Path clutter switched on
Microcells: BS antenna below rooftop level
Microcell prediction model required
67
Although the path loss is mostly affected by clutter in the immediate vicinity
of the mobile, there are some situations where adjacent pixels also have a
significant effect. If a mobile is in an open pixel which is shadowed from the
base station by an urban or forest pixel, then the path loss will not be
correctly predicted if only the open pixel is taken into account.
It is possible to switch on the path clutter function in the propagation model,
so that the clutter value used is a weighted average of the clutter values of
the first few pixels from the mobile in the direction of the base station.
Alternatively there is a clutter heights model. This models each clutter
class as a set of fences of a given height and separation. Thus the effects
of a shadow cast by an adjacent pixel are modelled.
67
Slow (Lognormal-, Shadow-) Fading
Small scale lognormal fading
Caused by objects that are too small to appear in the
terrain database (e.g. buildings)
Target pixel
One terrain height level
One clutter classification
but no information about objects within the pixel
68
A single clutter loss factor is used in the propagation prediction, but clearly
the signal level / path loss will vary considerably. The factor is the median
value for a whole pixel, while individual buildings will cause fluctuations about
this value.
68
Lognormal / shadow fading
Received level (dBm)
Planning tool predicts only a median signal

strength value for the entire pixel
This level should be sufficiently above the
sensitivity threshold
Margin
Median
Sensitivity
Driven route
Locations with insufficient signal
69
Within the pixel, field strength will vary around the median value as the
mobile moves in and out behind buildings and other obstructions. The
median value should be sufficiently high that the amount of time or locations
that have insufficient signal are very few.
69
Small scale lognormal fading
Various measurements
(e.g. Okumura) have shown
that the instantaneous
signal levels in a shadowing
environment take a
lognormal distribution
(normal distribution in dB)
(m xi )2
with a standard deviation

N
of 5 to 7 dB in urban and suburban environments
70
The deviation of the path loss from the median value has a Normal or
Gaussian probability density function. The probability that the signal level
is between two points on the x-axis is the integral under the curve between
those two values. Therefore the probability that it is above a certain value is
the integral between that value and infinity.
Calculation of these integrals is not possible deterministically and numerical
methods must be used. Fortunately the results are well documented and
available in any book on statistics. They are nowadays commonly available
in spreadsheet functions.
The standard deviation is an indication of the spread of values.
Mathematically this is a root-mean-square value, but normalised to a zero
median.
70
Normal cumulative distribution table
(mean=0, standard deviation =1)
-1.85
3.2%
-1.90
2.9% -1.00
-0.95
-1.85
3.2% -0.90
-1.80
3.6% -0.85
-1.75
4.0% -0.80
-1.70
4.5% -0.75
-0.70
-1.65
4.9% -0.65
-1.60
5.5% -0.60
-1.55
6.1% -0.55
-1.50
6.7% -0.50
-0.45
-1.45
7.4%
-0.40
-1.40
8.1% -0.35
-1.35
8.9% -0.30
-1.30
9.7% -0.25
-1.25
10.6% -0.20
-0.15
-1.20
11.5% -0.10
-1.15
12.5% -0.05
-1.10
13.6% 0.00
-1.05
14.7% 0.05
-1.00
15.9%
Coverage
v 4.0
-0.95Planning
17.1%
-0.90
-0.85
-0.80
-0.75
-0.70
-0.65
-0.60
-0.55
-0.50
-0.45
-0.40
-0.35
-0.30
-0.28
-0.26
-0.24
-0.22
-0.20
-0.18
-0.16
-0.14
-0.12
-0.10
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
18.4%
19.8%
21.2%
22.7%
24.2%
25.8%
27.4%
29.1%
30.9%
32.6%
34.5%
36.3%
38.2%
39.0%
39.7%
40.5%
41.3%
42.1%
42.9%
43.6%
44.4%
45.2%
46.0%
46.8%
47.6%
48.4%
49.2%
50.0%
50.8%
51.6%
52.4%
53.2%
54.0%
54.8%
55.6%
56.4%
57.1%
57.9%
58.7%
59.5%
60.3%
61.0%
61.8%
62.6%
63.3%
0.35
15.87%
0.36
17.11%
0.37
18.41%
0.38
19.77%
21.19%
0.39
22.66%
0.40
24.20%
0.41
25.78%
0.42
27.43%
29.12%
0.43
30.85%
0.44
32.64%
0.45
34.46%
0.46
36.32%
0.47
38.21%
40.13%
0.48
42.07%
0.49
44.04%
0.50
46.02%
0.51
48.01%
50.00%
0.52
51.99%
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
63.7%
1.01
84.4%
1.67
0.10 53.98%
1.20
64.1%
1.02
84.6%
1.68
0.15 55.96%
1.28
64.4%
84.8%
1.69
0.20 1.03
57.93%
1.30
64.8%
85.1%
1.70
0.25 1.04
59.87%
1.32
0.30 1.05
61.79%
1.34
65.2%
85.3%
1.71
0.35 1.06
63.68%
1.36
65.5%
85.5%
1.72
0.40 65.54%
1.38
65.9%
1.07
85.8%
1.73
0.45 67.36%
1.40
66.3%
86.0%
1.74
0.50 1.08
69.15%
1.42
0.55 1.09
70.88%
1.44
66.6%
86.2%
1.75
0.60 1.10
72.57%
1.46
67.0%
86.4%
1.76
0.65 74.22%
1.48
67.4%
1.11
86.7%
1.77
0.70 75.80%
1.50
67.7%
86.9%
1.78
0.75 1.12
77.34%
1.52
68.1%
87.1%
1.79
0.80 1.13
78.81%
1.54
0.85 1.14
80.23%
1.56
68.4%
87.3%
1.80
0.90 81.59%
1.58
68.8%
1.15
87.5%
1.81
0.95 82.89%
1.60
69.1%
87.7%
1.82
1.00 1.16
84.13%
1.62
69.5%
87.9%
1.83
1.05 1.17
85.31%
1.64
1.10 1.18
86.43%
1.66
69.8%
88.1%
1.84
1.15 1.19
87.49%
1.68
70.2%
88.3%
1.85
70.5%
1.20
88.5%
1.86
Network Consultants
/ TNC Ltd 2005
70.9%
1.21
88.7%
1.87
71.2%
1.22
88.9%
1.88
71.6%
1.23
89.1%
1.89
71.9%
1.24
89.3%
1.90
72.2%
1.25
89.4%
1.91
72.6%
1.26
89.6%
1.92
72.9%
1.27
89.8%
1.93
73.2%
1.28
90.0%
1.94
73.6%
1.29
90.1%
1.95
73.9%
1.30
90.3%
1.96
74.2%
1.31
90.5%
1.97
74.5%
1.32
90.7%
1.98
74.9%
1.33
90.8%
1.99
75.2%
1.34
91.0%
2.00
75.5%
1.35
91.1%
2.01
75.8%
1.36
91.3%
2.02
76.1%
1.37
91.5%
2.03
76.4%
1.38
91.6%
2.04
76.7%
1.39
91.8%
2.05
77.0%
1.40
91.9%
2.06
77.3%
1.41
92.1%
2.07
77.6%
1.42
92.2%
2.08
77.9%
1.43
92.4%
2.09
78.2%
1.44
92.5%
2.10
78.5%
1.45
92.6%
2.11
78.8%
1.46
92.8%
2.12
79.1%
1.47
92.9%
2.13
79.4%
1.48
93.1%
2.14
79.7%
1.49
93.2%
2.15
80.0%
1.50
93.3%
2.16
80.2%
1.51
93.4%
2.17
80.5%
1.52
93.6%
2.18
80.8%
1.53
93.7%
2.19
81.1%
1.54
93.8%
2.20
81.3%
1.55
93.9%
2.21
81.6%
1.56
94.1%
2.22
81.9%
1.57
94.2%
2.23
82.1%
1.58
94.3%
2.24
82.4%
1.59
94.4%
2.25
82.6%
1.60
94.5%
2.26
82.9%
1.61
94.6%
2.27
83.1%
1.62
94.7%
2.28
83.4%
1.63
94.8%
2.29
83.6%
1.64
94.9%
2.30
83.9%
1.65
95.1%
2.31
84.1%
1.66
95.2%
2.32
95.3%
88.49%
95.4%
90.00%
95.4%
90.35%
95.5%
90.68%
91.01%
95.6%
91.33%
95.7%
91.64%
95.8%
91.95%
95.9%
92.24%
92.53%
96.0%
92.81%
96.1%
93.08%
96.2%
93.34%
96.2%
93.59%
96.3%
93.84%
94.08%
96.4%
94.31%
96.5%
94.54%
96.6%
94.75%
96.6%
94.97%
95.17%
96.7%
95.37%
96.8%
96.9%
96.9%
97.0%
97.1%
97.1%
97.2%
97.3%
97.3%
97.4%
97.4%
97.5%
97.6%
97.6%
97.7%
97.7%
97.8%
97.8%
97.9%
97.9%
98.0%
98.0%
98.1%
98.1%
98.2%
98.2%
98.3%
98.3%
98.3%
98.4%
98.4%
98.5%
98.5%
98.5%
98.6%
98.6%
98.6%
98.7%
98.7%
98.7%
98.8%
98.8%
98.8%
98.9%
98.9%
98.9%
99.0%
99.0%
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.58
2.59
2.60
2.61
2.62
2.63
2.64
2.65
2.66
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.70
2.71
2.72
2.73
2.74
2.75
2.76
2.77
2.78
2.79
2.80
2.81
2.82
2.83
2.84
2.85
2.86
2.87
2.88
2.89
2.90
2.91
2.92
2.93
2.94
2.95
2.96
2.97
2.98
99.0%
99.0%
99.1%
99.1%
99.1%
99.1%
99.2%
99.2%
99.2%
99.2%
99.2%
99.3%
99.3%
99.3%
99.3%
99.3%
99.4%
99.4%
99.4%
99.4%
99.4% 71
99.4%
99.5%
99.5%
99.5%
99.5%
99.5%
99.5%
99.5%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.6%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.7%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.8%
99.9%
99.9%
71
Shadow fading margins
to take the effects of small scale lognormal
fading into account
Cell edge
probability
Cell area
probability
Margin for
= 7dB
50 %
75 %
90 %
95 %
77 %
91 %
97 %
99 %
0
5 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Exercise:
Margins for
= 9dB
Increase value of to take into account

prediction model inaccuracy
72
The standard deviation of the signal level relative to the actual (measured)
median for a pixel is found to be about 5 dB to 7 dB.
However, we are interested in the standard deviation relative to the predicted
median. Since the propagation model will not be 100% accurate, the
predicted median will differ from the true median. The standard deviation of
the signal level relative to this predicted median will be greater than that
relative to the true median.
More accurate propagation models will have a lower standard deviation. The
accuracy of the model can normally be determined by comparing measured
values against predicted values in the relevant module in the planning tool.
NB. The error spread is sometimes expressed as Root Mean Square, or
RMS error, rather than standard deviation.
72
Model accuracy
Degree of calibration
Hata uncalibrated
> 13 dB
Hata, clutter calibrated
~10 dB
Hata, all coefficients calibrated
~8 - 9 dB
Including path clutter
~7 - 8 dB
Separate model for each sector
~6 - 7 dB
73
If more effort can be put into calibrating a model it can be made more
accurate. However, diminishing returns may apply. It is relatively easy to
improve a model to give 8 to 9 dB standard deviation, or under 8 dB if path
clutter is included, To improve on this would require a separate model for
each cell and preferably very detailed building data.
73
Deterministic propagation models
e.g. Walfisch-Ikegami
Line-of-Sight (LOS) case: Free space
propagation
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) case:
Multi-screen diffraction loss (several buildings)
Roof-to-Street diffraction loss and scatter
hb
hm
w
74
The Walfisch Ikegami model was an attempt to enable radio planners to

begin predictions without the need for a campaign of calibration
measurements. The intention was that by looking at the building heights,
separations and street widths, it should be possible to have a reasonably
accurate model without any RF measurements.
74
Deterministic propagation models
e.g. Microcell models
Ray tracing
Very time consuming - but most accurate
Vector following
Quicker and quite accurate
2- dimensional or 3- dimensional
Infinitely high buildings or
Rays pass round and over
75
75
Microcell prediction models:
Field strength
76
In this diagram the signal is shown as field strength (dBV/m). This is

related to the signal power (dBm) in the same way that volts is related to
power in an electrical circuit.
Notice that the signal level inside the buildings is lower than on the streets,
since the propagation model explicitly adds the loss through each wall.
Statistical macrocell models do not do this, since they predict a median
signal for a whole 50m pixel, and the signal threshold is adjusted to allow for
building loss.
76
Geographical data
Planning tool requires in
sufficient resolution:
Terrain height
Morphology
(Clutter, land use)
Vectors
(Roads, rivers, railways)
Sources:
Terrain
Database
(DTM)
Paper maps (Restrictions

apply in many countries)
Satellite imagery (Requires
post processing - available off the shelf)
Aerial photographs
77
Planning tools need sufficient disk space for the terrain and clutter data. A
country of 250 000 km2 requires 100 megapixels, with each pixel taking up
about 8 bytes, at least 1Gbyte of disk space is needed. Not a problem now,
but 10 years ago it was a different story
Most of the value in clutter data is in the post processing. Satellite and aerial
photographs are interesting to look at. However, for use in a planning tool it
is necessary to convert collections of buildings interspersed with open space
into areas of particular clutter classes. The best way to do this is still by eye,
although image processing techniques are improving.
77
Geographical data
Microcell prediction models: Clutter data
78
The buildings in this example are indicated using pixels in the same way as
conventional clutter data, as raster data. Two disadvantages arise from this
technique:
First the amount of data becomes huge. Instead of a country requiring 1
Gbyte of data at 50m resolution it would now require 400 Gbytes. It would
only be possible to store maps of city centres at this resolution.
Second: The edges of the buildings are all ragged to to the pixellation. This
would lead to incorrect diffraction calculations around the buildings.
The solution is to use vector data instead, so that a building could be
represented by the co-ordinates of its 4 corners. This saves space and also
results in the correct modelling of diffraction around its walls.
78
Model calibration
Typical terrain and clutter features can differ
from city to city and influence radio
propagation
Planning tool must be calibrated for available

topographical data for best prediction results
79
79
Model calibration
A + B log f + C log Hb + (D - E log Hb) log d + Lc
Calibrate coefficients for zero mean error and

minimum standard deviation of error
Path loss, dB
Error
Log distance
80
The coefficients A to E should be calibrated, as well as each different value

of Lc, in order to achieve the minimum standard deviation of error. A can
always be adjusted to give a zero mean error.
The graph shows how A and (D-E log Hb) can be calibrated by plotting path
loss against log D. Similar plots are needed for log f to find B, and for log Hb
to find C. However, the coefficients are not orthogonal, so the process is
very long winded and iterative.
80
Model calibration
Sufficient measurements must be collected:
for different antenna heights and frequencies
for all clutter types
at different distances from the transmitter
in various street widths and orientations
with and without diffraction
Features like tunnels, bridges are excluded

Urban
Path loss, dB
Rural
Log distance
81
A common problem is that although vast amounts of data are collected,

there are insufficient measurements available to calibrate the particular
coefficients. For example if data is only collected between 1km and 4 km
from the site, this will not enable a good estimate of the slope to be made.
Measurements should be collected from about 250m to about 10km from a
site for best results.
Each clutter class ought to be analysed separately, otherwise a false slope
will be found as illustrated in the diagram.
81
CW measurement procedures
Various street widths and directions in built
up areas
Accurate conduct, especially with regard to
antenna installation and measurement
documentation
Regular calibration of measurement
equipment
82
Murphys Law:
If anything can go wrong with a measurement exercise it will.
If nothing can go wrong with a measurement exercise it will still go wrong
There is a tendency for drivers to follow the wide streets which are radial to
the site, because it is easier. Proper representative measurements need to
cover all street directions and narrower streets as well as wide ones.
82
CW measurement procedures
Choice of antenna: Omni or Directional?
Measurement antenna should be the same as
planned BS antenna
Directional has higher gain: more dynamic range
Omni measurement antenna allows 360 survey
Sector antenna patterns may be unreliable
outside the 3 dB beamwidth
83
An omni antenna can give different propagation characteristics to a sector

because it may lead to reflections which would not be generated by the
sector configuration. Therefore it is best to use the same antenna
configuration as is planned for the actual BS.
Directional antennas also have more gain, so more dynamic range will be
possible, which means that measurements can be made out to greater
distances.
On the other hand omni antennas allow a continuous 360 degree survey, so
logistics are easier. Also, measurements outside the 3dB beam-width of a
sector antenna must be excluded from the analysis.
83
Model calibration
A time consuming task, but some automatic
algorithms can help, for example:
Newton-Raphson
Gauss-Seidel
Jacobi
(ref: Advanced Engineering Mathematics: E.Kreyszig)
84
84
Types of RF measurements
Signal level (CW) measurements
Verification of critical and borderline coverage areas
Calibration of the prediction model
Microcell planning without suitable prediction model
GSM test mobile (TMS) measurements

Analysis of system parameters and handover
behaviour (during network optimisation)
Reflection (Channel Sounder) measurements

Analysis of multipath propagation and delay spread
85
85
CW measurements
In a fading environment, a suitable averaging
procedure is crucial
Level
Aim to eliminate the Rayleigh-Fading, but not the

Lognormal Fading
before
after averaging
t
86
A combination of Rayleigh fading and Log-normal fading is being measured,

making individual measurements unrepresentative. A system of averaging is
required that will remove the short term fluctuations and leave us with
samples that can be realistically compared with the predicted values.
The predicted values are medians for 50 x 50m or 100m x 100m pixels. We
would like to know the standard deviation around these values, so it is
desirable not to remove the log-normal fading component. However, the
Rayleigh fading is un-predictable so is of no interest to us when calibrating a
prediction model. The Rayleigh component needs to be averaged out.
86
CW measurement equipment
Antenna
Antenna
Transmitter
Navigation
Amplifier
Receiver /
Processor
Dynamic range:
20 dB more than GSM
GSM:155dB,
Measurements: 175dB
Storage
Trigger
87
A measurement system consists of a transmitter, receiver, navigation device

and storage device. The trigger, possibly driven from the wheels, or possibly
on a time-base, marks when a measurement is to be taken.
Sufficient power must be transmitted, and the receiver must have sufficient
sensitivity to enable measurements to be taken well beyond the normal cell
radius, so that the model is valid for the calculation of interference as well as
coverage. Therefore a dynamic range of at least 20dB more than that of
GSM is desired.
GSM test mobiles are not suitable for calibration measurements for this
reason.
87
Averaging
Lee-Criterion:
Minimum sampling rates for allowable RMS error
RMS error
(dB)
Number of
averaged
samples
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
144
36
16
9
Maximum
sampling interval
()
0.28
1.11
2.50
4.44
Averaging intervals
< 40 outdoor (~13.5m at 900 MHz)

< 20 indoor (~ 6.5m at 900 MHz)
88
A much quoted averaging technique was defined by W C Y Lee. He took a

heavily over sampled data set of a few metres of measurements in a
Rayleigh fading environment and calculated the TRUE mean of those. He
then took various sub-samples of these and determined how much variation
there was when he used various numbers of samples. He found that 144
samples were necessary to ensure that the RMS (Standard deviation) of the
error was less than 0.5dB.
In order not to average out the log-normal fading, the averaging window
should be less than the size of a building, or less than about 15m. This
corresponds to about 40 wavelengths at 900 MHz, and 80 at 1800 MHz.
Thus if 144 measurements are taken every 15 metres, the distance between
measurements will be about 0.25 wavelengths at 900MHz or 0.5
wavelengths at 1800MHz. This is satisfactory considering that Rayleigh
fades can be as little as half a wavelength apart.
88
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
89
Improvement measures
89
Antenna (Space-) Diversity
Combination of received
signals from separated
antennas
Normally only used on uplink
Fading in the two receiver paths

must be independent (uncorrelated)
Correlation factor k: Function of antenna
separation
RX
90
The hope is, that statistically, if one antenna is in a fade, the other one wont
be.
90
Antenna Diversity
Different combining methods
Switched (Selection) Diversity
The currently strongest signal is selected
Equal Gain Combining

Mix the two signals in equal proportions
Maximum Ratio Combining

(nowadays commonly used)
The individual signals are weighted
according to their S/N ratios, co-phased,
amplified, and finally combined.
91
Combining may be done at RF or at baseband. Baseband combining

involves selection of the path which gives the lowest bit error rate determined
on a burst by burst basis.
91
Antenna Diversity
Switched Combining
RX A
RX B
Switch
Signal A
Signal B
Result
92
Switched combining simply results in the better of the two signals being
used.
92
Antenna Diversity
Maximum Ratio Combining
Signal A
Signal B
Result
93
Maximum ratio combining uses energy from both paths so the resulting
signal is higher than either individual signal.
93
Antenna Diversity
Performance of different combining methods, k=0.7
12
Maximum Ratio
Equal Gain
Gain (dB)
10
8
6
Selection
4
2
0
9 10
Number of branches N
94
Maximum ratio combining gives the best results and is most commonly used.
Normally the number of branches used is 2, so the expected gain is 3 dB.
94
Antenna Diversity
Diversity gain vs. correlation factor
Gain (dB)
Maximum Ratio combining, 50 km/h

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Correlation coefficient k
95
As the correlation between the antennas increases, the expected gain

decreases. If the two signals are completely correlated then there is no gain.
95
Vertical antenna diversity
Achievable decorrelation vs. antenna spacing

RX-Div
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
TX
RX
5
10
15
20
25
Antenna separation (wavelength)
30
96
Vertically spaced diversity receive antennas are not common, since at 900
MHz the two antennas would need to be about 6 m apart. This only makes
sense on relatively tall masts. This configuration has generally only been
used in rural areas, but the tendency is to replace them with horizontal space
diversity.
96
RX
TX RX-Div.
Horizontal antenna diversity
Better decorrelation
Directional effect
=5
= 45
= 90
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Omni cell
RX
10
20
30
40
50
Antenna separation (wavelengths)
TX
RX-Div.
Effective
cell area
97
Decorrelation is better with horizontal space diversity, but the problem is the
correlation varies with direction.This is not too bad for a sectored cell, but it
gives a non-circular shape to an omni cell.
For sufficient decorrelation at an angle of 45 degrees from the beam
direction, 900MHz antennas need to be about 2.3m apart. For 1800MHz the
separation reduces to 1.15m.
97
Antenna diversity
The diversity gain also depends on
clutter density
difference between the average signal levels in
the 2 branches
direction of movement of the MS
BS antenna height
Other diversity techniques

Antenna Polarisation diversity
Frequency diversity
Time diversity
98
The gain figure assumed is an average. The actual figure at any instant in
time might vary from this average.
Space receive diversity has been commonly used for many years, but
increasingly there are new techniques available, notable polarisation
diversity.
98
Antenna diversity polarisation
Signals in orthogonal polarisations are
uncorrelated.
Phase changes at reflection surface:
99
An electromagnetic wave is effectively an oscillating vector. Like any vector it

can be resolved into two components at 90 degrees to each other. These
might be horizontal and vertical, or they may be +45and 45.
Each polarisation behaves differently when it is reflected. If the polarisation is
perpendicular to the reflection surface the phase changes by 180. If it is
parallel to the surface there is no phase change. After many reflections
(often at somewhere between perpendicular and parallel) the two
polarisations become decorrelated in their phase.
Rayleigh fades in the two polarisations are therefore also decorrelated and a
cross-polar antenna can be used for diversity reception.
99
Polarisation diversity
Cross-polarised (X-polarised) antenna:
Diversity gains comparable to horizontal
space diversity (a bit more in urban areas)
RX
RX-D
RX
RX-D
100
It is possible to encase an array of cross polar antennas into one random

(antenna casing), rather than having to have two casings which is the
requirement with space diversity.
This dramatically improves the environmental impact of a site.
100
Polarisation diversity
A 3-sector site with
cross polar antennas.
Lighter mast structure
than with 2 antennas
per sector
101
With cross polarised antennas it is possible to have both receive paths

contained in the same ray dome (antenna cover). With duplexors, both of
these can also double up as transmitting antennas.
It is also possible to purchase products which have all three sectors
contained within one tube of about 30cm radius. Hence it is possible to
disguise the mast and antenna structure as a telegraph pole or chimney.
101
Time diversity
Send message again if not received
= pardon for voice
= packet resend in data networks
Spread message out over time

Only part of message may be lost in a fade
Recover lost bits using channel coding (Forward
Error Correction)
Interleaving in GSM spreads a speech frame
over 8 TDMA frames
102
The GPRS packet radio service for GSM resends data when necessary. The
circuit switched data and voice channels organise the bits for transmission
such that a 20ms frame is transmitted over a 40ms period. This prevents
many bits from the same frame being lost in one fade.
102
Frequency diversity
Received Level (rel. dB)
Fading envelope has a Frequency

dependency as well as distance dependency
Different frequency waves arrive with different
phases
0
-10
-20
-30
Frequency
103
At different frequencies the wavelength is of course different, so the phase of

waves arriving at a particular point is going to be different for different
frequencies. At one frequency this may result in a fade while at another
frequency there may be no fade.
The potential therefore exists to transmit on more than one frequency and
choose the one giving the best signal. However, this would be wasteful of
capacity. Instead transmission takes place on a number of frequencies in
turn, that is the transmissions hops across different frequencies .
Error correction coding and interleaving enable the data lost to be retrieved.
103
Frequency Hopping
f1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
f2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
f3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
TDMA frame
(8 time slots)
Call in progress changes carrier frequency every TDMA
frame
Limitation: Control channel carrying time slots
104
All the timeslots in one TDMA frame on one BS transceiver use the same
frequency. The frequency is changed between timeslot 7 and 0 every 4.615
ms.
The BCCH channel is carried on timeslot 0 of the first transceiver. This
cannot hop, since mobiles in idle mode decode information from this
channel. They also measure the signal level received from this transceiver
and that must be a fixed frequency.
It is nevertheless possible to hop traffic channels onto and off the BCCH
carrier, provided that when there is no traffic burst on the BCCH carrier,
there is a dummy burst transmitted instead.
104
Frequency hopping
Margin (dB) re. 50 km/h
Required fast fading margins

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
No hopping
2 freqs.
4 freqs.
1
10
100
Mobile speed (km/h)
1000
105
Hopping improves the bit error rate in a Rayleigh fading environment. At

higher speeds, the movement of the mobile tends to give some improvement
anyway, so the additional improvement due to the hopping is less.
A 3-4dB margin for fast fading is included in the calculation of the GSM
receiver sensitivity, so it does not need to be included additionally when
calculating the link budget.
105
Frequency Hopping
The fading processes on the different
frequencies in the hopping sequence must be
decorrelated
function of the frequency spacing
1 MHz for k < 0.5 (corellation bandwidth)
106
If the channel hops to a frequency which is too close, then there is a

possibility that the mobile will be experiencing the same fade at both
frequencies. Just as for antenna diversity, the two channels must be decorrelated. Experiments have shown that a frequency spacing of about
1MHz gives sufficient de-correlation. This is the correlation bandwidth and
corresponds to 5 GSM frequency channels of 200kHz.
106
Frequency Hopping
The hopping gain increases with the number
of frequencies involved
Hopping with more than 8 frequencies (Ideal
Hopping) does not deliver additional gains
Interleaving depth is 8
107
More frequencies gives improved gain, until the interleaving depth is

reached. Each speech or data frame is transmitted over 8 bursts / timeslots.
The maximum improvement is achieved when each burst is sent on 8
different frequencies. If the hopping sequence has more than 8 frequencies,
then the data frame still only uses 8 of them.
107
Frequency hopping
GSM speech frame: 260 bits
50bits Class Ia
132bits class Ib
78 bits class II
Error Correction coding
456 bits after coding

108
A GSM speech frame consists of 260 bits and is generated once every 20
ms. In a speech frame some of the bits are more important than others, and
have more coding, but overall the coding increases the number of bits to 456
per frame.
108
Re-ordering
456 bits
TDMA bursts
F1
F4
456 bits
456 bits
456 bits
F6
F3
F2
F8
F5
F7
109
The coded bits are jumbled up or re-ordered because the error correction
coding can correct errors that are randomly distributed, but not bunches or
bursts of errors.
Each 456 frame is split into 8 blocks of 57 bits. Each block of 57 is
transmitted on a different burst in a different timeslot. Each burst carries a
total of 114 traffic bits, so it carries bits from two frames.
If a burst is lost in a frame it means that 12.5% of the bits are lost.
However, these are randomly distributed because of the re-ordering, so the
error correction coding manages to recover the original data after the bits are
un-re-ordered.
109
Frequency Hopping
Baseband Hopping
Hopping over as many frequencies as TRXs
are installed in the cell
minus 1 (BCCH carrier)
TX Ant.
f1
TRX2
f2
f1
f2
TRX3
f3
TRX4
f4
f3
f4
Filter Combiner
Frequency
Hopping Unit
Baseband
(TDMA Frames)
TRX1
110
Between timeslots is a 28s guard period. The base station must change
frequencies during this period. Early base station technology (pre-95) was
not able to achieve this, so baseband hopping was used instead. The TRXs
transmit on fixed frequencies, and once every TDMA frame, the inputs to
these TRXs are changed around so that any one traffic channel is
transmitted on a number of frequencies.
This means that there must be one TRX for each frequency in the hopping
sequence.
110
Frequency Hopping
Synthesised or RF Hopping
Hopping over more frequencies than TRXs
Greater hopping gains possible with fewer TRXs
f1
TRX2
f2,f3,f4...fn
TX Ant.
Hybrid
Combiner
Baseband
(TDMA Frames)
TRX1
111
Later it became possible to re-tune a transceiver within the 28s guard

period using radio synthesiser tuners. Now it is possible to have hopping
over all the available frequencies on just one TRX.
111
Frequency Hopping
BCCH timeslot does not hop, so cell range
unchanged
Non-Hopping
Hopping
0
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 Non-Hopping
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
Hopping
BCCH frequency always transmits constant

level at constant frequency
Quality improved on hopping channels
112
There is no coverage range improvement with frequency hopping because

the BCCH channel is the limiting factor. There are two ways to organise the
hopping. Either the BCCH TRX does not hop, or timeslot zero can be set
not to hop.
112
Equalisation
Compensates for excess path delay
Input
Taps
Output
Algorithm
Known bit sequence
113
The GSM equaliser compensates for multipath propagation to prevent

intersymbol interference. There are many times of equaliser, but
fundamentally they work by comparing a received bit stream with a known
locally generated bit stream and adjusting time-delayed feedback taps to
minimise the difference between the two.
The feedback taps effectively cancel out the delayed echoes in amplitude
and phase.
113
Equalisation
26 bit Training sequence transmitted once per
burst (4.615 ms)
Compare received bits with known values
Adjust tap weights to reduce errors
114
Each cell transmits a known 26 bit training sequence in the middle of each
burst which is different for each cell.
114
Equaliser performance
Relative S/N (dB)
2
0
-2
10
20
25
30
P1 - P2 = 15 dB
-4
-6
P1 - P2 = 10 dB
-8
-10
Time delay (s)
P1 - P2 = 0 dB
115
The GSM equaliser has 4 taps corresponding to 4 bit periods. For delays
longer than 4 bit periods, the performance of the equaliser becomes
considerably worse, especially for strong echoes (P1-P2 is small).
For less than 4 bit periods there can be a small gain because the energy
from the various echoes can be combined.
115
Repeaters
Receive a weak signal and re-transmit it
116
Sometimes to try to reduce costs, repeaters are used to extend coverage to

areas which are not covered by the main base station. This technique is
particularly useful for providing coverage to within buildings or tunnels, but is
also sometimes used for providing more economical coverage to rural areas.
However, the cost of small base stations has reduced in the last few years
and the economic advantages of repeaters is less pronounced now.
116
Repeaters
Receive a weak signal and re-transmit it
Issues:
Antenna decoupling (feedback)
Link budget
Timing advance
Excess path delay
117
The repeater is essentially a bi-directional high gain amplifier. The gain is

very high (80 dB), so small signals leaking back from the transmitter to the
receiver can be re-amplified and the system can easily go into oscillation
unless set up very carefully.
For fixed gain repeaters, the transmit power is not known until the received
power is known. Therefore planning based on propagation prediction is
difficult.
A mobile may receive signal both from the base station directly and a
delayed signal from the repeater. If the delay is longer than the equaliser
window of 15s, then the signal will not be received properly.
Repeaters can be cascaded to provide extended coverage along rural roads.
However, they can then result in a total path length longer than the GSM
maximum of 35km.
117
Mast Head Amplifiers
Tower top amplifiers
Low noise pre-amplifiers
Low noise amp., at BS antenna
Reduces noise figure of system

particularly interesting for 1800 MHz coverage
F = F1 +
F2 1 F3 1
+
+ .......
G1
G1G2
Exposed to weather, special O&M required
118
MHAs (also known as LNAs) are inserted at the very front of the receiver
chain to reduce the system noise figure.
The improvement due to the MHA depends on the sensitivity of the base
station, the cable loss, the noise figure of the pre-amplifier and the gain of
the pre-amplifier.
118
Cable losses:
Typical 4-6dB/100m main

feeder cable (1800 MHz)
BS jumper cables and MS
external antenna feeders
have higher losses
Each connector absorbs
about 0.1 dB
MHA amplifies signal before this
additional noise takes effect
RX Ant.
Pre-amp.
+...6dB
RX
119
119
F = F1 +
RX Ant.
Mast pre-amplifiers: Exercise

F2 1 F3 1
+
+ .......
G1
G1G2
BS noise figure = 8 dB
BS amp gain = 12 dB
Cable loss = cable noise figure = 3 dB
Pre-amplifier noise figure = 1.5 dB
Pre-amp gain = 12 dB
Pre-amp.
+...6dB
What is the improvement?

What if BS noise figure =4dB
& cable loss =2dB?
RX
120
120
Mast pre-amplifiers: Solution
BS noise figure = 8 dB = 6.3
BS amp gain = 12 dB = 15.8
Cable loss = 3 dB (Gain = 0.5)
Cable noise figure = 3dB = 2
Pre-amplifier noise figure = 1.5 dB = 1.41
Pre-amp gain = 12 dB = 15.8
Without MHA:
Fsystem= 2 + (6.3-1)/0.5 = 2+10.6 = 12.6 = 11.0 dB
With MHA:
Fsystem= 1.41 + (2-1)/15.8 + (6.3-1)/(15.8 x 0.5)
= 1.41 + 0.06 + 0.67 = 2.14 = 3.3 dB
Improvement = 11.0 3.3 dB = 7.7 dB
121
121
Mast pre-amplifiers: Solution (Part 2)
BS noise figure = 4 dB = 2.51
BS amp gain = 12 dB = 15.8
Cable loss = 2 dB (Gain = 0.63)
Cable noise figure = 2 dB = 1.58
Pre-amplifier noise figure = 1.5 dB = 1.41
Pre-amp gain = 12 dB = 15.8
Without MHA:
Fsystem= 1.58 + (2.51-1)/0.63 = 1.58+2.40 = 3.98 = 6.0 dB
With MHA:
Fsystem= 1.41 + (1.58-1)/15.8 + (2.51-1)/(15.8 x 0.63)
= 1.41 + 0.04 + 0.15 = 1.6 = 2.0 dB
Improvement = 6.0 2.0 dB = 4.0 dB
122
122
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
123
Link Budgets
123
Link Budgets
Link budgets (Power budgets):
Calculation of the transmission path
k
in
nl
w
k
Do plin
U
Uplink calculation (weakest link):

Maximum allowable path loss
(Average cell sizes)
Downlink calculation:
Required BS transmit power for
LINK BALANCE
(Coverage planning thresholds)
124
124
Link Budgets
Link Balance
Insufficient uplink power

Mobile shows service,
but there isnt any
Unnecessary downlink interference
Mobile tries to Handover to unsuitable
cell based on downlink measurements
125
125
Link Budgets
Link Balance
Insufficient downlink power

Cell size /coverage quality could
easily be improved with more BS power
Mobile tries to Handover to unsuitable
cell based on uplink measurements
126
126
Link Budgets
Example: Outdoor for GSM900 MS class 4:
Uplink
Uplink
MS
MS transmit
transmit power
power
(GSM
(GSM class
class 4):
4):
MS
MS cable
cable losses:
losses:
MS
MS antenna
antenna gain:
gain:
Body
Body loss:
loss:
Indoor
Indoor penetration
penetration loss:
loss:
Max.
Max. allowable
allowable path
path loss:
loss:
Lognormal
Lognormal fading
fading margin:
margin:
Fast
Fast fading
fading margin:
margin:
BS
BS antenna
antenna gain:
gain:
Mast pre-amp
improvement
Mast
pre-amp
improvement
Mast
pre-amplifier
gain:
Mast
pre-amplifier
gain:
Mast
pre-amp
improvement
BS
BS cable
cable losses:
losses:
Duplexer
Duplexer loss:
loss:
Diversity
Diversity gain:
gain:
BS
BS RX
RX sensitivity:
sensitivity:
Unit
Unit
33
33 dBm
dBm
00 dB
dB
00 dBi
dBi
-2
-2 dB
dB
00 dB
dB
-138
-138
dB
138 dB
-12
-12 dB
dB
00 dB
dB
16
16 dBi
dBi
00 dB
dB
-3
-3 dB
dB
-1
-1 dB
dB
33 dB
dB
-104
-104 dBm
dBm
dBm
dBm
cum.
cum.
33
33
33
33
33
33
31
31
31
31
-107
-107
-119
-119
-119
-119
-103
-103
-103
-103
-106
-106
-107
-107
-104
-104
Downlink
Downlink
BS
BS transmit
transmit power
power (incl.
(incl.
duplexer/combiner
duplexer/combiner losses):
losses):
BS
BS cable
cable losses:
losses:
BS
BS antenna
antenna gain:
gain:
Max.
Max. allowable
allowable path
path loss:
loss:
Lognormal
Lognormal fading
fading margin:
margin:
Fast
Fast fading
fading margin:
margin:
Indoor
Indoor penetration
penetration loss:
loss:
Body
Body loss:
loss:
MS
MS antenna
antenna gain:
gain:
MS
MS cable
cable losses:
losses:
MS
MS RX
RX sensitivity
sensitivity (class
(class 4):
4):
Unit
Unit
37
37
37 dBm
dBm
-3
-3 dB
dB
16
16 dBi
dBi
-138
-138 dB
dB
-12
-12 dB
dB
00 dB
dB
00 dB
dB
-2
-2 dB
dB
00 dBi
dBi
00 dB
dB
-102
-102 dBm
dBm
dBm
dBm
cum.
cum.
37
37
34
34
50
50 EIRP
EIRP
-88
-88 Threshh.
Threshh.
-100
-100
-100
-100
-100
-100
-102
-102
-102
-102
-102
-102
Example
Example link
link budget:
budget: GSM
GSM MS
MS class
class 4,
4, outdoor
outdoor
127
To calculate the link budget, begin with the weakest link (uplink) and
calculate the maximum allowable path loss which corresponds to a received
signal at the base station equal to the sensitivity.
Next, use the calculated maximum path loss in the downlink equation to
determine the BS transmit power. This is to be set in the planning tool.
The signal level threshold for the planning tool can then be calculated as BS
power cable loss + antenna gain path loss.
127
Link Budgets
Example: Outdoor for GSM900 MS class 4
EIRP = Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
The amount of power needed for a 0 dBi antenna
(isotropic) to transmit the same power density in
the main beam direction
Signal level threshold

The predicted median signal in a pixel which is
required to provide the given probability of
coverage
128
128
Link Budgets
Example: Indoor for GSM900 MS class 4:
Uplink
MS transmit power
(GSM class 4):
MS cable losses:
MS antenna gain:
Body loss:
Indoor penetration loss:
Max. allowable path loss:
Lognormal fading margin:
Fast fading margin:
BS antenna gain:
Mast pre-amp
improvement
Mast
pre-amplifier
gain:
BS cable losses:
Duplexer loss:
Diversity gain:
BS RX sensitivity:
Unit
33
0
0
-2
-17
-121
-12
0
16
0
-3
-1
3
-104
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
33
33
33
31
14
-107
-119
-119
-103
-103
-106
-107
-104
Downlink
BS transmit power (incl.
BS cable losses:
BS antenna gain:
Fast fading margin:
Body loss:
MS antenna gain:
MS cable losses:
MS RX sensitivity (class 4):
Unit
37
-3
16
-121
-12
0
-17
-2
0
0
-102
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
37
34
50 EIRP
-71 Threshh.
-83
-83
-100
-102
-102
-102
Example link budget: GSM MS class 4, indoor
129
129
Link Budgets
Example: Car-mounted GSM900 MS class 2
Uplink
MS transmit power
(GSM class 2):
MS cable losses:
MS antenna gain:
Body loss:
Fast fading margin:
BS antenna gain:
Mast
pre-amplifier
gain:
Mast pre-amp
improvement
BS cable losses:
Duplexer loss:
Diversity gain:
BS RX sensitivity:
Unit
39
-2
2
0
0
-146
-12
0
16
0
-3
-1
3
-104
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
39
37
39
39
39
-107
-119
-119
-103
-103
-106
-107
-104
Downlink
BS cable losses:
BS antenna gain:
Fast fading margin:
Body loss:
MS antenna gain:
MS cable losses:
Unit
41
-3
16
-146
-12
0
0
0
2
-2
-104
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
41
38
54 EIRP
-92 Threshh.
-104
-104
-104
-104
-102
-104
Example link budget: GSM MS class 2, car-mounted
130
130
Link Budgets
Indoor coverage for GSM1800 MS class 1:
Uplink
MS transmit power
(DCS class 1):
MS cable losses:
MS antenna gain:
Body loss:
Fast fading margin:
BS antenna gain:
Mast pre-amp
improvement
Mast
pre-amplifier
gain:
BS cable losses:
Duplexer loss:
Diversity gain:
BS RX sensitivity:
Unit
30
0
0
-2
-17
-120
-12
0
18
0
-3
-1
3
-104
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
30
30
30
28
11
-109
-121
-121
-103
-103
-106
-107
-104
Downlink
BS cable losses:
BS antenna gain:
Fast fading margin:
Body loss:
MS antenna gain:
MS cable losses:
Unit
36
-3
18
-120
-12
0
-17
-2
0
0
-100
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
36
33
51 EIRP
-69 Threshh.
-81
-81
-98
-100
-100
-100
Example link budget: DCS MS class 1, indoor
131
131
Link Budgets
Indoor coverage for GSM1800 MS class 1:
Uplink
MS transmit power
(DCS class 1):
MS cable losses:
MS antenna gain:
Body loss:
Fast fading margin:
BS antenna gain:
Mastpre-amp
pre-amplifier
gain:
Mast
improvement
BS cable losses:
Duplexer loss:
Diversity gain:
BS RX sensitivity:
Unit
30
0
0
-2
-17
-126
-12
0
18
6
-3
-1
3
-104
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
30
30
30
28
11
-115
-127
-127
-109
-103
-106
-107
-104
Downlink
BS cable losses:
BS antenna gain:
Fast fading margin:
Body loss:
MS antenna gain:
MS cable losses:
Unit
42
-3
18
-126
-12
0
-17
-2
0
0
-100
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dBm
cum.
42
39
57 EIRP
-69 Threshh.
-81
-81
-98
-100
-100
-100
Example link budget: DCS MS class 1, indoor,

w ith m ast pre -a mplifie r
132
132
Link Budgets
Fading margins determine the quality in terms
of probability of coverage:
Coverage
probability
(cell edge)
Coverage
probability
(cell area)
Fade
margin
(=7dB)
Fade
margin
( = 9dB)
Excellent
95 %
99 %
11.5 dB
14.8 dB
Very good
90 %
97 %
9.0 dB
11.5 dB
"Good"
75 %
91 %
4.7 dB
6.0 dB
Quality
133
133
Link Budgets
Median building penetration loss: e.g. 13dB
Difference between the median signals outside the
building and inside (both on ground floor level)
Shed in open area:
Suburban house:
Suburban commercial
buildings
Urban commercial
buildings
0.4 (wood) ... 29 (corrugated iron,

metal-screened windows)
3 (wood) ... 12 (vynil cladding over
foil insulation)
13 (various)
11 (various) ... 18 (concrete and
glass)
(COST231: 900 MHz measurement results from various sources)

Similar results were found for 1800 MHz
Additional fade margin: 4 dB

134
134
Link Budgets
Building penetration loss depends on:
frequency
building material
wall thickness
windows
angle of incidence
number of intervening walls
interior of the building
surrounding of the building
Gain due to mobile antenna height:
2 dB per storey (unless the shadowing conditions change
significantly due to the increased height)
135
135
Link Budgets
Additional fade margin for 90% coverage
Standard deviation of outdoor fading = 9 dB
Standard deviation of fading within building and
variation between buildings = 9 dB
Combined standard deviation
= SQRT (92 + 92) = 12.7 dB
Combined 90% margin = 12.7 x 1.28 = 16 dB
12 dB margin already included for outdoor fading
Additional margin = 4 dB
136
The building penetration loss varies considerably both from building to

building and within different parts of the same building. Therefore the value
of building attenuation used must include a margin for this variation. The
margin calculated (16 dB) is the total margin including indoor and outdoor
fading. The margin for outdoor fading alone is 12dB, so an additional margin
of 4 dB must be added to the median penetration loss to bring the value
used in the link budget to 17 dB.
136
Link Budgets
Additional fade margin for 90% coverage
12 dB margin already applied in outdoor link budget
so an additional 4 dB margin needed
Median building penetration loss = 13 dB
Total indoor penetration loss: 14 + 3 = 17 dB
In-car penetration loss: ~ 7dB
137
137
Link Budgets
Antenna gain
Omni-directional
360 horizontal beamwidth
5 to 10 vertical beamwidth
9 to 11 dBi gain
Sector
33, 65 or 90 horizontal beamwidth
5 to 10 vertical beamwidth
14 to 21 dBi gain
Height-for-height, 1800 MHz antennas

have 3 dB more gain than 900 MHz
138
The antenna gain used in the link budget will be the maximum gain in the
main beam direction, and must be obtained from the antenna specifications.
Normally a planning tool should store the gain with the antenna pattern in its
database, so that when an antenna is selected the gain is automatically set.
138
Link Budgets
Antenna patterns
Horizontal pattern
Vertical pattern
139
139
Link Budgets
TX Ant.
Combiners
TRX1
-3dB
Hybrid
Comb.
TRX3
TRX4
Hybrid
Comb.
Only 2 inputs
3 dB loss
6 dB loss
with 2 cascaded
levels
Wideband
TRX2
Hybrid
Comb.
Hybrid combiners
-3dB
-6dB
(allows Synthesized Frequency Hopping)
140
There are various types of combiner that can be used to mix together the
transceiver outputs into one antenna. The hybrid combiner allows only two
inputs, but is wideband, so can be used for synthesised frequency hopping.
However, for more than two transceivers it will be necessary to use them in
series, thus adding to the transmission loss. The BS output power has to be
increased accordingly.
140
Link Budgets
Combiners
-3..4dB
More than 2 inputs
3-4 dB loss
Filters have to be tuned
e.g. frequency changes
Remotely from OMC

Allows only
Baseband Hopping
TRX2
TRX3
TRX4
TX Ant.
Filter Combiner
Up to 8 or 16
...
Cavity filter combiners
TRX1
TRXn
141
Cavity filter combiners can be used where many TRXs are needed and the
transmission loss is a problem. However, a fixed frequency filter is on each
input, thus making them unsuitable for synthesised frequency hopping.
141
-1dB
TX
TX Ant.
RX-Div. Ant.
Typically 1dB loss

Save 1 antenna
TX/RX Ant.
RX Ant.
Duplexers
RX-Div. Ant.
Link Budgets
TX
RX
Duplexer
Div.-RX
RX
Div.-RX
142
A duplexor is a device for combining Tx and Rx onto one antenna. (A

Diplexor is for combining two different frequencies, e.g. VHF radio and UHF
television onto one cable.)
142
Link Budgets
Double-Duplex solution
4 TRX with Hybrid combiners but only 4 dB loss
-3dB
TRX3
f2,f3,f4...fn
TRX4
f2,f3,f4...fn
-3dB
TX/RX
TX/RX-Div.
-1dB
Duplexer
-1dB
Hybrid
Combiner
Baseband
(TDMA Frames)
TRX2
f2,f3,f4...fn
Hybrid
Combiner
TRX1
f1
Duplexer
RX
Div.-RX
Cell traffic demand may not exceed 4 TRX capacity

143
By using two antennas (e.g. different polarisations or different space

diversity antennas) and two duplexors, it is possible to have 4 TRXs with
only one level of hybrid combiner.
143
No-Combiner option
Baseband
(TDMA Frames)
-1dB
TRX1
f1
Duplexer
TRX2
-1dB
Duplexer
f2,f3,f4...fn
RX
TX/RX
1 TRX without combiner, no loss

or
2 TRX with only 1 dB duplexer loss
TX/RX-Div.
Link Budgets
Div.-RX
Cell traffic demand may not exceed 1 (2) TRX capacity

144
or two transceivers with no combiners at all.
144
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
145
Network Dimensioning
145
Network dimensioning
Cell range
Link budget delivers max. allowable path loss
Signal level (dBm)
Path loss (dB)
For nominal planning purposes this can be

translated into maximum coverage ranges using a
statistical propagation model, such as Hata
Standard Hata-type formula

Parameters:
Frequency
Antenna heights
Clutter type
Distance (km)
146
The maximum allowable path loss, combined with the propagation model
defines the maximum range of the transmission.
146
Propagation table, RACE model
Calculating cell coverage
Frequency f (MHz):
Clutter class:
Corr. factor Lc (dB):
Path loss
L (dB)
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
900
BSant.height hb(m):
U2
0
25
MSant.height hm(m):
1.5
U1
3
S3
8
S2
5
S1
11
F2
9
O2
19
W
29
0.447
0.477
0.509
0.542
0.578
0.617
0.658
0.702
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
0.617
0.658
0.702
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
3.293
3.513
3.746
0.509
0.542
0.578
0.617
0.658
0.702
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
3.293
3.513
3.746
3.996
4.261
4.545
0.658
0.702
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
3.293
3.513
3.746
3.996
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
3.293
3.513
3.746
3.996
4.261
4.545
4.847
5.170
5.514
5.881
6.272
6.689
7.135
7.609
2.386
2.545
2.715
2.895
3.088
3.293
3.513
3.746
3.996
4.261
4.545
4.847
5.170
5.514
5.881
6.272
6.689
7.135
7.609
8.116
8.656
9.232
9.846
10.501
11.200
11.945
12.740
13.588
14.492
Range
d (km)
0.368
0.393
0.419
0.447
0.477
0.509
0.542
0.578
0.617
0.658
0.702
0.748
0.798
0.851
0.908
0.968
1.033
1.102
1.175
1.253
1.336
1.425
1.520
1.621
1.729
1.844
1.967
2.098
2.238
147
Table of cell ranges using standard Hata propagation formula for
900MHz with a 25 metre antenna height.
147

Frequency f (MHz):
Path loss
L (dB)
900
BSant.height hb(m):
40
MSant.height hm(m):
1.5
Clutter class:
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
U2
0
U1
3
S3
8
S2
5
S1
11
F2
9
O2
19
W
29
0.523
0.560
0.598
0.640
0.684
0.731
0.782
0.836
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
0.731
0.782
0.836
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
4.166
4.455
4.763
0.598
0.640
0.684
0.731
0.782
0.836
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
4.166
4.455
4.763
5.093
5.445
5.822
0.782
0.836
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
4.166
4.455
4.763
5.093
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
4.166
4.455
4.763
5.093
5.445
5.822
6.225
6.656
7.116
7.609
8.136
8.699
9.301
9.945
2.981
3.188
3.408
3.644
3.897
4.166
4.455
4.763
5.093
5.445
5.822
6.225
6.656
7.116
7.609
8.136
8.699
9.301
9.945
10.633
11.369
12.156
12.997
13.896
14.858
15.887
16.986
18.162
19.419
Range
d (km)
0.428
0.458
0.489
0.523
0.560
0.598
0.640
0.684
0.731
0.782
0.836
0.894
0.956
1.022
1.093
1.168
1.249
1.336
1.428
1.527
1.632
1.745
1.866
1.995
2.134
2.281
2.439
2.608
2.788
148
148

Frequency f (MHz):
Path loss
L (dB)
1800
BSant.height hb(m):
25
MSant.height hm(m):
1.5
Clutter class:
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
U2
0
U1
3
S3
8
S2
5
S1
11
F2
9
O2
19
W
29
0.270
0.288
0.307
0.327
0.349
0.372
0.397
0.423
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
0.372
0.397
0.423
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
1.986
2.119
2.260
0.307
0.327
0.349
0.372
0.397
0.423
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
1.986
2.119
2.260
2.410
2.570
2.741
0.397
0.423
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
1.986
2.119
2.260
2.410
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
1.986
2.119
2.260
2.410
2.570
2.741
2.924
3.118
3.326
3.547
3.783
4.035
4.303
4.590
1.439
1.535
1.637
1.746
1.863
1.986
2.119
2.260
2.410
2.570
2.741
2.924
3.118
3.326
3.547
3.783
4.035
4.303
4.590
4.895
5.221
5.568
5.939
6.334
6.755
7.205
7.684
8.196
8.741
Range
d (km)
0.222
0.237
0.253
0.270
0.288
0.307
0.327
0.349
0.372
0.397
0.423
0.451
0.481
0.514
0.548
0.584
0.623
0.664
0.709
0.756
0.806
0.860
0.917
0.978
1.043
1.112
1.186
1.265
1.350
149
149

Frequency f (MHz):
Clutter class:
1800
U2
0
Path loss
L (dB)
Range
d (km)
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
0.253
0.271
0.289
0.310
0.331
0.354
0.378
0.405
0.432
0.462
0.494
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
BSant.height hb(m):
40
MSant.height hm(m):
1.5
U1
3
S3
8
S2
5
S1
11
F2
9
O2
19
W
29
0.310
0.331
0.354
0.378
0.405
0.432
0.462
0.494
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
0.432
0.462
0.494
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
2.464
2.635
2.817
0.354
0.378
0.405
0.432
0.462
0.494
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
2.464
2.635
2.817
3.012
3.220
3.443
0.462
0.494
0.529
0.565
0.604
0.646
0.691
0.739
0.790
0.845
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
2.464
2.635
2.817
3.012
0.903
0.966
1.032
1.104
1.180
1.262
1.349
1.443
1.542
1.649
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
2.464
2.635
2.817
3.012
3.220
3.443
3.682
3.936
4.209
4.500
4.812
5.145
5.501
5.882
1.763
1.885
2.016
2.155
2.305
2.464
2.635
2.817
3.012
3.220
3.443
3.682
3.936
4.209
4.500
4.812
5.145
5.501
5.882
6.289
6.724
7.189
7.687
8.219
8.788
9.396
10.046
10.742
11.485
150
150
Nominal area of a cell
Cells are nominally hexagonal
Ro
RO: Omni coverage range

AO: Omni site coverage area
=2.598*Ro2
The real cell area is on average about

70% of the nominal area
151
The area of a nominal hexagon can be calculated by dividing it into 6

equilateral triangles.
Each triangle has a base length of Ro and a height of Rocos30.
Area of each triangle is base x height = 0.5 x cos30 x Ro2
Area of hexagon = 6 x 0.5 x cos30 x Ro2 = 2.598 Ro2
151
Nominal area of a cell
rS: Sector coverage range
AS: Sectorised site coverage area
rS
2.598rs
As 3
4
Exercise: If sector antenna gain is 8 dB more

than omni, then by how much does the area
covered by a sector site differ from that for an
omni site?
152
152
Cell structures
Omni sites make sense only where
the coverage range is limited before the

maximum omni cell radius (e.g. by terrain)
The additional range of a sectored site only
covers an unpopulated area
areas between sectors would have insufficient
coverage (e.g. 4-way crossroads)
the more bulky sector antennas cannot be
installed at a site (constructional, esthetical
reasons)
153
In general it is more efficient to used a sectored cell structure for providing

coverage, except in a few circumstances as listed above.
153
Cell structures
Advantages of omni sites:
Less bulky than sector antennas
Sometimes the only solution in
residential areas: Single omni antenna
(TX/RX duplexer, no diversity)
Issues in frequency planning, interference and

optimisation to be covered in relevant modules
154
154
Cell structures
Disadvantages of omni sites:
Reduced flexibility in network optimisation
Difficult TX/RX separation
Directional effect with horizontal antenna
diversity
(Greater frequency re-use distance than between
sectorised sites)
155
155
Reduced flexibility in network optimisation
Only electrical antenna
downtilt, same for entire cell
Only 1 set of handover and
power control parameters
for entire 360 cell edge
No load sharing
between sectors
Omni site
Sectorised cell site with

different downtilt angles
156
156
d
TX
More difficult decoupling of Tx and Rx:

RX
Difficult TX/RX separation for omnis

Decoupling AH between 2 horizontally separated
antennas: (Typically 30 dB required)
AH = 31 + 20 log d - (G1 + G2) [dB] (900 MHz)
(1800 MHz: +6dB)
G1:Gain of antenna 1 in the direction of antenna 2
G2:Gain of antenna 2 in the direction of antenna 1
d: Horizontal separation = 9m (10 dBi, 900 MHz)
Limited antenna mounting options
Different vertical levels

No wall mounting
TX
RX
RX-Div.
157
NB. Depending on the height of the antenna, the range of 9 m calculated

above may be within the near field distance, in which case the antenna gains
would not apply and neither would the free space path loss equation.
157
Note directional effect in case of horizontal

diversity for omnis
1
=5
= 45
= 90
0,8
0,6
Omni cell
0,4
RX
0,2
0
0
10
20
30
40
Antenna separation (wavelengths)
50
TX
RX-Div.
Effective
cell area
158
158
Cell areas: Exercise!
Using the previous link budgets, what is
the nominal urban (U2) cell area for
1800 MHz indoor coverage:
900 MHz indoor coverage:

1800 MHz outdoor coverage
900 MHz outdoor coverage
With 25m antenna height
For omni cells?
For sectored cells?
159
159
Link budget and propagation: Exercise!
1000 km2 Suburban (S2)
Base antenna ht = 25m
90% indoor coverage;
building = 7 dB;
outdoor = 9dB
Median building loss = 15dB
300 km2 Urban (U2)

95% indoor coverage;
building = 7 dB;
outdoor = 9dB
Median building loss = 20dB
10000 km2 Rural (O2)

90% outdoor coverage;
outdoor = 9dB
Mobile ht = 1.5m
f = 1800MHz and 900MHz
Other parameters as in
example link budgets
How many sites?

(In reality cells are
not hexagons, so add
40% to the site count,
or multiply area by
70%)
160
160
Cell structures
Real cells not hexagonal
Terrain uneven
Clutter not homogeneous
Antenna heights not uniform
Sites not on grid
Planning tool shows

Signal levels
Cell boundaries (most likely server)
161
161
Cell structures
Macrocell site densities
Much more than 2/km2 (sectorised) and 6/km2
(omni) start causing problems:
frequency re-use problems (waveguide effects)
handover problems for
relatively fast moving
mobiles
interleaved most likely
server with no dominant
server
Set antenna height below roof level: Microcells

Put antennas indoors: Picocells
162
The link budget combined with a Hata propagation equation shows a cell
range of about 300 to 500m for an 1800MHz system. If sites are placed any
closer together than this then there ceases to be a well defined boundary
between cells and signal from one cell will easily pass over a neighbour cell
and provide the best server at a location outside where it is meant to.
Microcells prevent this problem by having their antennas below the roof
level. The signal is thus contained in the cell area, and interference is
prevented as well.
162
Cell strucutures
Multi-layer networks
(Hierarchical cell structures)
(Underlay/Overlay)
Micro- and picocells
Microcell: BS antenna below rooftop level
provides coverage to a few buildings and/or streets

Cell range typically up to a few hundred meters
Picocell: BS antenna usually indoors
provides coverage to a building or part thereof

Extremely small coverage area
(Repeaters)
163
Underlay/overlay structures will be covered in the capacity and frequency

planning module.
163
Overlaid micro- and picocell architectures
Very high capacities possible
Cell area < 0.02 km2
Excellent frequency re-use
Focussed coverage and capacity

Only way to guarantee indoor coverage
Many sites required
Relatively easy site acquisition and implementation

Site positioning critical: Traffic hotspots
Frequency band should be segmented for
maximum benefit
Special handover mechanisms required
164
164
Overlaid micro- and pico cells
Network planning aspects
High resolution coverage predictions with
special propagation models
Availability/cost of topographical data may be
critical
Site location and antenna positioning critical

Comprehensive site survey documentation
(photos etc.)
Verification measurements
165
Planning a microcellular network is less than straight forward since there are
potentially so many of them and since detailed building maps are required,
not only to find suitable positions but also to perform propagation predictions.
The data can be very expensive and occupy vast amounts of disk space.
165
Overlaid micro- and picocell architectures
Macrocells
Microcells
Picocells
Micro- and picocells to carry most of the traffic

Macrocells to serve fast moving mobiles
166
Due to their small size microcells have very high traffic densities and should
therefore be organised to carry the majority of the traffic. However, they are
not suitable for fast moving mobiles as too many handovers will occur and
because the signal changes rapidly as a corner is turned, the handovers will
be less reliable than for macrocells. Therefore the macrocells should carry
the traffic from the fast moving mobiles.
Can you see the microcell in the photograph on the left?
166
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
123 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
167 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
167
Detailed Design
167
Detailed Design
Planning tool plots
Signal level
Most Likely Server
168
The nominal design based on standard Hata type models is useful for
budgetary calculation and for initial site placement. However, in the real
world the sites are not positioned on a grid and propagation is not uniform. A
planning tool is necessary to try to predict what will really happen. The
picture on the left show a signal level plot for a single site. These can be
combined into a coverage array showing the signal level from many sites.
On the right is a most likely server or best server or cell boundary plot.
Notice how the cells are smaller in the city centre and get gradually larger
through the suburban to the rural areas.
168
Detailed Design
Planning tools
Site location (lat/long or east/north)

Antenna height
Terrain and clutter data
Propagation model
Path loss grid
Transmitter power
Antenna pattern
Antenna direction
Signal level grid
169
The planning tool takes as its inputs the locations of all the antennas in three
dimensions and using a propagation model in conjunction with terrain and
clutter data it calculates the path loss to every pixel centre out to a given
radius. The result is a path loss grid, which is independent of transmitter
power or antenna pattern. Power and antennas can be changed, but the
path loss grid only changes if the antenna position changes either in location
or height.
The antenna pattern and transmitter power is then combined with the path
loss grid to calculate a signal level grid. This is much quicker to calculate
than the path loss grid, so different antenna types and directions can be tried
out fairly quickly.
169
Detailed Design
Planning tools
Signal level grid
Composite signal level (array)
Most likely server
Neighbour list plan
Traffic demand + Most likely server

Frequency plan
Signal level grid + Frequency plan

C/I
170
The signal level grids from many cells can be combined to produce various
useful plots. Combined plots such as these are variously called composites,
arrays or matrices. It depends on the planning tool.
170
Detailed Design
Planning tools: handling of microcells
Merging of different resolutions required
Not a problem any more with modern tools
Microcell model is deterministic
Local signal level shown
Indoor signal calculated explicitly
Macrocell model is statistical
Median signal level shown
Indoor represented by changed median threshold
171
Microcells typically have a prediction resolution of say 1m, while macrocells

might be predicted to 50m or 100m pixels. It is possible nowadays to merge
predictions of different resolutions into one composite array, but the resulting
plot is not necessarily very meaningful to look at.
A major problem is the way that indoor signals are represented. Many
microcell prediction tools calculate the building penetration loss as part of the
prediction model. This means that the resulting plot shows explicitly the
predicted indoor signal where there are buildings, while showing the outdoor
signal for the streets. The macrocell models do not do this. They show a
median outdoor signal, and the amount of in-building coverage is shown by
adjusting the signal level threshold by an amount corresponding to the
estimated building loss plus margin.
171
Detailed Design
2 stages
Nominal plan: Initial network estimate to meet
Coverage requirements
Capacity requirements
Quality targets
Budgets
Theoretical design
Spreadsheet analysis
Possibly tool-aided, very few field measurements

Main interfaces: Marketing and Business Planning
172
Network planning progresses in a number of stages. Initially a spreadsheet

analysis is made to estimate the number of sites required for each area.
Then a planning tool will be used to place nominal sites in the most suitable
positions. At this stage a calibrated propagation model should be used.
Using the nominal site positions the tool can be used to check that the area
is sufficiently covered, that there is sufficient capacity to meet the traffic
demand, and that a frequency plan is possible which will meet the quality
targets.
172
Detailed Design
2 stages
An iterative
process!
Detailed design/site planning

Choose best site locations
Base station site search
and candidate selection
Base station configuration
Frequency planning
Strongly tool-aided, many field measurements
Close liaison between RF Planning, Site Acquisition

and Construction, Fixed Network Planning
173
The nominal plan now has to be converted into the real network design. This
is a very iterative process, since site acquisition is so unreliable it is likely
that areas will need to be re-designed frequently as some sites cannot be
acquired.
Field measurements may be used in the evaluation of sites, to confirm the
propagation model and to confirm or reject sites which only just meet
requirements.
173
Detailed Design
Planning process
174
The nominal site locations which give the required coverage are used to
generate search areas which are issued to the site acquisition department.
Site acquisition returns a number of possible candidates for each nominal
site. RF planning must evaluate these candidates and choose the most
suitable which will fit into the design. The candidates must also be approved
by fixed network design and by construction.
The selected candidates may not work together as a network, or they may
not be available, so it is inevitably necessary to continuously re-design the
network to fit the design around those sites which are available.
174
Detailed Design
Site Selection
Meets nominal plan targets
Coverage
Capacity, Interference
Fast and inexpensive site

acquisition/construction
Antenna installation
Obstructions
Feeder cable lengths
Flexibility in network optimisation
Equipment extensions
Antenna types, orientations and -tilt
175
Many factors influence whether a site is suitable or not. In the end however,
the choice is likely to be a compromise between factors such as best
location, easiest construction, easiest to acquire contract, easiest to acquire
planning permission etc.
175
Detailed Design
Site Acquisition
Provides initial input to Network Planning about
General availability of base station sites
National, local regulations and restrictions
Favoured sites (e.g. partner companies)
In dense urban areas

ANY site which is available!
176
The site acquisition process often drives radio planning rather than the
reverse. This is especially true in dense urban areas where sites will be as
little as 400m apart. When sites are this close together it is often easier for
site acquisition to present all the possible candidates and for network
planning to design the network around what is available.
176
Detailed Design
Site acquisition
Identify candidate
RF planning approval
Coverage
Capacity
Interference
Possible site
visit
177
177
Detailed Design
Site acquisition
Identify candidate
Fixed planning approval
Microwave line of sight
Cable connection
Capacity
178
178
Detailed Design
Site acquisition
Identify candidate
Construction approval
Building structural strength
Foundations
Access
Space for equipment
Power supplies
179
179
Detailed Design
Site acquisition
Letter of intent from site owner
Contract with site owner
Rental
Period
Access rights
Planning permission from local authority

Zoning regulations
Aesthetics
Building regulations
180
180
Detailed Design
Site acquisition
Objections from local residents
No microwaving of babies
Technical staff generally
cannot re-assure worried
residents
Show that radiation levels
are 1000s of times less than
permitted levels
- but its not good enough!
181
181
Detailed Design
For optimal propagation, the first Fresnel
Zone must be clear of obstructions
This is hardly ever the case on a mobile radio
path,
1st Fr
es
nel Zo
ne
but obstructions near the BS antenna can be

avoided
182
182
Detailed Design
Obstructions in the 1. Fresnel Zone
d1
ha
d2
rF
Fresnel radius, rF =
20m
d 1d 2
d1+ d2
Exercise: What tower height to

clear the roof edge, for an
antenna with 8vertical
beamwidth and 2of downtilt?
183
Obstructions directly in the path of the BS antenna cause a systematic

reduction in signal and should be avoided. It is not only the direct path that
should be clear, but also the entire 3 dB beam width, plus an allowance for
tilt and the fresnel zone radius.
183
Detailed design
Systematic tilt: Vertical main lobe on cell edge
= arctan
hBS
r
Maximum: First null angle

hBS
r
NB: Scale is exaggerated! is

much smaller than appears.
184
Many operators buy antennas with 2of vertical electrical downtilt as

standard. This is based on the assumption that the main lobe should point at
the cell edge. In urban areas of course, the main lobe should point at the
roof tops at the cell edge, not at the ground. Also the amount of interference
reduction from 2of downtilt is minimal.
184
Detailed design
High density networks: Tilt Null to horizon
= first null angle
hBS
r
185
In very high density networks where capacity must be maximised, then

systematically tilt so that the first null in the antennas vertical pattern points
towards the horizon. This will minimise interference.
185
Detailed Design
Missing neighbour definitions
Too many neighbour definitions

Inaccurate signal
level measurements
Cell dragging
Ideally
6 to 8
neighbours
In practice:
max 12
Difficult frequency
planning
False handover
decisions
Interference
Poor quality
Dropped calls
186
Too many, or too few neighbours can lead to poor quality or dropped calls. A
typical problem in a fast growing network is that neighbours are not removed
from adjacent cells when new sites are added to the network.
186
Detailed Design
In the idealised
situation, each cell
has 6 neighbours,
and it is clear which
cells those are.
187
If all networks were the idealised hexagonal grid, then there would be no
problems!
187
Detailed Design
In the real world,
cells overlap and
intermingle with
each other. It is not
always clear which
cells should be
neighbours.
(And the MLS plot is
only a rough
approximation of the
real world!)
188
In reality the grey cell is not a single area, but a number of discontinuous
patches of best server. This leads to many more potential neighbours.
188
Detailed Design
Automatic planning
Neighbouring pixels
If more than X% of pixels in
a cell, border pixels from
another cell, then that other
cell is a neighbour.
AND/OR: If more than X km
of pixels border the other
cell.
189
Planning tools have modules to enable automation of the neighbour list

planning task. The most common algorithm is to take each pixel in a cells
best server area and check the adjacent pixels to see if they have other cells
as the best server. If they do then they are considered boundary pixels.
The user may then decide how many or what proportion of boundary pixels
are required to border another particular cell before that particular cell is
listed as a neighbour.
189
Detailed Design
Automatic planning
Nth best servers (Predicted or measured)
Best server
2nd server
Nth server
Other cell is a neighbour if X % of serving cell area

has the other cell within Y dB of the best server
190
The boundary pixel method does not find neighbouring cells which are very
close together but not actually touching. In the above diagram the top layer
of the slab is colour coded by the most likely serving cell. Other layers
indicate other servers in order of signal level.
It can be seen that the yellow and red cells are close together and the red
cell is a second most likely server for a considerable area within the yellow
cell. For certain mobiles travelling at a speed in the right direction it would
make sense to handover directly from yellow to red, rather than going from
yellow to green to red.
An alternative algorithm checks for other cells which for a given (user
defined) area or proportion of the serving cell area have a signal level within
a certain (user defined) margin of the serving cells signal.
190
Contents
2 Introduction
Coverage
Capacity
Quality
Cost

Units
Antennas
Path loss
Sensitivity
121 Link Budgets

TDMA structure
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Multipath fading
Ducting
Doppler
Statistical models
Shadow fading
Geographical data
Model calibration
Antenna diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Equalisation
Repeaters
Link balance
Examples
Power output / EIRP
Fade margin
Antenna gain
Cable loss
Other components

Cell range
Cell area
Cell structures
164 Detailed design

Planning tools
Planning process
Site selection
Site acquisition
191
191
Network Consultants - Peter Lange

email: peter.lange@netcontel.com
Tel/Fax:
192
192

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The Cellular Academy

GSM Radio Network Planning and Optimisation

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

10 Radio Engineering Basics

123 Link Budgets

24 GSM Air Interface

Coverage Planning v 4.0

145 Network dimensioning

167 Detailed design

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Cellular principle is frequency re-use

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

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Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

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Cost related to quality

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

10 Radio Engineering Basics

123 Link Budgets

24 GSM Air Interface

Coverage Planning v 4.0

145 Network dimensioning

167 Detailed design

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Radio Engineering Basics

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Radio Engineering Basics

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Signal amplitude vary enormously, often by a ratio of billions to one.

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Radio Engineering Basics

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Multiplying in linear units is equivalent to adding in logarithmic or dB units.

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Radio Engineering Basics

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

The dB unit is a simple ration. If we want to express an absolute level we

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

Radio Engineering Basics

Coverage Planning v 4.0

Network Consultants / TNC Ltd 2005

An Isotropic Radiator is a theoretical point source of radio waves which