Satyawati Memorial

Academy
Physics Project
1-N type, P type and working
theory of
semiconductors
2-Nano technology and nano
science

Project Prepared By:

Submitted To:
Ashwani kumar
Boards Roll Number:

Project
Mr. S.K. Yadav

CERTIFICATE
It is hereby to certify that, the original and genuine
project work has been carried out to study about the
subject matter and the related data collection and
investigation has been completed solely, sincerely and
satisfactorily by Ashwani Kumar of CLASS XII,
Satyawati Memorial Academy, regarding his project
titled
N type, P type and working theory of
semiconductors
Nano technology and nano science

Teachers Signature

Acknowledgement
It would be my utmost pleasure to express my sincere
thanks to My Physics Teacher Mr S. K. Yadav and our

dearest Mr Brijesh Rajput Sir in providing a helping

hand in this project. Their valuable guidance, support
and supervision all through this project titled
N

type,

Type

and

working

theory

of

semiconductors
Nano technology and nano science.
are responsible for attaining its present form.

Ashwani kumar
XII

CONTENTS
1. SEMICONDUCTOR
Introduction
Theory and Definition
Effect
of
temperature
on
conductivity
Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor
Electrical Resistivity of Semiconductors

of

INTRODUCTION
Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two
classes: Metals and insulators.
Metals are those
through which electric charge can easily flow, while
insulators are those through which electric charge is
difficult to flow. This distinction between the metals
and the insulators can be explained on the basis of the
number of free electrons in them. Metals have a large
number of free electrons, which act as charge carriers,
while insulators have practically no free electrons.
There are however, certain solids whose electrical
conductivity is intermediate between metals and
insulators. They are called Semiconductors. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are examples of semiconductors.
In semiconductors, the outer most
electrons are neither so rigidly bound with the atom as
in an insulator, nor so loosely bound as in metal. At
absolute zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal
insulator.

Theory and Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical
conductivity lies in between metals and insulator. The
energy band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden energy
gap is much smaller than that of the insulator. In this class of
crystals, the forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and the
two energy bands are distinctly separate with no overlapping.
At absolute o0, no electron has any energy even to jump the
forbidden gap and reach the conduction band. Therefor the
substance is an insulator. But when we heat the crystal and
thus provide some energy to the atoms and their electrons, it
becomes an easy matter for some electrons to jump the small
( 1 eV) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at higher
temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the
specific property of the crystal , which is known as a
semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity of Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence
band at absolute zero is completely filled and there are no free
electrons in conduction band.
At room temperature the
electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal
energy. When the temperature increases, a large number of
electrons cross over the forbidden gap and jump from valence
to conduction band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor
increases with temperature.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors.
In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there are 8
electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire material
behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev
to shake off the valence electron.
This energy becomes

available to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal

agitation of crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent
bonds come out. The bond from which electron is freed, a
vacancy is created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is
called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a
covalent bond. As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill
the hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which
the electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of
the hole is opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier.
Thus, at room
temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and
holes wandering in random directions. These electrons and
holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will
be equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor,
if ne denotes the electron number density in conduction band,
nh the hole number density in valence band and ni the number
density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne = nh = ni
Extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so
intrinsic semi-conductors are of little practical importance. The
conductivity of pure semi-conductor can, however be
enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or a
6
trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to 10 parts
of the semi-conductor). The process of adding an impurity to a
pure semiconductor so as to improve its conductivity is called
doping.
Such semi-conductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :
i)
n-type semiconductor
ii)
p-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the
periodic table like Arsenic is added to the pure semi-conductor,
then four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by

sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon

atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost
free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity
increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are
called extrinsic carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called ntype extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will
have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and
have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such electrons create a donor energy level just below
the conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap
between donor energy level and the conduction band is very
small, the electrons can easily raise themselves to conduction
band even at room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of ntype extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density
of the conduction band (ne) and the number density of holes in
the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure semiconductor.
If ni is the number density of electrons is conduction band, then
it is proved that
2
ne.nh =
p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semiconductor, the impurity atom can provide only three valence
electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is left in one
of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a hole that tends to
accept electrons.
As the trivalent impurity atoms accept
electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor impurity.
The holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the p-type Sicrystal so obtained is called p-type extrinsic semiconductor.
Again, as the pure Si-crystal also possesses a few electrons and
holes, therefore, the p-type si-crystal will have a large number
of holes (majority carriers) and a small number of electrons
(minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such holes create an accepter energy level just above

the top of the valance band as shown in figure. The electrons

from valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy
level by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and in
turn create holes in the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the acceptor
atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh>> Na > > ne
Electrical Resistivity of Semiconductors
Consider a block of semiconductor of length l1 area of
cross-section A and having number density of electrons and
holes as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on applying a
potential difference, say V, a current I flows through it as shown
in figure. The electron current (Ic) and the hole current (Ih)
constitute the current I flowing through the semi conductor i.e.
I=Ie +Ih

(i)

It ne is the number density of conduction band electrons in

the semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of electrons then
Ie = eneAve
Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh
From (i)
I = eneAve + enhAvh
I = eA(neve + nhvh)

(ii)

If is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor,

then the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of
current is given by :

R = l/A

(iii)

Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have

V = RI = l/A eA (neve + nh vh)

V= le(neve +nhvh)

(iv)

If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:

E=V/l

(v)

from equation (iv) and (v), we have

E = e (neve + nhvh)
1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)
On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by
the electrons (or holes) per unit strength of electric field is
called mobility of electrons (or holes). Therefore, mobility of
electrons and holes is given by :
e = ve/E and h = vh/E
1/ =e(ne e +nh h)

(vi)

Also, = 1/ is called conductivity of the material of

semiconductor
=e(ne e +nh h)

(vii)

The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the

conductivity and resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon
the electron and hole number densities and their mobilities. As
ne and nh increases with rise in temperature,
therefore, conductivity of semiconductor increases with

rise in temperature and resistivity decreases with rise in

temperature.