CONTENT

NAME OF THE TOPIC -------------------------------------------PAGE NO.

1.

INTRODUCTION------------------------------------------------ 01- 09

2.

CHAPTER-1

-------------------------------------------------- 10- 15

3.

CHAPTER-2

---------------------------------------------------- 16- 17

4.

CHAPTER-3

------------------------------------------------- 18- 27

5.

CHAPTER-4

------------------------------------------------- 28- 35

6.

CHAPTER-5

------------------------------------------------

36 -39

7.

CHAPTER-6

------------------------------------------------

40 -41

8.

CHAPTER-7

-------------------------------------------------

42-43

INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized
steam, and converts it into rotary motion. It has an emergency stop valve (ESV),control valve(CV),
and high & low pressure turbines.
Steam turbines has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam
engine because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the
turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives

much of its improvement in

thermodynamic efficiency through these of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.
Many industrial plants like sugar, pulp, paper, chemicals, fertilizers, steel and
petroleum refineries require steam at low and medium pressures for process purposes
power

for driving

incorporated

in

the

numerous

machines, like turbo generators, compressors,

plant. Normally steam is

generated either

and

pumps etc .,

in separate boilers that

utilize the heat provided by exothermic reactions of the chemical process, depending on the
nature of the industry. Steam is generated at pressures and

temperatures higher than that

needed for the process, in order to keep the size of boilers and steam carrying piping small
and also to realize a reasonably good efficiency during steam generation. This high pressure
steam is expanded in steam turbine upto the pressure levels required for process. The power
developed by the steam turbine is utilized for driving either compressors, pumps, blowers
etc ., or turbo generators for generating electric power. Most of the driven machines are run at
comparatively high speeds except pumps, blowers and turbo generators . Especially centrifugal
compressors used in chemical, fertilizer, petro-chemical and other plants run at very high speeds
so as to achieve maximum efficiency.

When these turbines are used to drive generators and other low speed machines,
such as reciprocating compressors and cooling water pumps, a gear box must be incorporated in
order to reduce the speed.

To fit into varying operational requirements of energy balance, a wide range of steam
turbines are required. Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1
hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft
driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:
Steam turbines works on the principle of rankine cycle.

RANKINE CYCLE:
The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into work. The
heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the working fluid. This
cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world, including virtually all
solar thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants. It is named after William John Macquorn
Rankine, a Scottish polymath.

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the
working fluid. These states are identified by number in the diagram to the right.

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is a liquid
at this stage the pump requires little input energy.

Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure
by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.

Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur.

Process 4-1: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
pressure and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and temperature of the
condenser is fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as the fluid is undergoing a
phase-change.
In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump

and turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output. Processes 1-2
and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the Ts diagram and more closely resemble
that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor ending up in the
superheat region after the expansion in the turbine , which reduces the energy removed by the
condensers.

STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT CYCLE:

Steam turbine power plants are based on the Rankine cycle investigated by a Scotch
Engineer and Scientist William Rankine (1820 -1872). Rankine cycle for Steam turbine power plant

with ideal turbines and pumps and superheated and saturated steam as a working fluid respectively
as shown below. A conventional power plant steam for such a consideration is also shown:

Fig.1.1 Ideal Rankine cycle for superheated steam on T-S axes.

Fig.1.2 Ideal Rankine cycle for saturated steam on T-S axes

The steam turbine is fed with steam under temperature t1, pressure p1, and enthalpy h1. Expanding
within the turbine, steam produces work Wt and goes into the condenser under conditions p2 and h2.
Hence its rejects heat Qr to cooling water and the resulted condensate with enthalpy h3<<h2, but
with the same t3=t2 and pressure p3=p2 comes to the pump. At the expense of the pump work Wp,
the feed water pressure and enthalpy rise to values p4 and h4 with which feed water enters the steam
generators where it is heated and evaporated due to the heat added Qa.
For saturated steam cycle the steam expansion process in the turbine begins from C, and with
complete condensation in 3 with subsequent compression by the pump.
Thermal efficiency of ideal Rankine cycle for superheated steam turbine power plant can be
defined as:

=
=

{(h1-h2) / (h1-h4)}
nth x

{1 (h4-h3)/ (h1-h2)}

(1-Wp/Qa)

Here nth is the gross thermal efficiency that is without regard to the expense of energy within
the cycle.
If pump working is neglected, then the efficiency, nth = (h1-h2) / (h1-h4)

STEAM REHEAT:
In the cycle with steam reheat instead of through adiabatic steam expansion from initial
steam pressure p1 to end pressure p2, steam expands within the HP turbine part to the intermediate
pressure (point5) and then is heated isothermally to steam reheat temperature (point 6) and then
expands within IP-LP part to same end pressure p2 as shown below. In this case, for ideal cycle the
thermal efficiency is approximately given by:
nth

(h1- h5)+ (h6 - h2)

(h1 - h4)+ (h6 - h5)

Conventional power plant scheme:

Fig.1.3 Ideal Rankine cycle for steam reheat

1.5 COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT:

Combined cycle (CC) power plant generate electricity by both gas and steam turbines
within the joint unit and use the waste heat of gas turbine exhaust gas in the steam turbine cycle.
Combined cycle allows attaining quite high values of thermal efficiency due to the high level of the
upper cycle temperature (inlet gas turbine temperature) and the low level of the bottom cycle
temperature (temperature at the steam turbine exhaust) CC units have lesser capital cost and require
less time periods for launching than conventional steam turbine one.
The CC unit thermal efficiency is calculated as:

nc = Ncc / Qt

= ( Nqt + Nst ) / Qt

= (Qqt.nqt +Qst.nst ) / Qt
Where Qt is the total heat amount in the unit.

STEAM TURBINES:
Classification of Steam Turbines
1.

2.

Based on Blading Design :

a)

Impulse turbine

b)

Reaction turbine

c)

Combination of Impulse & Reaction turbine

Based on Application :
a)

Utility turbines

b)

Industrial turbines

c)

Nuclear turbines

d)

Marine turbines

a)

Utility Turbines :
- Regenerative feed heating
- Regenerative feed heating with Reheat
- Combined cycle plants

b)

Industrial Turbines :
Captive Power plant

- Straight Condensing
- Straight Condensing with Injection
Co-generation Power Plant (Power + Steam to process)
- Straight Back Pressure
- Extraction Condensing
- Extraction Back Pressure
- Double Extraction Back Pressure/ Condensing
- Extraction / Injection
Drive Turbines
- Compressor drive
- Blowers drive
- Boiler feed pump drive, etc.

-2 Series Turbines

-3 Series Turbines

-4 Series Turbines

HMN Series Turbines

KN Series Turbines

Low Cost Turbines

CHAPTER-1
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES :
The necessity to keep down the production costs lead to standardization of the types of
steam turbines, such as back pressure, condensing, extraction back pressure and extraction
condensing, injection condensing.

Condensing turbines

Back pressure turbines

Multiple extraction turbines

Injection condensing turbines for combined cycle plant

Reheat condensing turbines for utility type.

Most of the industrial steam turbines are high speed turbines for the power output range of 1-30MW
with speed reduction by turbo gears which in turn means smaller sizes and higher efficiency for the
turbine for the output of 30MW and above the turbine speed is 3000rpm.
The main features of industrial steam turbines are:

The turbine is fixed at the rear end and expands towards the front side of the turbine. The
rotor is fixed at the thrust bearing which is housed in the front bearing pedestal and expands
towards the rear bearing. The casing which gets expanded in turn pushes the front bearing
pedestal by the same amount.

This sliding of front bearing pedestal results in moment of thrust bearing in the rotor of the
same amount and hence the expansion of the outer casing is nullified.

Customizing of steam turbines modules to meet the customers needs based on building
block system in a particular series of turbines optimum flow path designed can be done
depending upon case to case.

Type of governing system is nozzle governing type that has very good part load efficiency.

BACK PRESSURE AND EXTRACTION BACK PRESSURE TURBINES:

Back pressure steam turbines are normally employed where the process steam is required at
one single pressure extraction. Back pressure sets are used where process steam is required at two
different pressure levels. In both the cases power generation is only a byproduct. These turbines are
extensively used in sugar plants and small paper plants where clients desire more power from these
turbines, the requirement can be met by designing the turbine to pass more steam. Excess steam after
meeting the process steam requirements can be dumped in dump condenser.
Back pressure turbines are also employed as topping turbines .i.e. the exhaust steam from
back pressure turbines are fed to another steam turbine called bottom in turbine .this arrangement
has been adopted in some old power houses, which were operating on low pressure cycles and
where only boilers were replaced, but steam turbines residual life is considerable .low pressure

boilers were replaced with high pressure boilers. Back pressure topping turbine was employed, to
reduce the steam pressure to the levels at which the old steam turbines in the power can accept. This
arrangement has improved the operating economics of the old power houses.
To meet the specific requirements of a leading chemical plant in India, BHEL designed a
back pressure turbines with Siemens assistance, to operate with high inlet steam temperature of 565
deg c .this set is already manufactured at Hyderabad works and supplied.
CONDENSING TURBINES:
Condensing turbines are primarily employed for power generation. These turbines can be
provided with uncontrolled extraction where clients require steam in small quantities. Uncontrolled
extraction avoids extraction controlled valves and therefore throttling losses are reduced even while
providing small quantitys of process steam.
Another application of uncontrolled extraction is wander controlled system. In wander
control system two bleeds are provided. One bleed is at high pressure and another at low pressure. In
part load operations HP bleed meets the process steam requirement. At full load operations, the LP
bleed will meet the steam requirement. This arrangement reduces energy losses due to throttling,
considerably. Condensing turbines are employed mostly in industries like cement where process
steam requirement is not required.

EXTRACTION CONDENSING:
Where customer gives equal importance for meeting the process steam and power needs,
extraction condensing sets become ideal choice. The benefit is, power generation can be maintained
at the required levels even when process steam needs to fluctuate. In paper and pulp industries,
process steam requirement of digesters fluctuate, while power requirement of the paper plant
remains almost constant. Hence in all medium and large paper plants, extraction condensing sets are
employed.

EXTRACTION INJECTION CONDENSING TURBINES:

Extraction turbines are not restricted only to the provision of extracting steam, but may also
be employed as induction turbines, i.e. excess steam in LP bus line can be used economically for
power generation in such turbine without difficulty as in case of extraction turbines, the turbines
governing system for maintain constant pressure.
In the line can also be used for these injection turbines. Injection condensing turbines are
employed in combined cycle plants and in fertilizers industries.

APPLICATIONS:
The steam turbines are utilized in several industries viz.. Paper, fertilizers, chemical petro
chemicals, sugars, refinery, metallurgical etc foe power generation and mechanical drives already
described. The following illustration explains the selection - application criteria of industrial
turbines.

CATEGORIES IN STEAM TURBINE:

Industrial steam turbine are categorized into different series like
-2 series
-3 series
-4 series

-2 SERIES TURBINES:
These series of turbines are of standard type and have been designed for the best efficiency
for range parameters. Based upon the inlet conditions like pressure temperature, material selection is
varied. Designs being the standard further based on then steam flow quantities size of the turbine is

selected .in these series of turbines the fixed blade grooves are machined directly in the outer casing
and guide blades are inserted.

Different sizes of -2 types of turbines are:

G250-2

EK/K 600-2

G300-2

EK/K 800-2

G400-2

EK/K 1000-2

G500-2

EK/K 1100-2

G800-2

EK/K 1400-2
EK/K 1800-2

G stands for back pressure turbine

K stands for condensing turbines

E stands for controlled extraction
The number besides the letter indicates the area of the exhaust of the turbines.

-3 SERIES TURBINE:
Based on customers requirements and steps involved in design, the turbine is
divided into different sections: inlet section, transition, exhaust or condensing section .these sections
can be combined with each other. The figure shows the various sections of these series and possible
combinations of withy one size of admission section. the admission sections are supplied in two
versions, one from normal initial steam conditions up to 100 bar / 510 deg C and for high steam
initial steam conditions up to 140 bar /540deg C .the size of the section is geometrically graded in
the ratio to 1.25 to form different sizes of section .The parts associated with front section as front
bearing pedestal, control valves, safety devices like emergency stop valves are fixed for a particular
size. Also the same is done for the exhaust sections. With this arrangement for a particular front and
rear section selected the connecting parts to the sections are common from case to case. now the
length of the middle are transition section can varied based upon the number of blade stages
required and the number of extractions required . with this concepts, besides optimizing the flow
path, the use of standard and proven components like casings , guide blade carriers , bearing
pedestals, nozzles, servo- motors, stop and governing valves from a particular model are ensured
.unlike the -2 series the blade grooves in these turbines are made in the guide blade carriers which is
supported in outer casing .
Robust drum type rotors with integral shrouds, labyrinth glands for sealing of rotor ends and
inter stage blading, ensure greater reliability and efficiency. These turbines usually employ a gear
box between turbine and generator to achieve optimum efficiencies.
-4 SERIES TURBINES:
These types of series are called as centre admission steam turbines with counter flow for the
mid range of power, between 30MW to 150 MW. Using these concepts results in the compact single
casing solution in many cases up to 100 MW. The flow path is initially towards the front and in
inner casing after being admitted in the centre.
The steam reverses the direction on the reaching the end of inner casing to flow around inner
casing and expands towards the rear end of the turbine. This process of reverse flow of steam helps
in control the axial thrust to a large extent. The rear portion of the turbine is constructed based upon
the building block principle as explained in -3 series, front being a standard from particular range of
inlet parameters. These turbines are directly coupled to the generator. The valve blocks in these

turbines are separate and hence faster startups of the turbine .these turbines are best suited for
combined cycle plant application.

NEW SERIES TURBINE:

These types of turbines have been developed by BHEL in the range of 15 to 20 MW to cater
the special requirements of industries like sugar and cement w.r.t low inlet parameters and high
extraction requirements for operation during season and power generation during off season periods.
In view of the above certain cost saving features has been incorporated. the outer casing casting
have been simplified by separating the valve chest the valve chest is cast separately and bolted to the
outer casing there by limiting the importance of selection of material to valve chest . The middle
section and the rear section of the turbine are based on the building block concept as that of -3
turbines.
These turbines operate in the speed range of 6000 to 8000rpm. The flow path design of the above
turbines confirms to the SIEMENS design practices. provision has been given for an extraction,
which is useful for the process of NOX control CCP applications .the detailed design analysis is
done with flow path design , mechanical design which includes rotor dynamics , design analysis by
finite element methods and computational fluid dynamics for flow analysis

CHAPTER-2
PARTS OF STEAM TURBINE
2.1 THE VARIOUS PARTS OF STEAM TURBINE:

2.1.1 NOZZLE: The nozzle expands steam of comparatively low velocity and high static pressure
within considerable increase in velocity. The nozzle is so positioned as to direct the flow of steam
into the rotor passage.
2.1.2 DIFFUSER: It is a mechanical device that is designed to control the characteristics of steam
at the entrance to a thermodynamic open system. Diffusers are used to slow the steam's velocity and
to enhance its mixing into the surrounding steam. In contrast, a nozzle is often intended to increase
the discharge velocity and to direct the flow in one particular direction.
Flow through nozzles and diffusers may or may not be assumed to be adiabatic. Frictional
effects may sometimes be important, but usually they are neglected. However, the external work
transfer is always assumed to be zero. It is also assumed that changes in thermal energy are
significantly greater than changes in potential energy and therefore the latter can usually be
neglected for the purpose of analysis.
2.1.3 BLADES OR BUCKETS: The blades or buckets form the rotor flow passage and serves to
change the direction and hence the momentum of the steam received in the stationary nozzles.

2.1.4 GUIDE OR GUIDEBLADES: Often a turbine is arranged with a series of rotor flow
passages. Intervening between the blades comprising the rotor passages are rows of stationary guide
blades. The purpose of this guide is to reverse the direction of steam leaving the preceding moving
blade row so that general direction of steam leaving the preceding moving blade rows is similar. If
guide blades were not provided, opposing force would be exerted on the rotor which would largely
negate each other.
2.1.5 CASING SHELL OR CYLINDER: The turbine enclosure is generally called the casing
although the other two names are in common use. The nozzle and guide are fixed on casing, which
in addition to confining the steam serves as support for the bearings. Sometimes the word cylinder is
restricted as a cylindrical form attached to inside of the casing to which the guides are fixed.
2.1.6 SHAFT, ROTOR and SPINDLE: These terms are applied to the rotating assembly which
carries the blades.
2.1.7 DISC OR WHEEL: The moving blades are attached to the disc which in turn is keyed to the
shaft.

2.1.8 DIAPHRAGM: The diaphragm which is fixed to the cylinder or casing contains the nozzle
and serves to confine the steam flow to nozzle passage.
2.1.9 PACKING: Packing in the form of carbon rings minimizes the leaking in the annular space
between the diaphragm and shaft.
2.1.10 THRUST BEARINGS: Usually a combination of Kingsbury and collar types absorbs the
axial forces.
2.1.11 EXHAUST HOOD: The exhaust hood is the portion of the casing which collects and
delivers the exhaust steam to exhaust pipe or condenser.
STEAM CHEST: The steam chest is the supply chamber from which steam is admitted to the
nozzles.

GOVERNOR: The governing system may be designated to control steam flow so as to maintain
constant speed with load fluctuations to maintain constant pressure with variation of demand for
processed steam or both.
THROTTLES OR STOP VALVES: The throttle and stop valves are located in the steam supply
line to the turbine. The stop valve is hydraulically operated quick opening and shutting valves
designed to be either fully opened or shut. On small turbines the stop valves may be manually
operated but in any case is intended for emergency use or when fully shut down. The throttle valve
is used in smaller turbines in addition to stop valve as a means of regulating steam flow during the
starting or stopping the operation.

CHAPTER-3
3.1 TURBINE CASING:
The casing is out of cast steel and is split horizontally, the joint being level with the
rotor axis. The casing of back pressure turbines is supported, on separate bearing pedestals
with the support surface level with the rotor axis. This ensures that the position of the casing
relative to the rotor remains always constant at all operating temperatures, the radial blade
clearance thus remaining unchanged. In order to permit unrestricted horizontal expansion of the
casing, without moving it out of centre, the casing of the back pressure turbines is located at
both ends by two strong guide keys arranged in the vertical centre plane at the bearing pedestals.
For condensing turbines, the casing supports and guide keys are provided only at
the front end bearing pedestals. The rear end bearing pedestal is cast integral with the exhaust
branch, the supporting surface being level with the rotor axis.
Thermal expansion of casings causes the front end bearing pedestal to move
axially for all types of turbines. The fixed point of the casing relative to bed plate and the

foundation for back pressure turbines is the rear end pedestal, which is bolted down and
located by dowel pins. The fixed point of the condensing turbines is the exhaust branch.
The construction of casings for extraction type machines in both
condensing and back pressure models is the same as described above, except that a branch
is provide for extracting steam.

3.2 Turbine Rotor

The rotors for all types, complete with shaft ends and impulse wheels serving as
governing stage, consist of single forging. All rotors of standard turbines are designed for
sub-critical operation i.e., as rigid rotors in the case of -2 type and as flexible rotors in the
case of -3 type.
The rotors are made of forgings of alloy steel material. when integrally machined
A-wheel blades are to be used. Rotors are made of 22 cr MOV 12.1 material.
During rotation of the shaft, the connection to the bearing pedestal is provide by
the lubrication film. This film has spring and damping characteristics which can under
certain conditions reach high values. Computer

programs are used for calculating the

spring and damping coefficients of journal bearings for any given form of bearings.
Most of the rotors used for turbo generator sets are of rigid type whereas
those used for compressor drive are of flexible type. After completion of machining and
blading , the rotors are balanced in accordance with API 612. The rotor of high speed turbines
for compressor drives are centrifuged at 25%

above the maximum continuous speed

and those for generator drives are centrifuged at 20% above their operating speed. The
centrifuging test is done to check the stability of rotor and soundness of blades assembly.

CONSTRUCTION:
Figure shows the basic version of the turbine rotor. The number of blade
rows shown many differ from the actual model.
The rotor is a single forging together with the thrust bearing collar (3). In front
of the thrust bearing collar is the over speed trip (1) and shaft end with the coupling hub for
the front power take-off.
After the front journal bearing come the sealing strips for the outer gland bush (5)
and the inner bush (6).

In the figure it is possible to see after the drum blading (7) and the
subsequent LP blading of expansion space II (ES II) a part of the rear outer gland bush (10),
which is followed by the rear journal bearing (11).

FIG 1.2 Turbine Rotor

The rotor ends in a tapered hub (14) suitable for fitting one half of a coupling which
compensates for any axial or radial displacement.
The primary balancing planes (17) are located in front of the inner gland bush, after the
final row of moving blades and between the two expansion spaces. In addition, there are
secondary balancing planes (15 & 17) in front of the outer gland bush and in front of the
coupling hub.

Blading
The blading converts the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical energy.
The efficiency and reliability of the machine are therefore very dependent on the blading.

Consequently , exceptionally high standards must be set in the design and manufacture of the
blades.
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a
number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are
known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a combination of the
reaction and impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower
pressure stages are reaction type.
IMPULSE TURBINE:
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed
jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets,
convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only
the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from steam chest pressure
to condenser pressure (or atmosphere pressure). Due to this relatively higher ratio of expansion
of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving
the moving blades is a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the
nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over
velocity" or "leaving loss".

FIG 2.1 Impulse & Reaction Stages

REACTION TURBINE:
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the
fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the
rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the
blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating
through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across
the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the
driving of the rotor.

Main Features Of The Reaction Blading :

Standard turbines operate on 50% reaction principle and are, therefore, fitted
with reaction blading, preceded by a single row impulse wheel as governing stage. The blades are
milled from bar stock. The guide blades are made from drawn profiles. The last stage blades are
of special design.

The reaction blades have rounded inlet edges, which are less affected by changes in
the direction of entry than thin profiles, thus giving high efficiencies even at part load. The
material used, the method of production and the profile adopted for the blades assure a
considerable degree of protection against crack formation and fracture due to vibration.
Each blade is machines from the solid and has an integral shrouding at its tip. When
the blades are fitted in the rotor, the roots form a continuous ring of shrouding. This helps to
eliminate the danger from resonance, which is particularly liable to occur in compressor drives. The
maximum allowable stresses due to static and dynamic forces are precisely calculated for the
various steam zones. According to these limits the most suitable blade profiles will be selected.
The reaction blading permits larger axial clearances than impulse type blading
without reduction of efficiency. The gap between the blade shrouding

and the casing is

sealed by sealing strips caulked into the casing.

The A-wheel blades are of impulse type and in certain cases where the blade
stresses are very high the A-wheel blades are machined integral with the rotor by electrochemical
machining. The A-wheel blades are always of forked root construction withstand the high
concentration of stresses developed.

Moving Blades

There are two different types of moving blades:

Fig 2.2 Drum Blading

Fig 2.3 Tapered and Twisted blades

(a). The reaction blade for the drum blading and,

(b). The tapered and twisted blade for the low pressure stages of condensing turbines.

Fig 2.4 Moving Blade with inverted T & Tree root with integral shroud
The moving blades have their root, web and shrouding milled from the same solid
forging. Exception to this rule are twisted blades of LP rows where it is not possible to design them
integral due to their wide spacing and, for damping blade vibration in this section they provided with

damping wires of steel or titanium. Normally, only the roots of the control stages are forked.
Sometimes, depending on the centrifugal stresses, the last rows of low pressure blades also maybe
designed with fork roots. The running blades in the drum stages have roots of the inverted T-type.
The guide blades are manufactured from drawn bar material and pronged roots. Spacers are provide
between the guide blades and the group of blades are together held by a shroud which is riveted into
them.

Low Pressure Stages

The last three stages of the turbine form a standard stage group. The substantial
difference between the circumferential velocity at the hub and at the blade tip is allowed for by
using a suitable profile and stagger angle. This geves the low pressure blades about their twisted
form. The thickness of the blade also decreases from the hub to the tip because of the high
centrifugal force.

Fig 2.5 LP stage with T & fork root blades

Fig 2.6 Blade root with multiple fork

Again the moving blades have inverted T roots which means that the method of
fixing is no different from the remainder of the drum blading. The final row blade are with curved
for tree roots. They are inserted into axial grooves in the rotor and secured with caulking pieces.
The moving blades are fitted with loose damping pins. The final row blades
have integrally forged thickness around the hole for the damping pin so that the remainder of the
blade cross section is not over stressed.

The fixed blades of the LP stage groups have thin trailing edges in order to prevent the formation
of water droplets. The axial distance before the final row of moving blades is made large in
order to facilitate the acceleration and atomization of any water droplets which detach from the
trailing edges of the Ked blades.
This reduces the force with which the droplets Impinge on the leading edges of
the blades. The leading edges of the blades are hardened if circumferential is high. The LP
guide blades of the last two stages are of hollow type and manufactured from alloy steel plates
which have high erosion resistance.
Losses in Turbine
External Losses
-

ESV & strainer losses

Governing losses (throttling losses)

Leaving Energy Losses (Latent heat of exhaust steam in condenser)

Radiation Loss to the surroundings

Internal Losses
1.

Blade losses
i) Primary Losses:
a) Shape loss due to mechanical strength
b) Friction loss due to profile surface finish
ii) Secondary Losses:
a) Incidence loss (Blade twist is required to minimize this loss)
b) Impingement loss
c) Boundary Layer loss ( between profiles and end walls)
d) Trailing edge loss

2.

Disc Friction Losses:

Moving disc surface exerts a drag as steam which sets it in motion and
produces a definite circulation.

3.

Partial Admission Losses:

a) Flow will be disturbed in partial filled blades.
b) Eddies will be produced in inactive blades
c) Energy is required to flush the steam in inactive blades when

they

come to active.
4.

Inter stage Tip Leakages:

Steam throttles in the inter stage seals without doing work

5.

Residual velocity Losses:

Kinetic energy of

the leaving steam of one stage will be carried over to the next stage. As the axial
clearances increase between the stages (or stage groups) part of the kinetic energy
will be lost.
6.

Wetness Loss

Blade Tip Sealing

There is a radial clearance of several millimeters at the tip of all fixed and moving
blades fitted with shrouding. This eliminates any possibility of contact between the stationary and
moving parts of the machine due to distortion of the rotor or casing. This relatively large radial
cleaeance is sealed with sealing strips in order to restrict the loss in power due to the tip loss to an
absolute minimum. The sealing strips for fixed blades are caulked into the rotor and those for the
moving blades into the guide blade carrier. The sealing strips are very thin and leave only a few
tenths of a millimeter between the shrouding and the rotor or guide blade carrier.
The sealing strips are also made of rust resistant steel. They are sufficiently
strong to withstand the maximum pressure differences which can occur. Due to rubbing, the
amount of heat generated is insufficient to cause any dangerous distortion of the rotor or guide
blade carrier.
The sealing strips are easy to replace. Therefore, it is a simple matter to remove any
damaged strips and fit new ones to give the proper clearance during overhaul at site.

CHAPTER -4
4.1 Front Supporting System
4.1.1 Purpose
The supporting system on the front side of the turbine (casing support, shaft
bearing housing, supporting brackets of outer turbine casing) supports the turbine casing and rotor
and serves to align these parts with respect to each other. At the same time, the correct position
of the turbine with regard to the casing support is ensured by the center guide and screw bolts.
4.1.2 Design
A principal part of the supporting system is the casing support (3) which is firmly
anchored in the turbine foundation. The casing support carries screwed-in adjusting
elements (9) upon which the supporting brackets (2) of the turbine casing rest and to which it is
vertically aligned. The turbine is prevented from lifting off by screw balls (4). As the temperature of

the turbine casing increases the casing is free to expand in the horizontal direction. To provide an
additional safe guard against lifting off, the casing brackets can be loaded by cup springs (10).
In addition to the turbine casing, the front shaft bearing housing (5) is supported
on the casing support. It rests freely on adjusting elements (6) and is prevented from lifting off by
screw bolts (8). These screw bolts allow a few hundredths of a millimeter free play between
the shaft bearing housing and the casing support so that the shaft bearing housing can glide freely.
The bearing housing is rigidly connected to the lower section of the turbine
casing by two bolts (7) arranged parallel to the turbine axis and is therefore constrained to
follow any forward movement of the expanding turbine casing.
The bearing housing is axially split. It accommodates the thrust bearing and the
front journal bearing which carries the weight of the rotor. The inner space of the bearing housing is
sealed by a bearing seal ring at the point where the rotor extends into the turbine casing.

A center rail (11) serves to guide the bearing housing. It also acts as a guide for
the outer casing so that the two can move in the axial direction. Lateral alignment is carried
out by means of adjusting elements (12).

4.2 Rear Supporting System

4.2.1 Function
The rear support elements bearing housing, support brackets of the exhaust
part and the aligning elements serve to support the turbine casing and the turbine rotor and for their
alignment relative to each other.

4.2.2 Design
Unlike the front support, the exhaust part (1) with its support brackets (8) is directly
connected to the turbine foundations, whereby the two support brackets each rest on a base plate
(7). The base plates are rigidly anchored to the turbine foundations. The support brackets and
base plates are connected by bolts. However, the bolts are designed such that in case of
thermal expansion the support bracket can expand laterally. Freedom of movement can be checked
by spacers which must always be easily movable.

The rear fixed point of the turbine casing, relative to which the turbine expands
towards the front end, is formed by one bolt (6) per supporting bracket, inserted transverse to the
turbine axis. A forked prong (3) is bolted on beneath the bearing housing as a centre guide. With
the aid of the mating part fixed to the foundations, lateral movements of the turbine casing
are thus prevented, while thermal movement in the horizontal and axial directions is possible.
Like the front bearing housing, the rear bearing housing (2) rests on adjusting elements, but,
in contrast, is connected with the exhaust part by balls and is aligned axially and fixed by means

of eccentric balls. The bearing housing is aligned transversely by means of the centre guide filled
beneath the lower part of the bearing housing.The bearing housing is split axially and is designed
to accommodate a manual or hydraulic shaft turning gear.

4.3 Thrust Bearing

4.3.1

Purpose
The thrust bearing takes up the residual axial thrust forces of the turbine that have

not been compensated by the labyrinth sealed balancing piston and also any thrust forces
possibly transferred through the gear tooth coupling and transmits these forces to the front
bearing housing. The magnitude of the axial forces thus exerted on the thrust bearing is determined
chiefly by the turbine load. In addition, the thrust bearing serves the purpose of fixing the
rotor in its axial position with respect to the turbine housing.
4.3.2

Design and Mode of operation

Normally, the thrust bearing will be accommodated in the front bearing housing

(1). Its principal parts are :

(a) An axially split casing ( 3 & 9),
(b) The two segment rings (6 & 3).
Several pivoted segments are assembled to form a segment ring. The pivoted
segments will transmit the axial thrust of the turbine rotor via the thrust bearing housing. That side
of the pivoted segments, which is in contact with the collar (7) on the rotor shaft, is babbit-lined.
On its rear side and perpendicular to the direction of the shaft rotation, each side pivoted segment
carries a pivoting edge around which it is able to tilt. The relative motion between the collar and
the babbited faces of the segments induces the formation of a hydrodynamic oil film between
collar and segments. The pivoted segments are retained by radially located cylindrical pins (5)
and are thus secured against displacement in the direction of rotation.

The thrust bearing comprises two rings of pivoted segments. The two rings are identical,
but are situated on opposite sides of the collar in a reflected mirror arrangement. This
makes the thrust bearing equally well suited for taking up thrust from either of the two axial
directions. The precise axial positioning of the thrust bearing with respect to the bearing housing is
obtained by two liner rings.
4.3.3 Lubrication
The thrust bearing will be supplied with pressure oil from the general
lubricating oil system of the turbine. The lubrication oil entering the lower half of the bearing
housing flows into a circular outer oil channel (14) around the periphery of the thrust bearing
casing. From there it flows (1) through drilled radial holes (4), which start from the outer oil
channel, towards the turbine rotor where centrifugal forces are pressing it again in outward
direction through the oil film between rotor collar and pivoted segments into the inner oil
channel (8). Several axially directed oil drain passages (11) are provided on both sides of the
thrust bearing casing top half (3). As it has to be ensured that oil pressure in the thrust bearing
casing will be positive under all conditions, the total flow section of the oil requirement which is a

function of rotor speed and bearing size. According to the circumstances prevailing in a particular
installation, it may thus become necessary to plug one or several drain passages by screw plugs.
Monitoring of oil temperatures is normally carried out by means of either a steam type or a contact
making thermometer (12). The temperature inside the babbit-lining of the tilting segments can be
measured with the help of thermo-couples. Sealing strips (10) caulked circumferentially into the
bore of the thrust bearing housing at the two points where the rotor shaft penetrates the housing
will, together with the over pressure reigning inside the thrust bearing housing prevent aspiration of
air along the shaft.

4.4

Journal Bearing ( Tilting pad bearing )

4.4.1 Function
Journal bearing in the front and rear bearings housing support the turbine rotor in a
central position in relation to the fixed guide blade carrier in the outer casing. The journal
bearings are of the tilting pad type due to the required stability characteristics and the loading of the
turbine rotor.
4.4.2

Construction
A journal bearing consists of an axially split shell, the two halves of which are bolted

and pinned. A location pin prevents any movement of the bearing shell in the housing.
The five bearings pads are supported in the shell on the soleplates (shoes) which are
spherical on one side. The pads are fixed in their axial positions on both sides by a locating ring
and dowel pins. The running surfaces of the pads are of white metal.

4.4.3 Lubrication
The bearings are force lubricated with oil. The oil is supplied to the bearing
journal through an annular groove and radial inlet passage between the bearing pads. The rotation
of the shaft drags the oil into the wedge shaped gaps so that as the speed rises a
hydrodynamic lubricating film is built up. Through friction
phenomenon produces lubricant pressures, which, when

and compression, this

the relationship between wedge

gap shape, oil viscosity and circumferential velocity is correct, are sufficient to raise from the
bearing shell, even under heavy load, and thus support the shaft on a film of lubricant without
any metal to metal contact.

4.4.4 Temperature monitoring

In order to ensure safe operation of the turbine the bearings are equipped with
temperature measuring devices. The measured temperatures can also be used for annunciation,
alarm or turbine tripping. The bearing metal temperature is measured in the region of the narrowest
gap. The bearing shell temperature depends on the oil inlet temperature, the speed and also
the magnitude and direction of the load on the bearing exerted by the turbine rotor. The
measurement is rapid in response and immediately follows all changes in conditions. Holes are
provided in the bearing shell into which the temperature sensors of thermocouples can be
inserted directly under the white metal running surface.

4.5

Seal Ring Front ( with sealing gas connection )

4.5.1 Function
The seal ring seals the bearing housing from the turbine casing where the turbine
rotor penetrates the casting.
4.5.2 Design
The bearing seal ring is split axially. It is inserted in a groove in the bearing
housing (1) and is thus fixed in its axial position. Sealing strips (3) are caulked into the seal ring
at the point where the rotor passes through the turbine casing. Together with the turbine rotor
sealing lip (7), which is matched to the seal ring, the sealing strips prevent any oil seeping out. In
the bottom half of the seal ring there are also oil drainage holes between the sealing strips which
enable any oil that accumulates to flow to the bearing housing. A thermal protection shield (2)
is fitted on the seal ring to protect the bearing housing from excessive heat.
4.5.3 Sealing gas
The oil system must be protected against any aggressive atmosphere. Since the
atmosphere via the oil frain lines of the bearing housing can affect the oil system particularly,
a sealing gas ( air or nitrogen ) is fed to the dealing strips

at approximately 1 bar via the

connection (L). this pressure is sufficient to seal the bearing effectively housing, and thus the oil
system, against the atmosphere.

4.6

Seal Ring Rear It is similar in construction as that of front seal ring , except that

the sealing gas connection is not existing.

CHAPTER-5
5.1

Emergency Stop Valve

The emergency stop valve is provided at the steam inlet to the turbine. It is directly

mounted on the casing with a view to reduce the quantity of steam entrapped between the stop
valve and control valves. In the event of sudden load throw off, if this entrapped steam is
sufficient in quantity, it may tend to over speed the turbine.

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the emergency stop valves used in -2 & -3 type of
turbines. In -3 type of turbines the valve cone sits on a diffuser to prevent turbulence in the steam
chamber. To withstand the high pressure of steam generally used in H type of turbines, an L-ring
is used for sealing the high pressure steam and the taper block is designed to transmit the
steam force onto the housing thus avoiding the force on the connecting flange. The hydraulic
actuator design for both types of valves remains basically the same.
The ESV is provided with a testing device to check the proper functioning of the
valve even during regular operation. This ensures that the spindle does not get sticky due to
continued operation in one position.
Live steam is admitted to the valve chest through the emergency stop valve. In
normal operation, this valve is held open against the spring load by oil pressure. In the event of a
trip condition, the trip oil circuit is drained and the spring closes the valve very quickly.

A steam strainer is fitted in the emergency stop valve body. It consists of a

corrugated steel strip wound spirally on the edge of a former and is stronger than
conventional strainers made out of perforated sheet. The free cross section is larger although
the mesh opening is smaller. Any water droplets entrained by the steam are evaporated upon
impact on the strainer sides due to the large heat storage capacity of the strainer, blade erosion is
thereby avoided. The small mesh opening also provides effective protection against the
passage of even small solid particles.

5.2

steam strainers

5.2.1 Function
Steam strainers are initiated in the main steam lines and in the hot reheat lines from
the boiler. They protect the admission elements of the HP & IP turbines from foreign objects which
could be picked up in the boiler or associated piping.

5.2.2 Construction
The strainer screen (~) is made of corrugated strip wound on e<1 on a frame.
This design offers a high degree of resistance even to particles impinging at high velocity. The
frame consists of two ring (1 & 6) and a number of rods (5) welded between the rings. The
rods are additionally braced by reinforcing rings (4) welded inside them. The strainer is designed for

a single direction of flow from the outside inwards. For longer strainers, the screen is made up of
several parts. The end turns of the corrugated strip are then tacked to the T- section intermediate
rings(3). The maximum mesh size of the strainer, which is determined by the height of that
corrugations, is 1.6mm . The effective area is made at least three times the cross-sectional
area of the pipe. The strainer may be used for both initial commissioning of the turbine and
for regular operation.

Chapter- 6
6.1

Control Valves
The control valves regulate the amount of steam flowing to the turbine according

to the load. The cones of control valves are suspended from a beam ( fig 5.1). The beam is
supported by two spindles which are raised and lowered through a system of levers by a servomotor
arranged adjacent to the valves. Each control valve is adjusted to give a different distance between
the bottom of the backing nut and its seating on the top of the beam, so that, when the beam is
lifted, the valves open in a sequence and the steam is admitted progressively to the various
nozzle groups.
The advantages of independent mounting of control valves are:

Independent adjustment of the valves to the valve seats.

Spindle breakages due to vibration are avoided.

Only two spindle glands through the admission chest are necessary for a maximum number
of five control valves.

6.1.1 Function
The control valves are opened and closed in order to adjust the throughput off steam
to give the required power output from the turbine. Depending on the power required, therefore,

the control valves are opened or closed in a specific sequence. The valve seats are in the form of
diffusers in order to keep flow losses to a minimum.
6.1.2 Construction
The steam chest (4) contains valve crossbar (5) in which the actual control valves (9)
are suspended loosely. The crossbar is connected to the arm (1) through two stems (9) and the
pivoted links (2). The arm is operated by the actuator (15) which is flexibly mounted on a
bracket (11) attached to the stem chest.
The steam chest has two bonnets (3) in which the valve stems are guided by two
rings (10 & 12). The rings also form the top and bottom stem glands.
Each stem head (13) is loaded by a compression spring (14) so that the control
valves are held closed when the turbine is stationary.

6.1.3 Mode Of Operation

When the turbine is at rest the springs keep the crossbar in its lowest position
and the cones of the control valves are forced on to their seats (8) by the pressure of steam. A
control pulse from the governor causes the actuator to pull the arm downwards, thus raising
the stems and lifting the crossbar. The valves then lift in a sequence determined by the
different lengths of the spacer bushes (7) in the crossbar.

CHAPTER-7
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
INTRODUCTION:
When the steam is allowed to expand through a narrow orifice, it assumes kinetic
energy at the expense of enthalpy (heat energy).this kinetic energy of steam is charged to
mechanical (rotational) energy through the impact (impulse) a reaction of steam against the blades.
It should be realized that the blade of the turbine obtains no moving force from the static pressure of
the steam or from any impact of the steam jet. The blades are designed in such a way, that the steam
will guide on and off the blade without and tendency to strike it.
As the steam moves over the blade, its direction is continuously changing and
centrifugal pressure exerted as the result is normal to the blade surface at all points. The total
motives force acting on the blades is thus the resultant of all the centrifugal forces plus change of
momentum. This causes the rotational motion of blades.

CONTRUCTIONAL DETAILS:
The constructional details of the turbine include the High Pressure (HP), Intermediate Pressure
(IP) and Low Pressure (LP) turbines.

H.P.TURBINES:
The outer casing of the HP turbine is of barrel type. This avoids mass accumulation due
to absence of flanges. It consists of following:
H.P outer casing

H.P inner casing

H.P rotor

The inner casing carries guide blades and is kinematically supported. The spaces between
inner and outer casings are filled by sealing rings. The inner casing is fixed in the horizontal and
vertical planes in the outer casings so that it can freely expand radial in all directions and axially
from a fixed point. The barrel construction permits rapid starts-ups and higher rates of load changes
due to absence of high thermal stress .Barrel type casings are also easy to cast which means the
casings can be exceptionally good quality .The connection with the piping is made through breach
nuts. This arrangement provides ease of opening the joint during maintenance.
I.P.TURBINE:
The IP casing is split horizontally and is of double shell and double flow construction,
with the inner casing carrying the guide and kinematically supported within the outer casing. The
construction provides flexibility for choosing the location of bleed steam point to suit the best
thermal efficiency. The reheated steam enters the inner casing through top and bottom. IP Turbine
consists of the following regions.
IP outer casing
IP Inner casing
IP rotor.

The arrangement confines the high steam temperature to the admission branch of the
casing while the joint of the outer casing is only subjected to lower pressure and temperature at the
exhaust of the inner casing. The hydraulic turning gear blades are located on the coupling of the IP
Rotor.
LP TURBINE:
The LP turbine is of triple shell fabricated construction .The outer casing consists of
the front and rear end walls; two side members called longitudinal grinders and top cover. The twin
Shell inner casing is supported kinematically at each end by two support arms resting on the side
members of the outer casting.
The inner shell of the inner casting carries the guide blade carrier of the first stage
of the turbine. Rings of guide carries, which constitutes the guide blade carries, which constitutes
the remaining stages of turbine, are bolted to the middle inner outer casing. LP Turbine consists of
the following regions.

LP outer casing
LP Inner-outer casing
LP Inner-Inner casing

LPRotor.