History of Mexico

Celebration of Mexicos rst one hundred years of Independece

in 1910, photograph by Aurelio Escobar Castellanos. The Porriato and the Mexican Revolution that followed, ushered Mexico
into the modern era.

Detail of a relief from Palenque, a Classic-era city. Maya script

is the only known complete writing system of the pre-Columbian
Americas.

capital Mexico City, which was and remains the most

populous city in Mexico.
From 1521, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire incorporated the region into the Spanish Empire, with New
Spain its colonial era name and Mexico City the center
of colonial rule. It was built on the ruins of the Aztec
capital of Tenochtitlan and became the capital of New
Spain. During the colonial era, Mexicos long-established
Mesoamerican civilizations mixed with European culture. Perhaps nothing better represents this hybrid background than Mexicos languages: the country is both the
most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and
home to the largest number of Native American language
speakers in North America. For three centuries Mexico
was part of the Spanish Empire, whose legacy is a country with a Spanish-speaking, Catholic and largely Western
culture.

The Miracle of the Little Spring, Rafael Ximeno y Planes, 1809.

Colonialism had a profound inuence in shaping what would become Mexico: religion, race, language, art, territory, etc.

After a protracted struggle (181021) for independence,

New Spain became the sovereign nation of Mexico, with
the signing of the Treaty of Crdoba. A brief period of
monarchy (182123), called the First Mexican Empire,
was followed by the founding of the Republic of Mexico,
established under a federal constitution in 1824. Legal
racial categories were eliminated, abolishing the system
of castas. Slavery was not abolished at independence in
1821 or with the constitution in 1824, but was eliminated
in 1829. Mexico continues to be constituted as a federated republic, under the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

The history of Mexico, a country in the southern portion of North America, covers a period of more than three
millennia. First populated more than 13,000 years ago,[1]
The territory had complex indigenous civilizations before
being conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. One
of the important aspects of Mesoamerican civilizations
was their development of a form of writing, so that Mexicos written history stretches back hundreds of years before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. This era before the arrival of Europeans is called variously the pre- The Age of Santa Anna is the period of the late 1820s
hispanic era or the precolumbian era.
to the early 1850s that was dominated by criollo military
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan became the Spanish man turned president Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna. In
1

2
1846, the MexicanAmerican War was provoked by the
United States, ending two years later with Mexico ceding
almost half of its territory via the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo to the United States. Even though Santa Anna
bore signicant responsibility for the disastrous defeat, he
returned to oce.
The Liberal Reform began with the overthrow of Santa
Anna by Mexican liberals, ushering in La Reforma beginning in 1854. The Mexican Constitution of 1857 codied
the principles of liberalism in law, especially separation
of church and state, equality before the law, that included
stripping corporate entities (the Catholic Church and indigenous communities) of special status. The Reform
sparked a civil war between liberals defending the constitution and conservatives, who opposed it. The War of
the Reform saw the defeat of the conservatives on the battleeld, but conservatives remained strong and took the
opportunity to invite foreign intervention against the liberals in order to forward their own cause.

ture after the end of the Daz era. Although little had been
done for the nations poor, the sparking forces of the Mexican Revolution were elites outside Dazs inner circle,
such as Francisco Madero, a member of one of the richest land owning families in Mexico, plus liberal intellectuals, and industrial labor activists. The fraudulent election of 1910 keeping 80-year-old Daz in power brought
opposition elements together, unleashing a 10-year civil
war known as the Mexican Revolution (191020). The
conict was not a unied one, but took place mainly in
Mexicos north with organized armies of movement under leaders such as Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregn and
in the center of Mexico, particularly the state of Morelos
with guerrilla peasants ghting under the leadership of
Emiliano Zapata. The war killed a tenth of the nations
population and drove many northern Mexicans across the
U.S. border to escape the ghting. The Revolution ended
the system of large landed estates, or haciendas that had
originated with the Spanish Conquest.

A new legal framework was established in the Constitution of 1917, which reversed the principle established
under Porrio Daz that gave absolute property rights
to individuals. Article 27 of the Constitution, empowered the State to expropriate owners and gave the State
subsoil rights, which had been the principle during the
colonial era. Organized labors contribution to the revolution was recognized in Article 123, guaranteeing labor unions rights. In Article 3, the State strengthened
its anticlerical measures to control the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Northern revolutionary generals
Alvaro Obregn and Plutarco Elas Calles each served a
four-year presidential term following the end of the military conict in 1920. The assassination of president-elect
Obregn in 1928 led to a crisis on succession, solved by
With the end of the Second Mexican Empire, the period the creation of a party structure in 1929.
often called the Restored Republic (186776) brought
back Benito Jurez as president. Following his death from The post-revolutionary era is generally marked by politia heart attack, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada succeed him. cal peace whereby conicts are not resolved by violence.
He was overthrown by liberal military man Porrio Diaz, This new period has been marked by changes in policy
who after consolidating power ushered in a period of sta- and amendments to the 1917 Mexican Constitution to albility and economic growth. The half-century of eco- low for neoliberal economic policies. Following the fornomic stagnation and political chaos following indepen- mation in 1929 of the precursor to the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), this single party controlled
dence ended.
national and state politics after 1929, and nationalized the
The Porriate is the era when army hero Porrio Daz oil industry in the 1930s. Following World War II, where
held power as president of Mexico almost continuously Mexico had been a strong ally of the United States and
from 1876-1911. He promoted order and progress that had beneted signicantly by supplying metals to build
saw the modernization of the economy and the ow of war materiel as well as guest farm workers, who freed
foreign investment to the country. The period is generally U.S. American men to ght in the two front war. Mexcalled the Porriato, which ended with the outbreak of ico emerged from World War II with wealth and politithe Mexican Revolution in 1910. Under Daz, Mexicos cal stability and unleashed a major period of economic
industry and infrastructure was modernized by a strong, growth, often called the Mexican Miracle. It was orgastable but autocratic central government. Increased tax nized around the principles of import substitution indusrevenues and better administration brought dramatic im- trialization, with the creation of many state-owned indusprovements in public safety, public health, railways, min- trial enterprises. The population grew rapidly and being, industry, foreign trade, and national nances.
came more urbanized while many others moved to the
The Mexican Revolution is the chaotic period between United States.
1910 and 1920 when Mexicans fought to determine fu- A new era began in Mexico following the fraudulent 1988
The French Intervention is the period when France invaded Mexico (1861), nominally to collect on defaulted
loans to the liberal government of Benito Jurez, but
it went further and at the invitation of Mexican conservatives seeking to restore monarchy in Mexico set
Maximilian I on the Mexican throne. The US was engaged in its own Civil War (186165), so did not attempt
to block the foreign intervention. Abraham Lincoln consistently supported the Mexican liberals. At the end of the
civil war in the US and the triumph of the Union forces,
the US actively aided Mexican liberals against Maximilians regime. France withdrew its support of Maximilian
in 1867 and his monarchist rule collapsed in 1867 and
Maximilian was executed.

1.1

Beginnings

presidential elections. The Institutional Revolutionary

Party barely won the presidential election, and President
Carlos Salinas de Gortari began implementing sweeping
neoliberal reforms in Mexico. These reforms required the
amendment of the constitution, especially curtailing the
power of the Mexican state to regulate foreign business
enterprises, but also lifted the suppression of the Roman
Catholic Church in Mexico. Mexicos economy was further integrated with that of U.S. and also Canada after
the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA
agreement began lowering trade barriers in 1994. Seven
decades of PRI rule ended in the year 2000 with the
election of Vicente Fox of the Partido Accin Nacional
(PAN). His successor, Felipe Caldern, also of the PAN,
embarked of a war on drug maas in Mexico, which has
resulted in tens of thousands of deaths. In the face of extremely violent drug wars, the PRI returned to power in
2012, promising that it had reformed itself.

Pre-Columbian Mexico

3
5. reliance on agriculture often supplemented by hunting and shing and the complete absence of a pastoral (herding) economy, since there were no domesticated herd animals prior to the arrival of the Europeans;
6. trade networks and markets.
It is remarkable that so many civilizations arose in a region with no major navigable rivers, no beasts of burden,
and dicult terrain that impeded the movement of people and goods. Indigenous civilizations developed complex ritual and solar calendars, a signicant understanding of astronomy and developed forms of written communication in the form of glyphs, clear testimony to their
advanced level of sophistication.
The history of Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest is
known through the work of archaeologists, epigraphers,
and ethnohistorians (scholars who study indigenous history, usually from the indigenous point of view), who analyze Mesoamerican indigenous manuscripts, particularly
Aztec codices, Mayan codices, and Mixtec codices.

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico

Accounts written by the Spanish at the time of their
The dense and socially and politically complex civiliza- conquest (the conquistadores) and by indigenous chroniclers of the post-conquest period constitute the principal
source of information regarding Mexico at the time of the
Spanish Conquest.
While relatively few pictorial manuscripts (or codices) of
the Mixtec and Aztec cultures of the Post-Classic period
survive, progress has been made in the area of Maya archaeology and epigraphy.[3]

1.1 Beginnings
The Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico, ca. 800-900 CE. A temple to
Kukulkan sits atop this pyramid with a total of 365 stairs on its
four sides. At the winter and summer equinoxes, the sun casts a
shadow in the shape of a serpent along the northern staircase.

The presence of people in Mesoamerica was once thought

to date back 40,000 years, an estimate based on what
were believed to be ancient footprints discovered in the
Valley of Mexico; but after further investigation using radiocarbon dating, it appears this date may not be
tions of Mexico developed in the center and southern reaccurate.[4] It is currently unclear whether 23,000-yeargions (with the southern region extending into what is
old campre remains found in the Valley of Mexico are
now Central America) in what has come to be known as
the earliest human remains uncovered so far in Mexico.[5]
Mesoamerica. The civilizations that rose and declined
The rst people to settle in Mexico encountered a climate
over millennia were characterized by:[2]
far milder than the current one. In particular, the Valley of Mexico contained several large paleo-lakes (known
1. signicant urban settlements;
collectively as Lake Texcoco surrounded by dense forest.
2. monumental architecture such as temples, palaces, Deer were found in this central area, but most fauna were
and other monumental architecture, such as the ball small land animals and sh and other lacustrine animals
were found in the lake region. Such conditions encourcourt;
aged the initial pursuit of a hunter-gatherer existence.
3. the division of society into religious, political, and
political elites (such as warriors and merchants) and
1.2 Corn, squash, and beans
commoners who pursued subsistence agriculture;
4. transfer of tribute and rending of labor from com- The diet of ancient central and southern Mexico was varmoners to elites;
ied, including domesticated corn (or maize), squashes

1 PRE-COLUMBIAN MEXICO

Variegated maize ears

such as pumpkin and butternut squash, common or pinto

beans, tomatoes, peppers, cassavas, pineapples, chocolate, and tobacco. The Three Sisters (corn, squash, and
beans) constituted the principal diet.
Indigenous peoples in western Mexico began to selectively breed maize (Zea mays) plants from precursor
grasses (e.g., teosinte) around 8000 BC,[6] and intensive
corn farming began between 1800 and 1500 BC.

1.3

Religion

The Mesoamerican had the concept of god and religion,

but were very dierent from Abrahamic concepts. The
Mesoamericans had a belief where everything, every element of the cosmos, the earth, the sun, the moon, the
stars, which mankind inhabits, everything that forms part
of nature such as animals, plants, water and mountains all
represented a manifestation of the supernatural. In most
cases gods and goddesses are often depicted in stone reliefs, pottery decoration, wall paintings and in the various
Maya, and pictorial manuscripts such as Maya codices,
Aztec codices, and Mixtec codices.

Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, Maya, linted 24 of temple 23, Yaxchilan, Mexico, ca. 725 ce. Limestone, 3'7 2' 6.5. British
Museum, London. The Maya built vast complexes of temples,
palaces, and plazas and decorated many with painted reliefs.

cient Mesoamerica.[7]

Thus, this quality of acceptance of new gods to the collection of existing gods may have been one of the shaping characteristics for the success during the Christianization of Mesoamerica. New gods did not at once replace the old; they initially joined the ever growing family
of deities or were merged with existing ones that seemed
to share similar characteristics or responsibilities.[7] The
The spiritual pantheon was vast and extremely complex. Christianization of Europe also followed similar patterns
However, many of the deities depicted are common to the of appropriation and transformation of existing deities.
various civilizations and their worship survived over long A great deal is known about Aztec religion due to the
periods of time. They frequently took on dierent char- work of the early mendicant friars in their work to conacteristics and even names in dierent areas, but in eect vert the indigenous to Christianity. The writings of
they transcended cultures and time. Great masks with Franciscans Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia and
gaping jaws and monstrous features in stone or stucco Fray Bernardino de Sahagn and Dominican Fray Diego
were often located at the entrance to temples, symboliz- Durn recorded a great deal about Nahua religion, since
ing a cavern or cave on the anks of the mountains that al- they viewed understanding the ancient practices as essenlowed access to the depths of Mother Earth and the shad- tial for successfully converting the indigenous to Chrisowy roads that lead to the underworld.[7]
tianity.
Cults connected with the jaguar and jade especially permeated religion throughout Mesoamerica. Jade, with its
translucent green color was revered along with water as
a symbol of life and fertility. The jaguar, agile, powerful and fast, was especially connected with warriors
and as spirit guides of shamans. Despite dierences of
chronology or geography, the crucial aspects of this religious pantheon were shared amongst the people of an-

1.4 Writing
Mesoamerica is the only place in the Americas where
indigenous writing systems were invented and used before European colonization. While the types of writing
systems in Mesoamerica range from minimalist picture-

2.1

The Olmecs (1400400 BC)

writing to complex logophonetic systems capable of

recording speech and literature, they all share some core
features that make them visually and functionally distinct
from other writing systems of the world.[8]

They consolidated power and exercised inuence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and religion. Over
a span of 3,000 years, other regional powers made economic and political alliances with them; many made war
Although many indigenous manuscripts have been lost or on them. But almost all found themselves within their
destroyed, texts known Aztec codices, Mayan codices, spheres of inuence.
and Mixtec codices still survive and are of intense interest
to scholars of the prehispanic era.
2.1 The Olmecs (1400400 BC)
The fact that there was an existing prehispanic tradition
of writing meant that when the Spanish friars taught Mexican Indians to write their own languages, particularly
Nahuatl, an alphabetic tradition took hold. It was used in
ocial documents for legal cases and other legal instruments. The formal use of native language documentation lasted until Mexican independence in 1821. Beginning in the late twentieth century, scholars have mined
these native language documents for information about
colonial-era economics, culture, and language. The New
Philology is the current name for this particular branch
of colonial-era Mesoamerican ethnohistory.

Main article: Olmec

The Olmec rst appeared along the Atlantic coast (in
what is now the state of Tabasco) in the period 1500
900 BC. The Olmecs were the rst Mesoamerican culture to produce an identiable artistic and cultural style,
and may also have been the society that invented writing
in Mesoamerica. By the Middle Preclassic Period (900
300 BC), Olmec artistic styles had been adopted as far
away as the Valley of Mexico and Costa Rica.

2.2 The Maya

The major pre-Columbian civilizations

The identities of the Olmec colossi are uncertain, but their individualized features and distinctive headgear, as well as later
Maya practice, suggest that these heads portray rulers rather than
deities.

Main article: Maya civilization

Mayan cultural characteristics, such as the rise of the

Chacmool, Maya, from the Platform of the Eagles, Chichen Itza,

Mexico, ca. 80090 CE. Stone, 4' 10.5 high. National Museum
of Anthropology, Mexico city. Chacmools represent fallen warriors reclining on their backs with receptacles on their chests to
receive sacricial oerings. Excavators discovered one in the
burial chamber inside the Castilloyo

ahau, or king, can be traced from 300 BC onwards. During the centuries preceding the classical period, Mayan
kingdoms sprang up in an area stretching from the Pacic
coasts of southern Mexico and Guatemala to the northern
Yucatn Peninsula. The egalitarian Mayan society of preroyal centuries gradually gave way to a society controlled
by a wealthy elite that began building large ceremonial
temples and complexes.

During the pre-Columbian period, many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power
and prestige. Ancient Mexico can be said to have produced ve major civilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Aztec. Unlike other indigenous Mexican societies, these civilizations (with the exception of The earliest known long-count date, 199 AD, heralds the
the politically fragmented Maya) extended their political classic period, during which the Mayan kingdoms supand cultural reach across Mexico and beyond.
ported a population numbering in the millions. Tikal,

THE MAJOR PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATIONS

the largest of the kingdoms, alone had 500,000 inhabitants, though the average population of a kingdom was
much smallersomewhere under 50,000 people. When
the Spaniards came, they brought disease, guns, and steel.
With those tools they wiped out most of Mayan civilization.

2.3

The Teotihuacan

Main article: Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in
Teotihuacan view of the Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramid
of the Sun, from the Pyramid of the Moon. At its peak around
600 CE, Teotihuacan was the sixth-largest city in the world. It
featured a rational grid plan and a two-mile-long main avenue.
Its monumental pyramids echo the shapes of surrounding mountains.

and the Maya region. The Aztecs may have been inuenced by this city. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of
Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups.
Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state.
Goddess, mural painting from the Tetitla apartment complex at
Teotihuacan, Mexico, 650-750 CE. Pigments over clay and plaster. Elaborate mural paintings adorned Teotihuacans elite residential compound. This example may depict the citys principal
deity, a goddess wearing ajade mask and a large feathered headdress.

2.4 The Toltec

Main articles: Toltec and Toltec Empire
The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican

the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest

pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian
Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes,
the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful,
well-preserved murals.
Additionally, Teotihuacan
produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through
Mesoamerica.[9]
The city is thought to have been established around 100
BCE and continued to be built until about 250 CE.[10] The
city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and
8th centuries CE. At its zenith, perhaps in the rst half of
the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city
in the pre-Columbian Americas. At this time it may have
had more than 200,000 inhabitants, placing it among the
largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan was
even home to multi-oor apartment compounds built to
accommodate this large population.[10]
The civilization and cultural complex associated with the
site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan
was the center of a state empire, its inuence throughout
Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz

Colossal atlantids, pyramid B, Toltec, Tula, Mexico, ca. 9001180 CE. Stone, each 16' high. The colossal statue-columns of
Tula portraying warriors armed with darts and spear-throwers
reect the military regime of the Toltecs, whose arrival in central
Mexico coincided with the decline of the Maya.

culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo,

in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca 8001000 CE). The later Aztec culture saw the
Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and
described Toltec culture emanating from Tollan (Nahuatl
for Tula) as the epitome of civilization, indeed in the

2.5

The Aztec Empire (13251521 AD)

Nahuatl language the word Toltec came to take on the

meaning artisan.
The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described
the history of the Toltec empire giving lists of rulers and
their exploits. Among modern scholars it is a matter
of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history
should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. While all scholars acknowledge that there is
a large mythological part of the narrative some maintain
that by using a critical comparative method some level
of historicity can be salvaged from the sources, whereas
others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives
as sources of actual history is futile and hinders access to
actual knowledge of the culture of Tula, Hidalgo.
Other controversy relating to the Toltecs include how best
to understand reasons behind the perceived similarities in
architecture and iconography between the archaeological
site of Tula and the Maya site of Chichn Itz no consensus has emerged yet about the degree or direction of
inuence between the two sites.

2.5

The Aztec Empire (13251521 AD)

Main article: Aztec Empire

The Nahua peoples began to enter central Mexico in the

Aztec statue of Coatlicue The Mother of Gods the earth goddess.

deities benecent; to meet this need, the Aztec sacriced

thousands of people. This belief is thought to have been
common throughout Nahuatl people. To acquire captives
in times of peace, the Aztec resorted to a form of ritual
warfare called ower war. The Tlaxcalteca, among other
Nahuatl nations, were forced into such wars.

Diego Rivera mural of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, Palacio

Nacional, Mexico City

6th century AD. By the 12th century, they had established

their center at Azcapotzalco, the city of the Tepanecs.
The Mexica people arrived in the Valley of Mexico in
1248 AD. They had migrated from the deserts north of
the Rio Grande over a period traditionally said to have
been 100 years. They may have thought of themselves
as the heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them. What the Aztec initially lacked in political
power, however, they made up for with ambition and military skill. In 1325, they established the biggest city in the
world at that time, Tenochtitlan.

Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex.

In 1428, the Aztec led a war of liberation against their

rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco, which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexicos peoples. The revolt
was successful, and the Aztecs became the rulers of central Mexico as the leaders of the Triple Alliance. The
alliance was composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan,
Texcoco, and Tlacopan.

Aztec religion was based on the belief in the continual At their peak, 350,000 Aztec presided over a wealthy
need for regular oering of human blood to keep their tribute-empire comprising 10 million people, almost half

THE SPANISH CONQUEST

Aztec calendar Sun Stone on display in Museo Nacional de

Antropologa.
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of
Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. The rst contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans
took place during his reign, and he was killed during the initial
stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when Conquistador
Hernn Corts and his men fought to escape from the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

of Mexicos estimated population of 24 million. Their

empire stretched from ocean to ocean, and extended into
Central America. The westward expansion of the empire
was halted by a devastating military defeat at the hands of
the Purepecha (who possessed weapons made of copper).
The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods
and services), which were collected through an elaborate Santa Mara la Antigua del Darin.[11]
bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and
local ocials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple
Alliance.
By 1519, the Aztec capital, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the site
of modern-day Mexico City, was one of the largest cities
in the world, with a population of 30,000 (estimates range
as high as 60,000).

The Spanish conquest

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

3.1

Hernn Corts and Moctezuma meet.

Mesoamerica on the eve of the conquest

The rst Europeans to arrive in what is modern day Mex-

The rst mainland explorations were followed by a phase

of inland expeditions and conquest. The Spanish crown
extended the Reconquista eort, completed in Spain in
1492, to non-Catholic people in new territories. In 1502
on the coast of present-day Colombia, near the Gulf of
Urab, Spanish explorers led by Vasco Nez de Balboa
explored and conquered the area near the Atrato River.[11]
The conquest was of the Chibchan speaking nations,
mainly the Muisca and Tairona indigenous people that
lived here. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba
in 1509abandoned within the year, and in 1510 the
rst permanent Spanish mainland settlement in America,

ico were the survivors of a Spanish shipwreck in 1511.

Only two managed to survive Gernimo de Aguilar and
Gonzalo Guerrero until further contact was made with
Spanish explorers years later. On 8 February 1517 an
expedition led by Francisco Hernndez de Crdoba left
the harbor of Santiago de Cuba to explore the shores of
southern Mexico.
During the course of this expedition many of Hernndez' men were killed, most during a battle near the town
of Champotn against a Maya army. He himself was injured, and died a few days shortly after his return to Cuba.
This was the Europeans rst encounter with an advanced
civilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings

3.2

The aftermath

and a complex social organization which they recognized

as being comparable to those of the Old World. Hernn
Corts led a new expedition to Mexico landing ashore
at present day Veracruz on 22 April 1519, a date which
marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony
over the region.

9
cannon shots. Those Aztecs who survived were forbidden
to live in the city and the surrounding isles, and they went
to live in Tlatelolco.

Corts imprisoned the royal families of the valley. To

prevent another revolt, he personally tortured and killed
Cuauhtmoc, the last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch, the
In general the 'Spanish conquest of Mexico' denotes the King of Texcoco, and Tetlepanquetzal, King of Tlacopan.
conquest of the central region of Mesoamerica where the The Spanish had no intentions of turning over TenochtiAztec Empire was based. The fall of the Aztec capital of tlan to the Tlaxcalteca. While Tlaxcalteca troops conTenochtitlan in 1521 was a decisive event, but Spaniards tinued to help the Spaniards, and Tlaxcala received betconquered other regions of Mexico, such as Yucatn, ex- ter treatment than other indigenous nations, the Spanish
tended long after Spaniards consolidated control of cen- eventually disowned the treaty. Forty years after the contral Mexico. The Spanish conquest of Yucatn is the quest, the Tlaxcalteca had to pay the same tribute as any
much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the other indigenous community.
Maya peoples of the Maya civilization in the Yucatn
Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central
America.
Political. Apparently, Cortes favored maintaining
the political structure of the Aztecs, subject to relatively minor changes.

3.2

3.2.1

The aftermath

Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs, and the Tlaxcalteca

The Torture of Cuauhtmoc", a 19th-century painting by

Leandro Izaguirre.

The Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and His Troops,.

Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed by re and

Religious. Corts immediately banned human sacrice throughout the conquered empire. In 1524
Corts requested the Spanish king to send friars from the mendicant orders, particularly the
Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian, to convert
the indigenous to Christianity. This has often been
called the spiritual conquest of Mexico.[12] Christian evangelization began in the early-1520s and
continued into the 1560s. Many of the mendicant
friars, especially the Franciscans and Dominicans,
learned the native languages and recorded aspects
of native culture, providing a principal source for
our knowledge about them. One of the rst twelve
Franciscans to come to Mexico, Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia recorded in Spanish observations
of the indigenous. Important Franciscans engaged
in collecting and preparing native language materials, especially in Nahuatl are fray Alonso de Molina
and fray Bernardino de Sahagn.[13] By 1560, more
than 800 clergy were working to convert Indians in
New Spain. By 1580, the number grew to 1,500 and
by 1650, to 3,000.
Economics. The Spanish colonizers introduced the
encomienda system of forced labor, which in central
Mexico built on indigenous traditions of rendering
tribute and labor to rulers in their own communities
and local rulers rendering tribute to higher authorities. Individual Spaniards were awarded the tribute and labor or particular indigenous communities,
with that population paying tribute and performing
labor locally. Indigenous communities were pressed
for labor services and tribute, but were not enslaved.
Their rulers remained indigenous elites, who retained their status under colonial rule and were useful intermediaries.[14] The Spanish also used forced
labor, often outright slavery, in mining.

10
3.2.2

4
Analysis of the defeat

THE COLONIAL PERIOD (15211810)

4.1 Period of the conquest (152150)

Military Tactics. The Alliances use of ambush dur- Main article: New Spain
ing indigenous ceremonies, such as during The Feast of See also: History of Mexico City
Huitzilopochtli, allowed the Spanish to avoid ghting the Spanish conquerors did not bring all areas of Aztec Embest Aztec warriors in direct armed battle.
Smallpox and its Toll. Smallpox (Variola major and Variola minor) began to spread in Mesoamerica immediately
after the arrival of Europeans. The indigenous peoples,
who had no immunity to it, eventually died in the millions. A third of all the natives of the Valley of Mexico
succumbed to it within six months of Spaniards arrival.

The colonial period (15211810)

Main article: New Spain

Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a
pire under its control. After the fall of Tenochtitlan in
1521, it took decades of sporadic warfare to subdue the
rest of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya regions of
southern New Spain and into what is now Central America.

Chihuahua cathedral

300-year-long colonial period, during which Mexico was

known as "New Spain" ruled by a viceroy in the name of
the Spanish monarch. Because of central Mexicos dense
and politically complex indigenous populations and the
discovery of major deposits of silver in its northern regions Zacatecas and Guanajuato, colonial Mexico had key
elements to attract Spanish emigrants: (1) an indigenous
population that could be compelled to work and (2) huge
mineral wealth. The Viceroyalty of Peru also had those
two important elements, so that until the late eighteenthcentury, when other viceroyalties were created in Spanish South America, New Spain and Peru were the seats
of Spanish power and the source of its wealth.

Outside of the zone of settled, complex Mesoamerican

civilizations were the nomadic and erce northern indios
brbaros (wild Indians) who fought ercely against the
Spaniards in the Chichimeca War (15761606). This war
entailed combat between Spaniards and indigenous allies,
such as the Tlaxcalans against indigenous populations that
had gained mobility via the horses that Spaniards had imported to the New World. Were it not for the rich silver
mining regions of the north, located outside the zone of
dense, settled indigenous populations, which the Spanish were determined to secure and exploit, the northern
desert region of Mexico would have held little interest to
the Europeans. But the Spanish mining settlements and
trunk lines to Mexico City needed to be made safe for
supplies to move north and silver to move to south, to
central Mexico.

That wealth made Spain the dominant power in Europe

for a period and the envy of England, France, and (once
it won its independence from Spain) The Netherlands.
Spains silver mining and crown mints minting in created
A statue of a Chichimeca Warrior in the city of Quertaro.
high quality coins, the currency of Spanish America, the
silver peso or Spanish dollar that became a global currency. The U.S. peso based the dollar on the peso.[15]
Economics of the early colonial period

4.2

The colonial period (15501810)

The most important source of wealth in the rst years after the conquest of central Mexico was the encomienda, a
grant of the labor of a particular indigenous settlement to
an individual Spanish and his heirs. Conquerors expected
to receive these awards and conqueror Hernn Corts in
his letter to the Spanish king justied his own allocation
of these grants. Spaniards were the recipients of traditional indigenous products that had been rendered in tribute to their local lords and to the Aztec empire. The rst
Spanish viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza has his name
given to the title of an Aztec manuscript Codex Mendoza,
that enumerates in glyphic form the types of tribute goods
and amounts rendered from particular indigenous towns
under Aztec rule. The earliest holders of encomiendas,
the encomenderos were the conquerors involved in the
campaign leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan, and later
their heirs and people with inuence but not conquerors.
Indigenous labor was the other big source of wealth from
holding an encomienda, was forced labor, which could be
directed toward developing land and industry in the area
the Spanish encomenderos Indians lived. For this immediate conquest period then, land was not the key source
of wealth, indigenous labor was. Where indigenous labor
was absent or needed supplementing, the Spanish brought
African slaves, often as skilled laborers or artisans, or as
labor bosses of encomienda Indians.

11
Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, the
southwestern United States including Florida, and the
Philippines. The Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts
had conquered the great empire of the Aztecs and established New Spain as the largest and most important of
all Spanish colonies. Spain during the 16th century focused its energies on areas with dense populations that
had produced Pre-Columbian civilizations, since these
areas could provide the settlers with a disciplined labor
force and a population to catechize.
Territories populated by nomadic peoples were harder to
conquer, and though the Spanish did explore a good part
of North America, seeking the fabled "El Dorado", they
made no concerted eort to settle the northern desert regions in what is now the United States until the end of
16th century (Santa Fe, 1598).

Colonial law with native origins but with Spanish historical precedents was introduced, creating a balance between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Crown's,
whereby upper administrative oces were closed to the
natives, even those of pure Spanish blood. Administration was based on the racial separation of the population
among the Republics of Spaniards, Indians and Mestizos,
autonomous and directly dependent on the king himself.
The population of New Spain was divided into four main
groups, or classes. The group a person belonged to was
Evolution of the race
determined by two things: racial background and place of
birth. The most powerful group was the Spaniards, peoDuring the three centuries of colonial rule, less than ple born in Spain and sent across the Atlantic to rule the
700,000 Spaniards, most of them men, settled in Mex- colony. Only Spaniards could hold high-level jobs in the
ico. The settlers intermarried with indigenous women, colonial government.
fathering the mixed race (mestizo) descendents who today constitute the majority of Mexicos population.

4.2

The colonial period (15501810)

Main article: New Spain

See also: History of Mexico City
During this period, Mexico was part of the much larger

A 20th-century mural by Diego Rivera.

Equestrian statue of Charles IV in Mexico City, the king was the

maximum authority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain

Members of the second group, called creoles, were people of Spanish background who had been born in Mexico rather than Spain. Many creoles were prosperous
landowners and merchants. But even the wealthiest of
the creoles had very little say in the government, which
was controlled by Spaniards. The third group, the mesti-

12

THE COLONIAL PERIOD (15211810)

zos, had a much lower position in colonial society. The

word mestizo means mixed. A person was a mestizo if
some of his ancestors were Spanish and some were Indians. The mestizos were looked down upon by both the
Spaniards and the creoles, who held the racist belief that
people of pure European background were superior to everyone else.

Fort San Juan de Ula in Veracruz.

Gardens of the Hacienda San Gabriel in Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico.

The poorest, most marginalised group in New Spain was

the Indians, descendants of pre-Columbian peoples. The
other groups held more power and Indians were subject
to harsher conditions. Indians were forced to work as
laborers on the ranches and farms (called haciendas) of
the Spaniards and creoles. In addition to the four main
groups, there were also some black Africans in colonial
Mexico. These black African were imported as laborers
and shared the low status of the Indians. They made up
about 4 to 5 percent of the population, and their mixedrace descendants, called mulattoes, eventually grew to
represent about 9 percent.
From an economic point of view, New Spain was administered principally for the benet of the Empire and
its military and defensive eorts (Mexico provided more
than half of the Empire taxes and supported the administration of all North and Central America). Competition Sor Juana Ins de la Cruz by Friar Miguel de Herrera (1700with the metropolis was discouraged, and for instance 1789)
the cultivation of grapes and olives, introduced by Cortez
himself, was banned out of fear that these crops would
Americas. Indigenous languages were studied mainly by
compete with Spain's.
In order to protect the country from the attacks of En- the religious orders during the rst centuries, and became
glish, French and Dutch pirates, as well as the Crowns ocial languages in the so-called Republic of Indians,
revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade only to be outlawed and ignored after independence by
Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacic. the prevailing Spanish-speaking creoles.
The pirates attacked, plundered and ravaged several cities Mexico produced important cultural achievements during
like Campeche (1557), Veracruz (1568) and Alvarado the colonial period, like the literature of Sor Juana Ins
(1667).
de la Cruz and Ruiz de Alarcn, as well as cathedrals,
Education was encouraged by the Crown from the very civil monuments, forts and colonial cities such as Puebla,
beginning, and Mexico boasts the rst primary school Mexico City, Quertaro, Zacatecas and others, today part
(Texcoco, 1523), rst university, the University of Mex- of Unescos World Heritage.
ico(1551) and the rst printing press (1524) of the The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish cultures

5.1

War of Independence

13

gave way in New Spain to many of nowadays Mexican sta- much faster.[17]
ple and world-famous cultural traits like tequila (rst distilled in the 16th century), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th),
charros (17th) and the highly prized Mexican cuisine, 5.1 War of Independence
fruit of the mixture of European and indigenous ingreMain article: Mexican War of Independence
dients and techniques.
Insurgents, inspired by the record of the American and
The creoles, mestizos, and Indians often disagreed. But
all three resented the small minority of Spaniards who
had all the political power. By the early 1800s many
native-born Mexicans were beginning to think that Mexico should become independent of Spain, following the
example of the United States. The man who nally
touched o the revolt against Spain was the Catholic
priest Father Miguel Hidalgo Y Costilla [ee-DAHL-go
ee coss_TEE-ya]. He is remembered today as the Father
The congress of Chilpancingo, 1813.
of Mexican Independence.

Mexican independence and the

19th century (18071910)

Californias

Nuevo Mxico

Texas
Sonora

Isla Guadalupe

Isla Cedros

Co
a

hu

ila

Nueva
Vizcaya

Nuevo Reino
de Len
GOLFO DE MXICO

Santander
Zacatecas
Islas Maras

San
Luis
Potos

Guanajuato
Quertaro
Guadalajara
Valladolid

Mxico

Isla Cozumel

Mrida de
Yucatn

Tlaxcala

Ve

rac

Isla Revillagigedo

ruz

Oaxaca
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua

1030'

Isla Clipperton
ESCALA

Costa Rica

1030'

0 km

200 km

400 km

GRAN COLOMBIA

The territorial organization of the First Mexican Empire after its

independence.
Treaty of Crdoba
Acquisitions (182122)

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

After independence, Mexican politics was chaotic, with

the presidency changing hands 75 times in the next 55
years (182176).[16] Mexico was poorer (in per capita
terms) in 1876 than it had been in 1821. Some commentators attribute Mexicos slow economic growth before 1876 to: the negative impact of Spanish rule, the
concentration of landholding by few families, and the reactionary role of the Catholic Church. Coatsworth rejects
those reasons and says the chief obstacles were poor transportation and inecient economic organization. Under
the Porriato regime (18761910), economic growth was

French Revolutions, saw their opportunity in 1808 as the

king abdicated in Madrid and Spain was overwhelmed by
war and occupation. The rebellion began as an idealistic peasants and miners movement led by a local priest
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla who issued "The Cry of Dolores" on 16 September 1810; the day is celebrated as Independence Day. Shouting Independence and death to
the Spaniards!" they marched on the capital with a very
large, poorly organized army. It was routed by the Spanish and Hidalgo was executed.[18]
Another priest Jose Maria Morelos took over and was
more successful in his quest for republicanism and independence. Spain, its reactionary monarchy restored in
1814 after Napoleons defeat, fought back. Spain executed Morelos in 1815; the scattered insurgents formed
guerrilla bands. In 1820 the creoles, led by Agustn de
Iturbide, joined the rebellion. The rebels formulated the

14

MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE AND THE 19TH CENTURY (18071910)

lished by the revolutionaries, and internal struggles by
dierent factions for control of the government ensued.
Mexico suered a complete lack of funds to administer a
country of over 4.5 million km, and faced the threats of
emerging internal rebellions and of invasion by Spanish
forces from their base in nearby Cuba.

5.3 Mexican Empire

Entry into Mexico city by the Mexican army.

"Plan of Iguala", demanding an independent constitutional monarchy, a religious monopoly for the Catholic
Church, and equality for Spaniards and creoles. On
September 27, 1821, Iturbide and the viceroy signed the
Treaty of Cordoba whereby Spain granted the demands
and withdrew.

5.2

After independence (18211829)

The Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico was an effort by the Spanish government to regain possession of
its former colony of Mexico, resulting in episodes of war
comprised in clashes between the newly born Mexican
nation and Spain. The designation mainly covers two
periods: the rst attempts occurred from 1821 to 1825
and involved the defense of Mexicos territorial waters,
while the second period had two stages, including the
Mexican expansion plan to take the Spanish-held island
of Cuba between 1826 and 1828, and the 1829 expedition of Spanish General Isidro Barradas, which landed on
Mexican soil with the object of reconquering Mexican
territory. Although the Spanish never regained control of
the country they did damage the edgling Mexican economy.

Coronation of Iturbide in 1822.

Mexico now had its own government, but Iturbide quickly

became a dictator. He even had himself proclaimed
emperor of Mexico, copying the ceremony used by
Napoleon when he had proclaimed himself emperor of
France. No one was allowed to speak against Iturbide.
He lled his government with corrupt ocials, who became rich by taking bribes and making dishonest business
deals.

By 1823, Mexicans of all classes were fed up with Iturbides corrupt and oppressive rule. They overthrew the
emperor and sent him into exile. In 1824, Mexico was
proclaimed a republic. The new government adopted a
new constitution partly modeled on the constitution of the
United States, which guaranteed basic human rights and
The newly independent nation of Mexico was in dire divided the responsibilities of government between a censtraits after eleven years of ghting its War of Indepen- tral government and a number of smaller units known as
dence. There were no clear plans or guidelines estab- states.

6.2

5.4

Comanche raids

Mexican Republic

Further information: First Mexican Republic

The United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos
Mexicanos), was established on 4 October 1824, after the
overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide.
In the new constitution, the republic took the name of
United Mexican States, and was dened as a representative federal republic, with Catholicism as the ocial and
unique religion.
However, most of the population largely ignored it. When
Guadalupe Victoria was followed in oce by Vicente
Guerrero, gaining the position through a coup after losing the 1828 elections, the Conservative Party saw an
opportunity to seize control and led a counter-coup under Anastasio Bustamante, who served as president from
1830 to 1832, and again from 1837 to 1841.

6
6.1

Political developments in the

South and North
Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna

15
of Spanish America during the early post-independence
era, military strongmen or caudillos dominated politics,
which has resulted in this period generally being designated The Age of Caudillismo.
The federalists asked General Antonio Lpez de Santa
Anna to overthrow Bustamante; after the removal of Bustamante, Santa Anna declared General Manuel Gmez
Pedraza (who won the electoral vote in 1828) president.
Elections were held thereafter, and Santa Anna took ofce in 1832.
Constantly changing political beliefs, as president (he
served as president 11 times),[19] in 1834, Santa Anna
abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies
in the southeastern state of Yucatn and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas.
Both areas sought independence from the central government. Negotiations and the presence of Santa Annas
army brought Yucatn to recognize Mexican sovereignty,
Santa Annas army turned to the northern rebellion.
The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans
and led mainly by relatively recently arrived Englishspeaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at
Washington-on-the-Brazos on 2 March 1836, giving birth
to the Republic of Texas. At the Battle of San Jacinto
on April 21, 1836, Texan militias defeated the Mexican
army and captured General Santa Anna.
In 1845, the U.S. Congress ratied Texas petition for
statehood.

6.2 Comanche raids

The northern states grew increasingly isolated, economically and politically, due to prolonged Comanche raids
and attacks. New Mexico in particular had been gravitating toward Comancheria. In the 1820s, when the
United States began to exert inuence over the region,
New Mexico had already begun to question its loyalty to
Mexico. By the time of the MexicanAmerican War,
the Comanches had raided and pillaged large portions
of northern Mexico, resulting in sustained impoverishment, political fragmentation, and general frustration at
the inabilityor unwillingnessof the Mexican government to discipline the Comanches.[20]

6.3 Texas
See also: Texas Revolution
Soon after achieving independence, the Mexican government,
in an eort to populate its northern territoLithograph depicting head and shoulders of a middle-aged General Santa Anna leading his troops into Texas in 1836 wearing a ries, awarded extensive land grants in Coahuila y Tejas
to thousands of families from the United States, on conmilitary uniform.
dition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and become
The period of the late 1820s until Santa Annas ouster in Mexican citizens. The Mexican government also forbade
the 1854 Revolution of Ayutla that brought Liberals to the importation of slaves. These conditions were largely
power, is often called the Age of Santa Anna. In much ignored.[20]

16

6 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SOUTH AND NORTH

and San Antonio were soon met with crushing defeat at
the same locations a few months later. The war ended at
the Battle of San Jacinto where General Sam Houston led
the Texian Army to victory over a portion of the Mexican
Army under Santa Anna, who was captured shortly after
the battle. The conclusion of the war resulted in the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836.

6.4 The MexicanAmerican War (1846

1848)
In response to a Mexican massacre of an American army
detachment in disputed territory, the U.S. Congress deThe Fall of the Alamo" by Robert Jenkins Onderdonk. Following
clared war on May 13, 1846; Mexico followed suit on
a 13-day siege, Mexican troops under President General Antonio
23 May. The MexicanAmerican War took place in two
Lpez de Santa Anna launched an assault on the Alamo Mission
near San Antonio de Bxar (modern-day San Antonio, Texas, theatres: the western (aimed at California) and Central
Mexico (aimed at capturing Mexico City) campaigns.
USA). All of the Texian defenders were killed.
A key factor in the decision to allow Americans in was
the belief that they would (a) protect northern Mexico
from Comanche attacks and (b) buer the northern states
against U.S. westward expansion. The policy failed on
both counts: the Americans tended to settle far from the
Comanche raiding zones and used the Mexican governments failure to suppress the raids as a pretext for declaring independence.[20]

A map of Mexico 1845 after Texas annexation by U.S.

In March 1847, U.S. President James K. Polk sent an

army of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers under GenThe painting Surrender of Santa Anna" by William Henry Hud- eral Wineld Scott to the port of Veracruz. The 70
dle shows the Mexican president and general surrendering to a ships of the invading forces arrived at the city on 7
March and began a naval bombardment. After landing
wounded Sam Houston.
his men, horses, and supplies, Scott began the Siege of
The Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence Veracruz.[21]
was a military conict between Mexico and settlers in the The city (at that time still walled) was defended by MexTexas portion of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas.
ican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Veracruz
The war lasted from October 2, 1835 to April 21, 1836.
However, a war at sea between Mexico and Texas would
continue into the 1840s. Animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers in Texas, as
well as many Texas residents of Mexican ancestry, began with the Siete Leyes of 1835, when Mexican President and General Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna abolished
the federal Constitution of 1824 and proclaimed the more
centralizing 1835 constitution in its place.

replied as best it could with artillery to the bombardment

from land and sea, but the city walls were reduced. After 12 days, the Mexicans surrendered. Scott marched
west with 8,500 men, while Santa Anna entrenched with
artillery and 12,000 troops on the main road halfway to
Mexico City. At the Battle of Cerro Gordo, Santa Anna
was outanked and routed.

Scott pushed on to Puebla, Mexicos second largest city,

which capitulated without resistance on 1 Maythe citWar began in Texas on October 2, 1835, with the Battle izens were hostile to Santa Anna. After the Battle of
of Gonzales. Early Texian Army successes at La Bahia Chapultepec (13 September 1847), Mexico City was oc-

17

7 The struggle for liberal reform

(18551872)
Main article: La Reforma
La Reforma was a period halfway through the 19th cen-

A painting of the American assault on the Chapultepec Castle.

The American occupation of Mexico City.

cupied; Scott became its military governor. Many other

parts of Mexico were also occupied. Some Mexican units
fought with distinction. One of the justly commemorated
units was a group of six young Military College cadets Ignacio Comonfort
(now considered Mexican national heroes). These cadets
fought to the death defending their college during the Bat- tury characterized by liberal reforms and the transformatle of Chapultepec.
tion of Mexico into a nation state.[24] Mexico had a largely
rural population of eight million, half of them poorly edThe war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
which stipulated that a) Mexico must sell its northern ter- ucated Indians. The reformers, based in the cities, knew
they had to reach out to the countryside. The younger
ritories to the United States for US $15 million; b) the
United States would give full citizenship and voting rights, generation of political leaders were shocked at the poor
ght Mexico had against the United States in 1848, and
and protect the property rights of Mexicans living in the
[25]
ceded territories; and c) the United States would assume saw modernization as a way to strengthen the nation.
$3.25 million in debt owed by Mexico to Americans.[22]
The war was Mexicos rst encounter with a modern,
well-organized, and well-equipped army. Mexicos defeat
has been attributed to its problematic internal situation,
one of disunity and disorganization, which prevented successful defense from foreign military invasion.

Notable liberal politicians in the reform period include

Benito Jurez, Juan lvarez, Ignacio Comonfort, Miguel
Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada, Melchor
Ocampo, Jos Mara Iglesias and Santos Degollado.
Their strategy was to sharply limit the traditional privileges land holdings of the Catholic Church and thereby
revitalize the market in land. However, no class of small
peasants identied with the Liberal program emerged.
Many merchants acquired land (and control over the associated tenant farmers). Many existing landowners expanded their holdings at peasant expense, and some upwardly mobile ranch owners, often mestizos, acquired
land.[25]

After the war Washington discovered that a much easier

railroad route to California lay slightly south of the Gila
River, in Mexico. In 1853, President Santa Anna sold o
the Gadsden Strip to the US for $5 million in the Gadsden
Purchase. This loss of still more territory provoked considerable outrage among the Mexican populace, but Santa
Anna claimed that he needed money to rebuild the army
from the war. In the end, he kept or squandered most of The Reforma began with the nal overthrow of Santa
Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla in 1855. The moderate
it.[23]

18

7 THE STRUGGLE FOR LIBERAL REFORM (18551872)

Benito Juarez President of Mexico (18611863 and 1867

1872).

Liberal Ignacio Comonfort became president. The Mod- Alegora de la Constitucin de 1857, Petronilo Monroy, 1869.
erados tried to nd a middle ground between the nations
liberals and conservatives. There is less consensus about
the ending point of the Reforma.[26]
Common dates are 1861, after the liberal victory in the
Reform War; 1867, after the republican victory over the
French intervention in Mexico; and 1876 when Porrio
Daz overthrew president Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada.
Liberalism dominated Mexico as an intellectual force
into the 20th century. Liberals championed reform and
supported republicanism, capitalism, and individualism;
they fought to reduce the Churchs conservative roles in
education, land ownership and politics.[26] Also importantly, liberals sought to end the special status of indigenous communities by ending their corporate ownership
of land.

7.1

The 1857 Constitution

Colonel Ignacio Comonfort became president in 1855

after a revolt based in Ayutla overthrew Santa Anna.
Comonfort was a moderate liberal who tried to maintain an uncertain coalition, but the moderate liberals and
the radical liberals were unable to resolve their sharp
dierences. During his presidency, the Constitution of
1857 was drafted creating the Second Federal Republic of Mexico. The new constitution restricted some of
the Catholic Churchs traditional privileges, land hold-

Jose Mariano Salas Mexican general and politician who served

twice as interim president of Mexico (1846 and 1859). He was
also a member of the executive triumvirate of the Second Mexican
Empire that invited Maximilian of Habsburg to take the throne.

ings, revenues and control over education.[27]

7.3

French intervention and the Second Mexican Empire (18611867)

19

It granted religious freedom, stating only that the Catholic

Church was the favored faith. The anti-clerical radicals
scored a major victory with the ratication of the constitution, because it weakened the Church and enfranchised
illiterate commoners. The constitution was unacceptable
to the clergy and the conservatives, and they plotted a revolt. With the Plan of Tacubaya in December 1857,
Comonfort tried to regain the popular support from the
growing conservative pro-clerical movement. The liberals failed, however, as conservative General Flix Zuloaga
succeeded in a coup in the capital in January, 1858.[27]

7.2

The War of Reform (1857-1861)

The revolt led to the War of Reform (December 1857 to

January 1861), which grew increasingly bloody as it progressed and polarized the nations politics. Many Moderates, convinced that the Churchs political power had to
be curbed, came over to the side of the Liberals.
For some time, the Liberals and Conservatives simultaneously administered separate governments, the Conservatives from Mexico City and the Liberals from Veracruz.
The war ended with a Liberal victory, and liberal Presi- The Battle of Puebla, 1862.
dent Benito Jurez moved his administration to Mexico
City.

7.3

French intervention and the Second

Mexican Empire (18611867)

Main article: French intervention in Mexico

In 1862, the country was invaded by France, which
sought to collect debts that the Jurez government had
defaulted on, but the larger purpose was to install a ruler
under French control. They chose a member of the Habsburg dynasty, which had ruled Spain and its overseas possessions until 1700. Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of
Austria as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, with support from the Catholic Church, conservative elements of
the upper class, and some indigenous communities. Although the French suered an initial defeat (the Battle
of Puebla on May 5, 1862, now commemorated as the
Cinco de Mayo holiday), the French eventually defeated
the Mexican army and set Maximilian on the throne. The
Mexican-French monarchy set up administration in Mexico City, governing from the National Palace.[28]
Maximilians consort was Empress Carlota of Mexico.
The Imperial couple chose Chapultepec Castle as their
home. The Imperial couple noticed how the people of
Mexico (and especially the Indians) were maltreated, and
wanted to ensure their human rights. They were interested in a Mexico for the Mexicans, and did not share the
views of Napoleon III, who was more interested in exploiting the rich mines in the northwest of the country,
and the possibility of growing cotton.[28]

General Bazaine attacks the fort of San Xavier during the siege
of Puebla, 29 March 1863.

vatives were seemingly not aware of, when he was chosen

to head the government. He favored the establishment of
a limited monarchy, one that would share its powers with
a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to
please Mexicos conservatives, while the liberals refused
to accept any monarch, seeing the republican government
of Benito Jurez as legitimate. This left Maximilian with
few enthusiastic allies within Mexico. Meanwhile, Jurez
remained head of the republican government. He continued to be recognized by the United States, which was engaged in its Civil War (186165) and at that juncture was
in no position to aid Jurez directly against the French
intervention until 1865.

France never made a prot in Mexico and increasingly

the Mexican expedition grew unpopular. Finally in the
spring of 1865, with the U.S. Civil War over, the United
States demanded the withdrawal of French troops from
Maximilian was a liberal, a key fact that Mexican conser- Mexico. Napoleon III quietly complied. In mid-1867,

20

8 THE PORFIRIATO (18761910)

Visit of Empress Elisabeth at the Castello di Miramare 1861;

Carlota of Mexico (in white dress) welcomes Elisabeth while her
husband Ferdinand Maximilian and his brother Emperor Franz
Joseph I. wait on the boat. Source Historical Museum of Castello
di Miramare.

following repeated Imperial losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever decreasing support from Napoleon
III, Maximilian chose to remain in Mexico rather than return to Europe. He was captured and executed along with
two Mexican supporters, immortalized in a famous painting by Eduard Manet. Jurez remained in oce until his
death in 1872.

7.4

Porrio Daz

Juarez and the restoration of the rement from Britain and the U.S., and a strong, stable cenpublic (18671872)
tral government.[30]

Increased tax revenues and better administration brought

dramatic improvements in public safety, public health,
railways, mining, industry, foreign trade, and national nances. He modernized the army and suppressed some
banditry. After a half-century of stagnation, where per
capita income was merely a tenth of the developed nations
such as Britain and the U.S., the Mexican economy took
Part of Juarezs reforms included fully secularizing the
o and grew at an annual rate of 2.3% (1877 to 1910),
country. The Catholic Church was barred from owning
which was quite high by world standards.[30]
property aside from houses of worship and monasteries,
and education and marriage were put in the hands of the Mexico moved from being a target of ridicule to international pride. As traditional ways were under challenge,
state.
urban Mexicans debated national identity, the rejection
of indigenous cultures, the new passion for French culture once the French were ousted from Mexico, and the
8 The Porriato (18761910)
challenge of creating a modern nation by means of industrialization and scientic modernization.[31]
See also: Mexican Revolution
In 1867, the republic was restored and Jurez reelected;
he continued to implement his reforms. In 1871, he was
elected a second time, much to the dismay of his opponents within the Liberal party, who considered reelection
to be somewhat undemocratic. Jurez died one year later
and was succeeded by Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada.

The rule of Porrio Daz (18761911) was dedicated to

orderwhich meant the rule by law and the suppression
of violenceand modernization of all aspects of the society and economy.[29] Diaz was an astute military leader
and liberal politician who built a national base of supporters. To avoid antagonizing Catholics he avoided enforcement of the anticlerical laws (but they remained on the
books.) During this period, the countrys infrastructure
was greatly improved, thanks to increased foreign invest-

8.1 Order, progress, and dictatorship

In 1876, Lerdo was reelected, defeating Porrio Daz.
Daz rebelled against the government with the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec, in which he opposed reelection, in 1876. Daz overthrew Lerdo, who ed the country, and Daz was named president. Thus began a period
of more than 30 years (18761911) during which Daz
was Mexicos strong man. He was legally elected presi-

8.2

Population and public health

21

Jurez, Mexico, for October 16, 1909, an historic rst

meeting between a Mexican and a U.S. president and
also the rst time an American president would cross
the border into Mexico.[34] Both sides agreed that the
disputed Chamizal strip connecting El Paso to Ciudad
Jurez would be considered neutral territory with no ags
present during the summit, but the meeting focused attention on this territory and resulted in assassination threats
and other serious security concerns.[34] On the day of
the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated
scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at
the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the
A detachment of Rurales during the Porriato
procession route.[34] Burnham and Moore captured and
disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Daz and
[34]
dent eight times, turning over power once, from 1880 to Taft. Both presidents were unharmed and the summit
[32]
was held.[34] At the meeting, Diaz told John Hays Ham1884, to a trusted ally, General Manuel Gonzailez.
mond, Since I am responsible for bringing several billion
dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I
should continue in my position until a competent successor is found.[35] Daz was re-elected after a highly controversial election, but he was overthrown in 1911 and
forced into exile in France after Army units rebelled.

8.2 Population and public health

Mexico City street market

This period of relative prosperity and peace is known as

the Porriate. Diaz remained in power by rigging elections and censoring the press. Possible rivals were destroyed, and popular generals were moved to new areas so
they could not build a permanent base of support. Banditry on roads leading to major cities was largely suppressed by the Rurales, a new police force controlled
by Diaz. Banditry remained a major threat in more remote areas, because the Rurales comprised fewer than
1000 men.[32]
The Army was reduced in size from 30,000 to under
20,000 men, which resulted in a smaller percentage of the
national budget being committed to the military. Nevertheless, the army was modernized, well-trained, and
equipped with the latest technology. The Army was topheavy with 5,000 ocers, many of them elderly, but
politically well-connected veterans of the wars of the
1860s.[33]
The political skills that Daz used so eectively before
1900 faded, as he and his closest advisers were less open
to negotiations with younger leaders. His announcement in 1908 that he would retire in 1911 unleashed a
widespread feeling that Daz was on the way out, and
that new coalitions had to be built. He nevertheless ran
for reelection and in a show of U.S. support, Daz and
Taft planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad

1890 perhaps the streets of no other city present so diversied a

picture as those of the city of Mexico. Every variety of costume,
civil and religious, Indian and European, of the city and country,
is intermingled in the crowd.

Under Daz, the population grew steadily from 11 million

in 1877 to 15 million in 1910. Because of very high infant
mortality (22% of new babies died) the life expectancy
at birth was only 25.0 years in 1900.[36] Few immigrants
arrived. Diaz gave enormous power and prestige to the
Superior Health Council, which developed a consistent
and assertive strategy using up-to-date international scientic standards. It took control of disease certication;
required prompt reporting of disease; and launched campaigns against tropical disease such as yellow fever.[37]

22

8 THE PORFIRIATO (18761910)

1903. Slogan on the protest banner reads: The Constitution has

died (La Constitucin ha muerto).

8.3

tion took hold in the Northeast, especially in Monterrey.

Factories produced machinery, textiles and beer, while
smelters processed ores. Convenient rail links with the
nearby U.S. gave local entrepreneurs from seven wealthy
merchant families a competitive advantage over more distant cities. New federal laws in 1884 and 1887 allowed
corporations to be more exible. By the 1920s American
Smelting and Rening Company (ASARCO), an American rm controlled by the Guggenheim family, had invested over 20 million pesos and employed nearly two
thousand workers smelting copper and making wire to
meet the demand for electrical wiring in the U.S. and
Mexico.[40]

Economy

Fiscal stability was achieved by Jos Yves Limantour 8.3.1 Modernity

(18541935) Secretary of the Finance of Mexico from
1893 until 1910. He was the leader of the well-educated
technocrats known as Cientcos, who were committed to
modernity and sound nance. Limantour expanded foreign investment, supported free trade, and balanced the
budget for the rst time and generated a budget surplus
by 1894. However, he was unable to halt the rising cost
of food, which alienated the poor.[38]

Palacio de Bellas Artes, 1909.

The American Panic of 1907 was an economic downturn

that caused a sudden drop in demand for Mexican copper,
silver, gold, zinc, and other metals. Mexico in turn cut
its imports of horses and mules, mining machinery, and
railroad supplies. The result was an economic depression
in Mexico in 190809 that soured optimism and raised
the level of discontent with the Diaz regime, thus helping
to set the stage for revolution in 1910.[39]
Mexico was vulnerable to external shocks because of its
weak banking system. The banking system was controlled by a small oligarchy, which typically made longterm loans to their own directors. The banks were the
nancial arms of extended kinship-based business coalitions that used banks to raise additional capital to expand
enterprises. Economic growth was largely based on trade
with the United States.

Making cigarettes in the El Buen Tono factory, Mexico City

The modernizers insisted that schools lead the way, and

that science replace superstition.[41] They reformed elementary schools by mandating uniformity, secularization,
and rationality. These reforms were consistent with international trends in teaching methods. In order to break the
traditional peasant habits that hindered industrialization
and rationalization, the childrens punctuality, assiduity,
and healthiness were emphasized by the reforms.[42] In
1910, the National University was opened as an elite
school for the next generation of leaders.

Cities were rebuilt with modernizing architects favoring the latest European styles, especially the Beaux-Arts
style, to symbolize the break with the past. A highly visible exemplar was the Federal Legislative Palace, built
Mexico had few factories by 1880, but then industrializa- 18971910.[43]

9.1
8.3.2

The election of 1910 and popular rebellion

Rural unrest

Tutino examines the impact of the Porriato in the highland basins south of Mexico City, which became the
Zapatista heartland during the Revolution. Population
growth, railways and concentration of land in a few families generated a commercial expansion that undercut the
traditional powers of the villagers. There was anxiety and
insecurity among the young men regarding the patriarchal roles they had expected to ll. The rst signs came
in violent crime within families and communities. However, after the defeat of Diaz in 1910 villagers expressed
their rage in revolutionary assaults on local elites who had
proted most from the Porriato. The young men were
radicalized, as they fought for their traditional roles regarding land, community, and patriarchy.[44]

The Mexican Revolution (1910

1920)

Main article: Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution is a broad term to describe po-

23
a framework of ocial revolutionary institutions, with
the constitution providing that framework.[46] Organized
labor gained signicant power, as seen in Article 123 of
the Constitution of 1917. Land reform in Mexico was
enabled by Article 27 of the Constitution. Economic nationalism was also enabled by Article 27, restricting ownership of enterprises by foreigners. Also in the Constitution were further restrictions on the Roman Catholic
Church in Mexico, which, when implemented in the late
1920s, resulted in major violence in the Cristero War.
No re-election of the president was enshrined in the Constitution and in practice. Managing political succession
was achieved in 1929 with the creation of the Partido
Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), the political party that
has dominated Mexico since its creation, now called the
Institutional Revolutionary Party.
One major eect of the revolution was the disappearance
of the Federal Army in 1914, defeated by revolutionary forces of the various factions in the Mexican Revolution.[47]
The Mexican Revolution was based on popular participation. At rst it was based on the peasantry: they demanded land, water, and a more sympathetic national
government. Wasserman nds that:
Popular participation in the revolution and its
aftermath took three forms. First, everyday
people, though often in conjunction with elite
neighbors, generated local issues such as access
to land, taxes, and village autonomy. Second,
the popular classes provided soldiers to ght in
the revolution. Third, local issues advocated by
campesinos and workers framed national discourses on land reform, the role of religion, and
many other questions.[48]

Francisco I. Madero, Emiliano Zapata, June 12, 1911, in

Cuernavaca

9.1 The election of 1910 and popular rebellion

litical and social changes in the early twentieth century.

Most scholars consider it to span the years 1910-1920,
from the fraudulent election of Porrio Daz in 1910 until
the December 1920 election of northern general Alvaro
Obregn. Foreign powers important economic and strategic interests in the outcome of power struggles in Mexico,
with United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution playing an especially signicant role.[45]
The Revolution grew increasingly broad based, radical
and violent. Revolutionaries sought far-reaching social
and economic reforms by strengthening the state and
weakening the conservative forces represented by the
Church, the rich landowners, and foreign capitalists.
A rebel camp.
Some scholars consider the promulgation of the Mexican
Constitution of 1917 as its end point. Economic and so- Porrio Daz announced in an interview to a U.S. jourcial conditions improved in accordance with revolution- nalist, James Creelman that he was not going to run for
ary policies, so that the new society took shape within the presidency in 1910, when he would be 80 years old.

24
This set o a spate of political activity by potential candidates, including Francisco I. Madero, a member of one of
Mexicos richest families. Madero was part of the AntiRe-electionist Party, whose main platform was the end
of the Daz regime. Daz reversed his decision to retire
from the presidency and ran again. He created the ofce of vice president, which could have been a mechanism to ease transition in the presidency. But Daz chose
a politically unpalatable running mate, Ramn Corral,
over a popular military man, Bernardo Reyes and popular civilian Francisco I. Madero. He sent Reyes on a
study mission to Europe and jailed Madero. When the
ocial election results were announced, it was declared
that Daz had won reelection almost unanimously, with
Madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country. This fraud by the Porriato was too blatant
for the public to swallow, and riots broke out. Popular
uprisings against Daz occurred in the fall of 1910, particularly in Mexicos north and in the southern state of
Morelos. Helping unite opposition forces was a political plan drafted by Madero, the Plan of San Luis Potos.
in which he called the Mexican people to take up arms
and ght against the Daz government. The rising was set
for November 20, 1910. Madero managed to ee prison,
escaping to San Antonio, Texas, where he began preparations for the overthrow of Dazan action today regarded
as the start of the Mexican Revolution. Diaz attempted
to use the army to suppress the revolts, but most of the
ranking generals were old men close to his own age and
they did not act swiftly or with sucient energy to stem
the violence. Revolutionary forceled by, among others,
Emiliano Zapata in the South, Pancho Villa and Pascual
Orozco in the North, and Venustiano Carranzadefeated
the Federal Army.

Leaders of the 1910 revolt pose for a photo after the First Battle of Jurez. Present are Jos Mara Pino Surez, Venustiano
Carranza, Francisco I. Madero (and his father), Pascual
Orozco, Pancho Villa, Gustavo Madero, Raul Madero, Abraham
Gonzlez, and Giuseppe Garibaldi Jr.

Daz resigned in May 1911 for the sake of the peace

of the nation. The terms of his resignation were spelled
out in the Treaty of Ciudad Jurez, but it also called for
an interim presidency and new elections were to be held.
Francisco Len de la Barra served as interim president.
The Federal Army, although defeated by the northern

THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION (19101920)

revolutionaries, was kept intact. Francisco I. Madero,

whose 1910 Plan of San Luis Potos had helped mobilize
forces opposed to Daz, accepted the political settlement.
He campaigned in the presidential elections of October
1911, won decisively, and was inaugurated in November
1911.

9.2 Madero presidency and its opposition,

1911-13
Main article: Mexican Revolution
See also: Francisco I. Madero
Following the resignation of Daz and a brief interim
presidency of a high-level government ocial from the
Daz era, Madero was elected president in 1911.
The revolutionary leaders had many dierent objectives;
revolutionary gures varied from liberals such as Madero
to radicals such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. As
a consequence, it proved impossible to reach agreement
on how to organize the government that emerged from
the triumphant rst phase of the revolution. This stando over political principles lead quickly to a struggle for
control of the government, a violent conict that lasted
more than 20 years.

Victoriano Huerta, ruler of Mexico from 1913 to 1914.

9.3 Counter-revolution and civil war,

1913-15
Madero was ousted and killed in February 1913 during
the Ten Tragic Days. General Victoriano Huerta, one
of Diazs former generals, and a nephew of Daz, Flix

9.3

Counter-revolution and civil war, 1913-15

25

Daz, plotted with the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Henry ing force against the revolutionaries, ceased to exist.[55]
Lane Wilson to topple Madero and re-assert the policies
of Daz.
Within a month of the coup, rebellion started spreading
in Mexico, most prominently by the governor of the state
of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza along with old revolutionaries demobilized by Madero, such as Pancho Villa.
The northern revolutionaries fought under the name of
the Constitutionalist Army, with Carranza as the First
Chief (primer jefe).
In the south, Emiliano Zapata continued his rebellion in
Morelos under the Plan of Ayala, calling for the expropriation of land and redistribution to peasants. Huerta
oered peace to Zapata, who rejected it.[49]
General Pancho Villa in the entrance of Ojinaga
Huerta convinced Pascual Orozco, whom he fought
while serving the Madero government, to join Huertas With the exit of Huerta, the revolutionary factions deforces.[50] Supporting the Huerta regime were business cided to meet and make a last ditch eort to avert more
[56]
interests in Mexico, both foreign and domestic; landed intense warfare than that which unseated Huerta.
elites; the Roman Catholic Church; as well as the German Called to meet in Mexico City in October 1914, revoand British governments. The Federal Army an arm of lutionaries opposed to Carranzas inuence successfully
the Huerta regime, swelling to some 200,000 men, many moved the venue to Aguascalientes. The Convention of
Aguascalientes did not, in fact, reconcile the various vicpressed into service and most were ill-trained.
torious factions in the Mexican Revolution, but was a
The U.S. did not recognize the Huerta government, but
brief pause in revolutionary violence. The break between
from February to August 1913 it imposed an arms emCarranza and Villa became denitive during the Conbargo on exports to Mexico, exempting the Huerta govvention. Rather than First Chief Carranza being named
ernment and thereby favoring the regime against emergpresident of Mexico, General Eulalio Gutirrez was choing revolutionary forces.[51] President Woodrow Wilson
sen. Carranza and Obregn left Aguascalientes, with far
sent a special envoy to Mexico to assess the situation.
smaller forces than Villas. The convention declared CarWilson concluded from reports on the numerous rebelranza in rebellion against it and civil war resumed, this
lions in Mexico that Huerta was unable to maintain order,
time between revolutionary armies that had fought in a
and arms ceased to ow to Huertas government.[52] This
united cause to oust Huerta.
beneted the revolutionaries cause.
The U.S. Navy made an incursion on the Gulf Coast, occupying Veracruz in April 1914. Although Mexico was
engaged in a civil war at the time, the U.S. intervention
united Mexican forces in their opposition to the U.S. Foreign powers helped broker the U.S. withdrawal in the
Niagara Falls peace conference. The U.S. timed its pullout to throw its support to the Constitutionalist faction
under Carranza.[53]
Initially the forces in northern Mexico were united under
the Constitutionalist banner, with able revolutionary generals serving the civilian First Chief Carranza. Pancho
Villa began to split from supporting Carranza as Huerta
was on his way out. The break was not simply on personalist grounds, but primarily because Carranza was politically too conservative for Villa. Carranza was not only a
political holdover from the Daz era, but was also a rich
hacienda owner whose interests were threatened by the
more radical ideas of Villa, especially on land reform.[54]
Zapata in the south was also hostile to Carranza due to
his stance on land reform.

Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, December 6, 1914. Villa

is sitting in the presidential throne in the Palacio Nacional at the
left.

Villa went into alliance with Zapata to form the Army

of the Convention. Their forces separately moved on
the capital and captured Mexico City in 1914, which
Carranzas forces had abandoned. The famous picture
of Villa, sitting in the presidential chair in the National
Palace, and Zapata is a classic image of the Revolution.
Villa is reported to have said to Zapata that the presiden[57]
In July 1914, Huerta resigned under pressure and went tial chair is too big for us. The alliance between Villa
into exile. His resignation marked the end of an era and Zapata did not function in practice beyond this initial
since the Federal Army, a spectacularly ineective ght- victory against the Constitutionalists. Zapata returned to
his southern stronghold in Morelos, where he continued

26

10 CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION, 1920-40

to engage in guerrilla warfare under the Plan of Ayala.[58]

Villa prepared to win a decisive victory against the Constitutionalist Army under Obregn.

10 Consolidation of the Revolution, 1920-40

The two rival armies of Villa and Obregn met in April

10.1
615, 1915 in the Battle of Celaya. The frontal cavalry
charges of Villas forces were met by shrewd, modern military tactics of Obregn. The Constitutionalists victory
was complete. Carranza emerged in 1915 as the political
leader of Mexico with a victorious army to keep him in
that position. Villa retreated north, seemingly into political oblivion. Carranza and the Constitutionalists consolidated their position as the winning faction, with Zapata
remaining a threat until his assassination in 1919.

9.4

Northern Revolutionary Generals in

the Presidency

Constitutionalists in power, 1915-1920

Venustiano Carranza promulgated a new constitution on

February 5, 1917. The Mexican Constitution of 1917,
with signicant amendments in the 1990s, still governs
Mexico.

President Obregn. Note that he lost his right arm in the Battle of
Celaya (1915), earning him the nickname of Manco de Celaya
(the one-armed man of Celaya).

President Carranza in La Caada, Quertaro, January 22, 1916.

On 19 January 1917, a secret message (the Zimmermann

Telegram) was sent from the German foreign minister to
Mexico proposing joint military action against the United
States if war broke out. The oer included material aid to
Mexico to assist in the reclamation of territory lost during the MexicanAmerican War, specically the American states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Carranza
consulted with his generals about this, and was told Mexico was certain to be defeated by its much more powerful
neighbor. Zimmermanns message was intercepted and
published, and outraged American opinion, leading to a
declaration of war in early April. Carranza then formally
rejected the oer, and the threat of war with the U.S.
eased.[59]
Carranza was assassinated in 1920 during an internal feud
among his former supporters over who would replace him
as president.

In December 1920, lvaro Obregn, one of Carranzas

former allies who had joined with Plutarco Elas Calles
and Adolfo de la Huerta in the Plan of Agua Prieta, overthrew Carranza and became president. His government
managed to accommodate many elements of Mexican society except the most conservative clergy and big land
owners. As a result, he was able to successfully implement policies emerging from the revolutionary struggle;
in particular, the successful policies were: the integration
of urban, organized labor into political life via CROM,
the improvement of education and Mexican cultural production under Jos Vasconcelos, the movement of land
reform, and the steps taken toward instituting womens
civil rights. He faced several main tasks in the presidency,
mainly political in nature. First was consolidating state
power in the central government and curbing regional
strongmen (caudillos); second was obtaining diplomatic
recognition from the United States; and third was managing the presidential succession in 1924 when his term
of oce ended.[60] His administration began constructing
what one scholar called an enlightened despotism, a ruling conviction that the state knew what ought to be done

10.1

Northern Revolutionary Generals in the Presidency

27

and needed plenary powers to fulll its mission.[61] After the nearly decade-long violence of the Mexican Revolution, reconstruction in the hands of a strong central
government oered stability and a path of renewed modernization.
Obregn knew it was necessary for his regime to secure
the recognition of the United States. He had come to
power by joining with Sonoran allies and eliminating Carranza. With the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, the Mexican government was empowered
to expropriate natural resources. The U.S. had considerable business interests in Mexico, especially oil, and the
threat of Mexican economic nationalism to big oil companies meant that diplomatic recognition could hinge on
Mexican compromise in implementing the constitution.
In 1923 when the Mexican presidential elections were
on the horizon, Obregn began negotiating with the U.S.
government in earnest, with the two governments signing
the Bucareli Treaty. The treaty resolved questions about
foreign oil interests in Mexico, largely in favor of U.S. interests, but Obregns government gained U.S. diplomatic
recognition. With that arms and ammunition began ow- Plutarco Elas Calles, president of Mexico 1924-28, and power
behind the presidency during the Maximato when he did not hold
ing to revolutionary armies loyal to Obregn.[62]
Since Obregn had named his fellow Sonoran general,
Plutarco Elas Calles, as his successor, Obregn was
imposing a little known nationally and unpopular with
many generals,[62] thereby foreclosing the ambitions
of fellow revolutionaries, particularly his old comrade
Adolfo de la Huerta. De la Huerta staged a serious rebellion against Obregn. But Obregn once again demonstrated his brilliance as a military tactician who now
had arms and even air support from the United States
to suppress it brutally. Fifty-four former Obregonistas
were shot in the event.[63] Vasconcelos resigned from
Obregns cabinet as minister of education.

formal power

hement anticlerical, took on the church as an institution

and religious Catholics when he succeeded to the presidency, bringing about violent and bloody conict known
as the Cristero War.
10.1.1 The Cristero War (19261929)
Main article: Cristero War
The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was a counter-

Although the Constitution of 1917 had even stronger anticlerical articles than the liberal constitution of 1857,
Obregn largely sidestepped confrontation with the
Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Since political opposition parties were essentially banned, the Catholic
Church lled the political void and play the part of a
substitute opposition.[64]
The 1924 presidential election was not a demonstration
of free and fair elections, but the incumbent Obregn
did not stand for re-election, thereby acknowledging that
revolutionary principle, and he completed his presidential term still alive, the rst since Porrio Daz. Candidate Calles embarked on the rst populist presidential
campaign in the nations history, as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, more education,
additional labor rights, and democratic governance.[65]
Calles indeed tried to fulll his promises during his populist phase (192426), and then began a repressive antiCatholic phase (192628). Obregns stance toward the
church appears pragmatic, since there were many other
issues for him to deal with, but his successor Calles, a ve-

A unit of Cristeros preparing for battle.

revolution against the Calles regime set o by his persecution of the Catholic Church in Mexico[66] and specically the strict enforcement of the anti-clerical provisions
of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 and the expansion
of further anti-clerical laws.
A number of articles of the 1917 Constitution were at is-

28

10 CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION, 1920-40

sue: a) Article 5 (outlawing monastic religious orders); b)

Article 24 (forbidding public worship outside of church
buildings); and c) Article 27 (restricting religious organizations rights to own property). Finally, Article 130
took away basic civil rights of the clergy: priests and religious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits,
were denied the right to vote, and were not permitted to
comment on public aairs in the press.

Plutarco Elas Calles taking the presidential oath.

Cristeros (Catholic rebels) hung in Jalisco.

The formal rebellions began early in 1927,[67] with the

rebels calling themselves Cristeros because they felt they
were ghting for Jesus Christ himself. The laity stepped
into the vacuum created by the removal of priests, and
in the long run the Church was strengthened.[68] The
Cristero War was resolved diplomatically, largely with
the help of the U.S. Ambassador, Dwight Whitney Morrow.[69]
The conict claimed about 90,000 lives: 57,000 on the
federal side, 30,000 Cristeros, and civilians and Cristeros killed in anticlerical raids after the wars end. As
promised in the diplomatic resolution, the laws considered oensive by the Cristeros remained on the books,
but the federal government made no organized attempt
to enforce them. Nonetheless, persecution of Catholic
priests continued in several localities, fueled by local ofcials interpretation of the law.

litical process. General Lzaro Crdenas, who was a revolutionary general and had a political power based in the
state of Michoacan, became part of the PNR. In 1934, after a series of puppet presidents while Calles remained
the eective power, Crdenas out-maneuvered his former patron and sent him into exile. Crdenas reformed
the PRN structure, resulting in the creation of the PRM
(Partido Revolucionario Mexicano), the Mexican Revolutionary Party, which included the army as a party sector.
He had convinced most of the remaining revolutionary
generals to hand over their personal armies to the Mexican Army; the date of the PRM partys foundation is
thus considered by some to be the end of the Revolution.
In 1946, at the six-year transition of the Mexican presidency, the party was reformed again, with the army no
longer included as a party sector. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) or
PRI is the latest form of the party that evolved from the
PRN and PRM. The name institutional in its title reects its supporters notion that the Mexican Revolution
has been preserved in its structure.
The party is typically referred to as the three-legged stool,
in reference to its sectors of Mexican workers, peasants,
and bureaucrats.

After its establishment as the ruling party, the PRI monopolized all the political branches: it did not lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989.[70]
It was not until July 2, 2000, that Vicente Fox of the
opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by
the National Action Party (PAN), was elected president.
10.2 Formation of the Ruling Party
His victory ended the PRIs 71-year hold on the presidency. Fox was succeeded by the PAN candidate, Felipe
In 1929, the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) was
Caldern. In the 2012 elections, the PRI regained the
formed by the former president, General Plutarco Elas
presidency with its candidate Enrique Pea Nieto.
Calles. Calles was to be succeeded by General Alvaro
Obregn, who had served as president from 1920-24.
Obregn was assassinated by a Catholic in July 1928 before he could take oce. There were no viable presiden- 10.3 Revitalization of the Revolution under Crdenas
tial candidates acceptable to Calles, who was excluded
from taking formal power again. A solution to the problem was the formation of the PNR, which brought to- Main article: Lzaro Crdenas
gether regional caudillos and integrated labor and the Lzaro Crdenas was hand-picked by Calles as the sucpeasantry in a party that was better able to manage the po- cessor to the presidency in 1934. Crdenas managed to

29
with the United States was unclear during Lzaro Crdenas' rule, as he remained neutral. Capitalists, businessmen, Catholics, and middle-class Mexicans who opposed
many of the reforms implemented by the revolutionary
government sided with the Spanish Falange[73] i.e., the
fascist movement.[74]
Nazi propagandist Arthur Dietrich and his team of agents
in Mexico successfully manipulated editorials and coverage of Europe by paying hefty subsidies to Mexican newspapers, including the widely read dailies Exclsior and El
Universal.[75] The situation became even more worrisome
for the Allies when major oil companies boycotted Mexican oil following Lzaro Crdenas nationalization of the
oil industry and expropriation of all corporate oil properties in 1938,[76] which severed Mexicos access to its
traditional markets and led Mexico to sell its oil to Germany and Italy.[77]

11 Mexico, Revolution to Evolution, 1940-70

Lzaro Crdenas mural

unite the dierent forces in the PRI and set the rules
that allowed his party to rule unchallenged for decades
to come without internal ghts. He nationalized the oil
industry (on 18 March 1938), the electricity industry,
created the National Polytechnic Institute, and started
land reform and the distribution of free textbooks to
children.[71] In 1936 he exiled Calles, the last general with
dictatorial ambitions, thereby removing the army from
power.

Leon Trotsky in Mexico, 1938

On the eve of World War II, the Crdenas administration

(19341940) was just stabilizing, and consolidating control over, a Mexican nation that, for decades, had been in
revolutionary ux,[72] and Mexicans were beginning to interpret the European battle between the communists and
fascists, especially the Spanish Civil War, through their
unique revolutionary lens. Whether Mexico would side

11.1 Manuel vila Camacho Presidency

and World War II
Main article: Manuel Avila Camacho
Manuel vila Camacho, Crdenass successor, presided
over a bridge between the revolutionary era and the
era of machine politics under PRI that lasted until 2000.
vila, moving away from nationalistic autarchy, proposed
to create a favorable climate for international investment,
which had been a policy favored nearly two generations
earlier by Madero. vilas regime froze wages, repressed
strikes, and persecuted dissidents with a law prohibiting
the crime of social dissolution. During this period, the
PRI shifted to the right and abandoned much of the radical nationalism of the early Cardenas era. Miguel Alemn
Valds, vilas successor, even had Article 27 amended
to protect elite landowners.[78]
Mexico played a relatively minor role militarily in World
War Two in terms of sending troops, but there were other
opportunities for Mexico to contribute signicantly. Relations between Mexico and the U.S. had been warming
in the 1930s, particularly after U.S. President Franklin
Delano Roosevelt implemented the Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin American countries.[79] Even before the
outbreak of hostilities between the Axis and Allied powers, Mexico aligned itself rmly with the United States,
initially as a proponent of belligerent neutrality which
the U.S. followed prior to the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941. Mexico sanctioned businesses and individuals identied by the U.S. government as being supporters of the Axis powers; in August 1941, Mexico
broke o economic ties with Germany, then recalled
its diplomats from Germany, and closed the German

30

11

MEXICO, REVOLUTION TO EVOLUTION, 1940-70

A pilot standing in front of his P-47D with a maintenance crew

after a combat mission

consulates in Mexico.[80] The Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) and the Confederation of Mexican
Peasants (CNC) staged massive rallies in support of the
government.[80] Immediately following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Mexico went
on a war footing.[81]
Mexicos biggest contributions to the war eort were in
vital war material and labor, particularly the Bracero Program, a guest-worker program in the U.S. freeing men
there to ght in the European and Pacic theaters of War.
There was heavy demand for its exports created a degree
of prosperity.[82] A Mexican atomic scientist, Jos Rafael
Bejarano, worked on the secret Manhattan Project that
developed the atomic bomb.[83]

The rst Braceros arrive in Los Angeles by train in 1942. Photograph by Dorothea Lange.

Following losses of oil ships in the Gulf (the Potrero

del Llano and Faja de Oro) to German submarines (U564 and U-106 respectively) the Mexican government declared war on the Axis powers on May 30, 1942.[87]
Perhaps the most famous ghting unit in the Mexican military was the Escuadrn 201, also known as the Aztec Eagles.[88]

This group consisted of more than 300 volunteers, who

had trained in the United States to ght against Japan. The
Escuadrn 201 was the rst Mexican military unit trained
for overseas combat, and fought during the liberation of
with the U.S. Fifth Air Force in
In Mexico and throughout Latin America, Franklin Roo- the Philippines, working[88]
the
last
year
of
the
war.
sevelt's "Good Neighbor Policy" was necessary at such
a delicate time. Much work had already been accom- Although most Latin American countries eventually enplished between the U.S. and Mexico to create more har- tered the war on the Allies side, Mexico and Brazil were
monious relations between the two countries, including the only Latin American nations that sent troops to ght
the settlement of U.S. citizen claims against the Mexi- overseas during World War II.
can government, initially and ineectively negotiated by
With so many draftees, the U.S. needed farm workers.
the binational American-Mexican Claims Commission,
The Bracero Program gave the opportunity for 290,000
but then in direct bilateral negotiations between the two
of Mexicans to work temporarily on American farms, es[84]
The U.S. had not intervened on behalf
governments.
pecially in Texas.[89]
of U.S. oil companies when the Mexican government expropriated foreign oil in 1938, allowing Mexico to assert
its economic sovereignty but also beneting the U.S. by
11.2 The Mexican Economic Miracle
easing antagonism in Mexico. The Good Neighbor Policy
(19301970)
led to the Douglas-Weichers Agreement in June 1941 that
[85]
secured Mexican oil only for the United States, and the
Global Settlement in November 1941 that ended oil com- Main article: Mexican Miracle
pany demands on generous terms for the Mexicans, an ex- During the next four decades, Mexico experienced imample of the U.S. putting national security concerns over pressive economic growth (albeit from a low baseline), an
the interests of U.S. oil companies.[86] When it became achievement historians call "El Milagro Mexicano", the
clear in other parts of Latin America that the U.S. and Mexican Economic Miracle. Annual economic growth
Mexico had substantially resolved their dierences, the during this period averaged 34 percent, with a modest
other Latin American countries were more amenable to 3-percent annual rate of ination.
support of the U.S. and Allied eort against the Axis.[84] The miracle, moreover, was solidly rooted in government

12.2

1985 earthquake

31

Mexican Army troops in the Zocalo in 1968 Tlatelolco massacre.

1985 Mexico City earthquake

policy: 1) an emphasis on primary education that tripled

the enrollment rate between 1929 and 1949; 2) high taris on imported domestic goods; and 3) public investment in agriculture, energy, and transportation infrastructure. Starting in the 1940s, immigration into the cities
swelled the countrys urban population.

were blamed for the economic problems (La Dcada Perdida).[92]

On both occasions, the Mexican peso was devalued, and,

until 2000, it was normal to expect a big devaluation
and recession at the end of each presidential term. The
December Mistake crisis threw Mexico into economic
The economic growth occurred in spite of falling foreign turmoilthe worst recession in over half a century.
investment during the Great Depression. The application
of Article 27 of the Constitution of 1917 that gave subsoil rights to the Mexican government were implemented
12.2 1985 earthquake
with the nationalization of foreign oil companies in 1938
by President Lzaro Crdenas was a popular move. But
Main article: 1985 Mexico City earthquake
the real roots of Mexicos sustained period of prosperity
can be found in the period 1940-46, when Mexico allied
with the United States against the Fascist Axis powers. On 19 September 1985, an earthquake (8.1 on the Richter
By supplying raw and nished war materiel to the Al- scale) struck Michoacn, inicting severe damage on
lies, Mexico built up signicant assets that in the post- Mexico City. Estimates of the number of dead range
war period could be translated into sustained growth and from 6,500 to 30,000.[93] Public anger at the PRIs mishandling of relief eorts combined with the ongoing ecoindustrialization.[90]
nomic crisis led to a substantial weakening of the PRI. As
a result, for the rst time since the 1930s, the PRI began
to face serious electoral challenges.
11.3 MexicoGuatemala conict
The MexicoGuatemala conict was an armed conict
between the Latin American countries of Mexico and 12.3 Changing Political Landscape in
Guatemala, in which civilian shing boats were red upon
Mexico 1970-1990
by the Guatemalan Air Force. Hostilities were set in motion by the installation of Miguel Ydgoras as President A phenomenon of the 1980s was the growth of orgaof Guatemala on March 2, 1958.[91]
nized political opposition to de facto one-party rule by
the PRI. The National Action Party (Mexico), founded
in 1939 and until the 1980s a marginal political party
and not a serious contender for power, began to gain vot12 Mexico, 1970-1994
ers, particularly in Mexicos north. They made gains in
local elections initially, but in 1986 the PAN candidate
12.1 The economic crisis (19701994)
for the governorship of Chihuahua had a good chance
of winning.[94] The Catholic Church was constitutionally
Although PRI administrations achieved economic growth forbidden from participating in electoral politics, but the
and relative prosperity for almost three decades after archbishop urged voters not to abstain from the elections.
World War II, the partys management of the economy The PRI intervened and upended what would likely have
led to several crises. Political unrest grew in the late been a victory for the PRI. Although the PRIs candidate
1960s, culminating in the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. became governor, the widespread perception of electoral
Economic crises swept the country in 1976 and 1982, fraud, criticism by the archbishop of Chihuahua, and a
leading to the nationalization of Mexicos banks, which more mobilized electorate made the victory costly to the

32

13

CONTEMPORARY MEXICO

PRI.[95]
1988 Presidential Election The Mexican general election, 1988 was extremely important in Mexican history. The PRIs candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, an
economist who was educated at Harvard, had never held
an elected oce, and who was a technocrat with no direct
link to the legacy of the Mexican Revolution even through
his family. Rather than toe the party line, which would
have been for the other disappointed PRI candidates to
support the ocial PRI choice, Cuauhtemoc Crdenas,
the son of former President Lzaro Crdenas, broke with
the PRI and ran as a candidate of the Democratic Current, later forming into the Party of Democratic Revolu- Three world leaders: (background, left to right) Mexican Prestion (PRD).[96] The PAN candidate Manuel Clouthier ran ident Carlos Salinas de Gortari, U.S. President George H. W.
a clean campaign in long-standing pattern of the party.
Bush, and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, observe
The election was marked by irregularities on a massive
scale. The Ministry of the Interior (Gobernacin) controlled the electoral process, which meant in practice that
the PRI controlled it. During the vote count, the government computers were said to have crashed, something the
government called a breakdown of the system. One observer said, For the ordinary citizen, it was not the computer network but the Mexican political system that had
crashed.[97] When the computers were said to be running again after a considerable delay, the election results
they recorded were an extremely narrow victory for Salinas (50.7%), Crdenas (31.1%), and Clouthier (16.8%).
Crdenas was widely seen to have won the election, but
Salinas was declared the winner. There might have been
violence in the wake of such fraudulent results, but Crdenas did not call for it, sparing the country a possible civil war.[98] Years later, former Mexican President
Miguel de la Madrid (198288) was quoted in the New
York Times that the results were indeed fraudulent.[99]

13
13.1

the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement. Commenced in San Antonio, Texas on December 17, 1992.

commerce.

13.2 President Ernesto Zedillo (in oce,

19942000)

Contemporary Mexico
Subcomandante Marcos

NAFTA and economic resurgence

In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo faced the December
(1994present)

Mistake crisis, triggered by a sudden devaluation of

On 1 January 1994, Mexico became a full member of the peso. There were public demonstrations in Mexthe North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), ico City and a constant military presence after the 1994
joining the United States and Canada.[100]
rising of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in
[102]
Mexico has a free market economy that recently entered Chiapas.
the trillion-dollar class.[101] It contains a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly
dominated by the private sector. Recent administrations have expanded competition in sea ports, railroads,
telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas
distribution, and airports.

The United States intervened rapidly to stem the economic crisis, rst by buying pesos in the open market, and
then by granting assistance in the form of $50 billion in
loan guarantees. The peso stabilized at 6 pesos per dollar.
By 1996, the economy was growing, and in 1997, Mexico
repaid, ahead of schedule, all U.S. Treasury loans.

Per capita income is one-quarter that of the United States;

income distribution remains highly unequal. Trade with
the United States and Canada has tripled since the implementation of NAFTA. Mexico has free-trade agreements
with more than 40 countries, governing 90% of its foreign

Zedillo oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRIs hold on power. After the 1988 election,
which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral Federal
Electoral Institute) was created in the early 1990s. Run

13.5

President Felipe Caldern Hinojosa (20062012)

by ordinary citizens, the IFE oversees elections with the

aim of ensuring that they are conducted legally and impartially.

13.3

The end of the PRIs continuous rule

in 2000

Accused many times of blatant fraud, the PRI held almost

all public oces until the end of the 20th century. Not
until the 1980s did the PRI lose its rst state governorship,
an event that marked the beginning of the partys loss of
hegemony.[103][104]

13.4

President Vicente Fox Quesada (in

oce, 20002006)

33
failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye
to alliance building....By 2006, as political scientist Soledad Loaeza noted, the eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided
tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the oce.
...He had little success in ghting crime. Even
though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic
growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of scal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that
of Haiti....Finally, during Foxs administration,
only 1.4 million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the
United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.[106]

13.5 President Felipe Caldern Hinojosa

(20062012)
See also: Mexican general election, 2006
President Felipe Caldern Hinojosa (PAN) took oce

President Vicente Fox with Prime Minister of India Manmohan

Singh.

Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, integrate with the
U.S. economy, and allow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of the
National Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, ending PRIs 71-year-long
control of the oce. Though Foxs victory was due in
part to popular discontent with decades of unchallenged
PRI hegemony, also, Foxs opponent, president Zedillo,
conceded defeat on the night of the electiona rst in
Mexican history.[105] A further sign of the quickening
of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to
win a majority in both chambers of Congressa situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform
pledges. Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was
quick and peaceful.

President Felipe Caldern with President of Brazil Luiz Incio

Lula da Silva.

after one of the most hotly contested elections in recent

Mexican history; Caldern won by such a small margin
(.56% or 233,831 votes.)[107] that the runner-up, Andrs
Manuel Lpez Obrador of the leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) contested the results.

Despite imposing a cap on salaries of high-ranking public

servants, Caldern ordered a raise on the salaries of the
Federal Police and the Mexican armed forces on his rst
Fox was a very strong candidate, but an ineective day as president.
president who was weakened by PANs minority status Calderns government also ordered massive raids on
in Congress. Historian Philip Russell summarizes the drug cartels upon assuming oce in December 2006 in
strengths and weaknesses of Fox as president:
response to an increasingly deadly spate of violence in his
Marketed on television, Fox made a far better candidate than he did president. He failed
to take charge and provide cabinet leadership,

home state of Michoacn. The decision to intensify drug

enforcement operations has led to an ongoing conict between the federal government and the Mexican drug cartels.

34

13.6

15

REFERENCES

President Enrique Pea Nieto (in- President Calderon Hinojosa decided to use brute force
to combat some drug lords and in 2007 started a major
cumbent)

escalation on the Mexican Drug War.[109] Mexican drug

lords found it easy to buy assault weapons in the United
See also: Enrique Pea Nieto
States.[110] The result is that drug cartels have now both
more gun power, and more manpower due to the high unOn July 1, 2012, Enrique Pea Nieto was elected presiemployment in Mexico.[111]
dent of Mexico with 38% of the vote. He is a former governor of the state of Mexico and a member of the PRI. Drug cultivation has increased too: Cultivation of opium
2
His election returned the PRI to power after 12 years of poppy in 2007 rose to 17,050 acres (69.0 km ), yieldPAN rule. He was ocially sworn into oce on Decem- ing a potential production of 19.84 tons of pure heroin or
55.12 tons of "black tar" heroin. Black tar is the dominant
ber 1, 2012.[108]
form of Mexican heroin consumed in the western United
States. Marijuana cultivation increased to 21,992 acres
13.7 Mexican Drug War
(89.00 km2 ) in 2007, yielding a potential production of
17,416.52 tons.
Main article: Mexican Drug War
The Mexican government conducts the largest indepenMexico is a major transit and drug-producing nation: an
dent illicit-crop eradication program in the world, but
Mexico continues to be the primary transshipment point
for U.S.-bound cocaine from South America.[112]

14 See also
History of Roman Catholicism in Mexico
MexicoUnited States relations
List of Presidents of Mexico
List of wars involving Mexico
The Mexican army in Apatzingn in 2007.

estimated 90% of the cocaine smuggled into the United

States every year moves through Mexico.[101] Fueled by
the increasing demand for drugs in the United States,
the country has become a major supplier of heroin, producer and distributor of MDMA, and the largest foreign
supplier of cannabis and methamphetamine to the U.S.'s
market. Major drug syndicates control the majority of
drug tracking in the country, and Mexico is a signicant money-laundering center.[101]

Military History of Mexico

Plans in Mexican history
Politics of Mexico

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[74] Friedrich E. Schuler (1999). Mexico Between Hitler and
Roosevelt: Mexican Foreign Relations in the Age of Lzaro
Crdenas, 19341940. UNM Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780-8263-2160-2.
[75] Leonard 2006, pp. 1819
[76] Leonard 2006, p. 19
[77] Smith, Peter H. (April 1996). Talons of the Eagle: Dynamics of U.S. - Latin American Relations (2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press, USA. p. 79. ISBN 0-19508303-2.
[78] Stephen R. Niblo (2000). Mexico in the 1940s: Modernity,
Politics, and Corruption. Rowman & Littleeld. p. 75.
ISBN 978-0-8420-2795-3.
[79] Howard F. Cline, The United States and Mexico. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1961, 271.
[80] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 266.
[81] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, pp. 265-66.
[82] Monica A. Rankin (2010). Mxico, la Patria!: Propaganda and Production During World War II. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2455-1. p. 29495
[83] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 271.

[60] Jean Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s in Mexico since Independence ed. Leslie Bethell. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press 1991, p.203.

[84] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 267.

[61] Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s p. 203.

[86] Leonard 2006, pp. 2223

[62] Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s p. 206.

[87] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 269.

[63] Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s, p. 207.

[88] Klemen, L. 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron. The

Netherlands East Indies 19411942.201st Mexican
Fighter Squadron

[64] Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s, p. 205.

[85] Leonard 2006, p. 21

37

[89] Scruggs, Otey M. (1963). Texas and the Bracero Pro- [110] Comprando armas en la frontera". Proceso. Retrieved
gram, 19421947. Pacic Historical Review 32 (3):
23 March 2015.
251264. JSTOR 4492180.
[111] http://www.gov.harvard.edu/files/uploads/Rios_
[90] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, pp. 333-359.
EstePais_DealersS.pdf
[91] educational ~ civil war. San Lucas Mission. Retrieved [112] https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40582.pdf
11 June 2013.
[92] Robert E. Looney (1985). Economic Policymaking in
Mexico: Factors Underlying the 1982 Crisis. Duke University Press. p. 46.
[93] Mark D. Anderson (2011). Disaster Writing: The Cultural
Politics of Catastrophe in Latin America. U. of Virgidrug
nia Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-8139-3196-8.
[94] Vikram K. Chand, Mexicos Political Awakening.
Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press 2001.
[95] Chand, Mexicos Political Awakening.
[96] Kathleen Bruhn, Taking on Goliath: The Emergence of
a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in Mexico. University Part: Penn State Press 1997.
[97] Enrique Krauze, Mexico: Biography of Power. New York:
HarperCollins 1997, p. 770.
[98] Krauze, Mexico: Biography of Power, p. 772.

16 Further reading
16.1 Surveys
Alisky, Marvin. Historical Dictionary of Mexico
(2nd ed. 2007) 744pp
Batalla, Guillermo Bonl. (1996) Mexico Profundo.
University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70843-2.
Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer. The Oxford
History of Mexico (2nd ed. 2010) excerpt and text
search
Beezley, William, ed. A Companion to Mexican History and Culture (Blackwell Companions to World
History) (2011) excerpt and text search
Fehrenback, T.R. (1995 revised edition) Fire and

[99] http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/09/world/
Blood: A History of Mexico. Da Capo Press; popuex-president-in-mexico-casts-new-light-on-rigged-1988-election.
lar overview
html
[100] William A. Orme, Understanding Nafta: Mexico, Free
Trade, and the New North America (1996)
[101] CIA World Factbook; Mexico, CIA.gov
[102] Julia Preston; Samuel Dillon (2005). Opening Mexico:
The Making Of A Democracy. Macmillan. p. 257.
ISBN 978-0-374-52964-2.
[103] John Stolle-McAllister (2005). Mexican Social Movements and the Transition to Democracy. McFarland. p.
9. ISBN 978-0-7864-1999-9.
[104] Morris, Stephen D. (2005). Mexicos Long-Awaited Surprise. Latin American Research Review 40 (3): 417428.
JSTOR 3662849.
[105] Daniel Drache (2008). Big Picture Realities: Canada and
Mexico at the Crossroads. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p.
128. ISBN 978-1-55458-045-3.
[106] Philip Russell (2011). The History of Mexico: From PreConquest to Present. Routledge. p. 593.
[107] http://www.te.gob.mx/documentacion/publicaciones/
Informes/DICTAMEN.pdf

Hamnett, Brian R. A concise history of Mexico

(Cambridge UP, 2006) excerpt
Kirkwood, J. Burton. The history of Mexico (2nd ed.
ABC-CLIO, 2009)
Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: biography of power:
a history of modern Mexico, 1810-1996 (HarperCollinsPublishers, 1997)
MacLachlan, Colin M. and William H. Beezley. El
Gran Pueblo: A History of Greater Mexico (3rd ed.
2003) 535pp
Kelly, Joyce. (2001) An Archaeological Guide to
Central and Southern Mexico. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3349-X.
Kirkwood, Burton. The History of Mexico (Greenwood, 2000) online edition
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan
M. Deeds. The Course of Mexican History (7th ed.
Oxford U.P., 2002) online edition

[108] Graham, Dave (1 Dec 2012). Pena Nieto takes power,

begins new era for old ruling party. Reuters. Retrieved 6
December 2012.

Russell, Philip L. (2016). The essential history of

Mexico: from pre-conquest to present. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-84278-5.

[109] Sidney Weintraub; Duncan Robert Wood (2010).

Cooperative Mexican-U.S. Antinarcotics Eorts. CSIS. p.
29. ISBN 978-0-89206-607-0.

Werner, Michael S. ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico:

History, Society & Culture (2 vol 1997) 1440pp
online edition

38

16.2

16 FURTHER READING
Werner, Michael S. ed. Concise Encyclopedia
of Mexico (2001) 850pp; a selection of unrevised articles

Schele, Linda and David Friedel. A Forest of Kings:

The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William
Morrow. 1990.

Primary sources

Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs, on the

Eve of the Spanish Conquest. Stanford University
Press. 1970. ISBN 0-8047-0721-9.

Jaary, Nora E.. et al. eds. Mexican History: A

Primary Source Reader (2009) 480pp
Joseph, Gilbert M. and Timothy J. Henderson, eds.
The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics (2003)
808pp excerpt and text search

16.3

Prehistory and Pre-Columbian civilizations

Adams, Richard E.W. Prehistoric Mesoamerica: Revised Edition. University of Oklahoma Press. 1996.
ISBN 0-8061-2834-8.
Austin, Alfredo Lopez and Leonardo Lopez Lujan.
Mexicos Indigenous Past University of Oklahoma
Press. 2001. ISBN 0-8061-3214-0.
Aveni, Anthony. Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico.
University of Texas Press. 2001. ISBN 0-29270502-6.
Berdan, Frances. The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An
Imperial Society Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1982)
Bierhorst, John. Cantares Mexicanos: Songs of the
Aztecs Stanford University Press (1985)
Codex Mendoza
Coe, Michael. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the
Aztecs. Thames & Hudson. 2004. 5th edition.
ISBN 0-500-28346-X.
Diehl, Richard A. The Olmecs: Americas First Civilization. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-50002119-8.
Knight, Alan. Mexico: Volume 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest (v. 1 of 3 vol history
of Mexico) (2002) excerpt and text search
Mann, Charles. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. 2005. ISBN 1-40004006-X.
Oner, Jerome A. Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco
Cambridge University Press 1983.
Portereld, Kay Marie and Emory Dean Keoke.
American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000
Years of Inventions and Innovations. Checkmark
Books. 2003. Paperback edition. ISBN 0-81605367-7.

16.4 Conquest
Hassig, Ross.Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (2nd
ed. 2006) excerpt and text search
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and
the Fall of Old Mexico (1995) excerpt and text search
16.4.1 Primary sources
Corts, Hernn. Letters from Mexico. Yale University Press. Revised edition, 1986.
Diaz, Bernal. The Conquest of New Spain. Penguin
Classics,
Lockhart, James (editor and translator) We People
Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
University of California Press (1992)
Len-Portilla, Miguel, editor. The Broken Spears:
The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon Press. 1992. excerpt and text search

16.5 The Colonial era

Altman, Ida, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador. The
Early History of Greater Mexico Pearson (2003)
Altman, Ida and James Lockhart. The Provinces
of Early Mexico: Variants of Spanish American
Regional Evolution UCLA Latin American Center
(1976)
Bakewell, P. J. Silver Mining and Society in Colonial
Mexico, Zacatecas 15461700 (Cambridge Latin
American Studies) (1971)
Brading, D.A. Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajo Cambridge University Press (1978)
Chevalier, Franois. Land and Society in Colonial
Mexico (1982)
Farriss, Nancy M. Maya Society Under Colonial Rule
Princeton University Press (1984)
Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule
(Stanford University Press) 1964.
Glasco, Sharon Bailey. Constructing Mexico City:
Colonial Conicts over Culture, Space, and Authority
(2010)

16.7

Primary sources

Knight, Alan. Mexico: Volume 2, the Colonial Era

(2002) excerpt and text search
Kubler, George. Mexican Architecture in the Sixteenth Century Yale University Press (1948)
Lockhart, James. The Nahuas After the Conquest
Stanford University Press (1992)
Ouweneel, Arij. An Ecological Interpretation of Crisis and Development in Central Mexico, 17301800
(1996)
MacLachlan, Colin M., and Jaime E. Rodriguez O.
The Forging of the Cosmic Race: A Reinterpretation
of Colonial Mexico (1980)
Ricard, Robert. The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
University of California Press (1966)
Taylor, William B (1974). Landed Society in New
Spain: A View From the South. Hispanic American Historical Review 54 (3): 387413.
Toussaint, Manuel. Colonial Art in Mexico University of Texas Press (1967)

16.6

Mexican Independence and the 19th

century (18071910)

Anna, Timothy. The Fall of Royal Government in

Mexico City University of Nebraska Press (1978)
Anna, Timothy. Forging Mexico, 1821-1835 University of Nebraska Press (2001)
Coatsworth, John H. Growth against Development:
The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porrian Mexico (1980)
Coatsworth, John H (1978). Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico.
American Historical Review 83 (1): 80100. JSTOR
1865903.

39
Hamill, Hugh. The Hidalgo Revolt (1966)
Hamnett, Brian R. Juarez (1994)
Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle For Independence, 18101830 (John Murray,
London, 2000). ISBN 0-7195-5566-3
Henderson, Timothy J. The Mexican Wars for Independence (2010) excerpt and text search
Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico
and Its War with the United States (2008) excerpt
and text search
Riguzzi, Paolo (2009). From Globalisation to
Revolution? The Porrian Political Economy:
An Essay on Issues and Interpretations. Journal of Latin American Studies 41 (2): 347368.
doi:10.1017/S0022216X09005598.
Rodrguez O., Jaime E. We Are Now the True
Spaniards": Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence,
and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 18081824 (2012) excerpt and text search
Scholes, Walter V. Mexican Politics during the
Jurez Regime 18551872 (University of Missouri
Press, 1957)
Sinkin, Richard N. The Mexican Reform, 1856
1876:A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (University
of Texas Press, 1979)
Tenenbaum, Barbara. The Politics of Penury: Debts
and Taxes in Mexico, 1821-1856 University of New
Mexico Press (1986)
Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution in
Mexico: Social bases to agrarian violence, 17501940 Princeton University Press (1986)
Van Young, Eric. The other rebellion : popular violence, ideology, and the Mexican struggle for independence, 1810 1821 Stanford University Press
(2001)

Coatsworth, John H (1979). Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy: The Case of Mexico. Journal of Economic History 39 (4): 939960. 16.7 Primary sources
JSTOR 2120337.
Raat, W. Dirk, ed. Mexico: From Independence to
Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2009) excerpt
Revolution, 18101910 (1982), 308pp; 26 scholarly
and text search
articles & primary documents
Fowler-Salamini, Heather, and Mary Kay Vaughn,
eds. Women of the Mexican Countryside, 1850
16.8 Revolution
1990: Creating Spaces, Shaping Transition (1994).
Hale, Charles A. Mexican Liberalism in the Age of
Mora, 1821-53. Yale University Press (1968)
Hale, Charles A. The Transformation of Liberalism
in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico. Princeton University Press (1989)

Golland, David Hamilton. Recent Works on the

Mexican Revolution. Estudios Interdisciplinarios de
Amrica Latina y el Caribe 16.1 (2014). online
Gonzales, Michael J. The Mexican Revolution, 19101940 (2002), a standard history

40

16 FURTHER READING

Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution, Volume 1: 16.10 Historiography and memory
Porrians, Liberals, and Peasants (1990); The Mexican Revolution, Volume 2: Counter-revolution and
Benjamin, Thomas; Ocasio-Melndez, Marcial
Reconstruction (1990); a standard scholarly history
(1984). Organizing the Memory of Modern Mexico: Porrian Historiography in Perspective, 1880s Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution: Bour1980s. Hispanic American Historical Review 64
geois? Nationalist? Or Just a 'Great Rebellion'?"
(2): 323364. JSTOR 2514524.
Bulletin of Latin American Research (1985) 4#2 pp.
137 in JTSOR
Boyer, Christopher R., ed. Land between Waters:
O'Malley, Ilene V. The Myth of the Revolution:
Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-1940 (1986) online
Richmond, Douglas W. and Sam W. Haynes. The
Mexican Revolution: Conict and Consolidation,
1910-1940 (2013) online
Ruiz, Ramn Eduardo. The Great Rebellion: Mexico, 19051924 (1980).
Snodgrass, Michael. Deference and Deance in
Monterrey: Workers, Paternalism, and Revolution in
Mexico, 18901950. (Cambridge University Press,
2003) ISBN 0-521-81189-9.
Womack, John. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution
(1968)

16.9

Since 1940

Bratzel, John, et al. eds. Latin America during

World War II (2006) ch 2
Camp, Roderic Ai. Politics in Mexico: The Democratic Consolidation (5th ed. 2006)
Coerver, Don M., Suzanne B. Pasztor, and Robert
Bungton, eds. Mexico Today: An Encyclopedia
of Contemporary History and Culture (2004) 621pp
excerpt and text search
Contreras, Joseph. In the Shadow of the Giant: The
Americanization of Modern Mexico (2009) excerpt
and text search
Dent, David W. Encyclopedia of Modern Mexico
(2002); since 1940; 376pp
Hamilton, Nora. Mexico, Political Social and Economic Evolution (2011)
Niblo, Stephen R. Mexico in the 1940s: Modernity,
Politics, and Corruption (2000)
Preston, Julia, and Samuel Dillon. Opening Mexico: The Making of a Democracy (2005) in-depth
narrative by American journalists on post 1960 era.
excerpt and text search

Environmental Histories of Modern Mexico (U. of

Arizona Press, 2012). 328 pp. online review
Brienen, Rebecca P., and Margaret A. Jackson, es.
Invasion and Transformation: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico (2008)
Chorba, Carrie C. Mexico, From Mestizo to Multicultural: National Identity and Recent Representations
of the Conquest (2007) excerpt and text search
Cox, Edward Godfrey (1938). Mexico. Reference
Guide to the Literature of Travel. 2: New World.
Seattle: University of Washington via Hathi Trust.
Garrigan, Shelley E. Collecting Mexico: Museums,
Monuments, and the Creation of National Identity(University of Minnesota Press; 2012) 233 pages;
scholarly analysis of Mexicos self-image, 1867
1910, using public monuments, ne-arts collecting,
museums, and Mexicos representation at the Paris
worlds fair
Golland, David Hamilton. Recent Works on the
Mexican Revolution. Estudios Interdisciplinarios de
Amrica Latina y el Caribe 16.1 (2014). online
Knight, Alan (2006). Patterns and Prescriptions in
Mexican Historiography. Bulletin of Latin American Research 25 (3): 340366.
Knight, Alan (1985). The Mexican Revolution:
Bourgeois? Nationalist? Or Just a 'Great Rebellion'?". Bulletin of Latin American Research 4 (2):
137. JSTOR 3338313.
Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: Biography of Power.
Harper Perennial (1998)
Lomnitz, Claudio. Deep Mexico, Silent Mexico: An
Anthropology of Nationalism (University of Minnesota Press 2001)
Pick, Zuzana M. Constructing the Image of the Mexican Revolution: Cinema and the Archive (University
of Texas Press, 2011) online review
Young, Eric Van. Writing Mexican History (Stanford
University Press; 2012) 338 pages

41

17

External links

Historical Text Archive 160 articles by scholars

Hernn Corts: Pgina de relacin
Brown University Library: Three for Three Million
-Information about the Paul R. Dupee Jr. '65 Mexican History Collection in the John Hay Library, including maps and photos of books.
Economic Struggles of the 80s from the Dean Peter
Krogh Foreign Aairs Digital Archives
Embattled Country from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Aairs Digital Archives
Old Mexico: Vintage Photos - slideshow by Life
magazine
Mexico: From Empire to Revolution -Photographs
from the Getty Research Institutes collections exploring Mexican history and culture though images
produced between 1857 and 1923.
A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University
of Texas at Arlington
US-Mexican War -U.S. political context and
overview of the military campaign that ended with
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 18161848. Provides links to U.S. military sources.
Civilizations in America - An overview of Mexican
civilization.
Time Line of Mexican History - A Pre-Columbian
History timeline and a timeline of Mexico after the
arrival of the Spanish.
History of Mexico at The History Channel
C.M. Mayos blog for researchers of Mexicos Second Empire, a period also known as the French Intervention
Latin American Network Information Center.
Mexico: History. USA: University of Texas at
Austin.

42

18

18
18.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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West.andrew.g, Sycamore1214, 5 albert square, Tyw7, Arey051012, TriniMuoz, Tide rolls, Krano, Luckas Blade, Teles, SasiSasi, Jarble, Ettrig, Thepillow, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Ptbotgourou, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, EnochBethany, THEN WHO
WAS PHONE?, Triquetra, Broccolli1996, Againme, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Apollo1758, Jim1138, IRP, Pyrrhus16, Dwayne, Piano
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ImFromCuliacan, Xochiztli, Viktor Eikman, Mogism, Zumwalte, Lugia2453, Giggette, Graphium, Mateorc2, Wywin, Kevin12xd, Dayuuuuuuum, Ghargr18, Reatlas, Urnze, Equilibrium Allure, Ivanlee44, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, CsDix, Madmen22, Jodosma,
Mdzhang, B14709, John33021, Clr324, Andy6781, Martxel Alexander, Pointe Drive, Ginsuloft, B575, MrLinkinPark333, SajonesUTA,
Southrook, JaconaFrere, Gethroisgay, Mgl27, Monkbot, EdgarCabreraFaria, Iamnotgayyayilikegirls, Eman235, Vincius94, Amuseclio,
Mabarlabin, Tardis218, Chappy8888, Goddanmit, Omo Obatal, Srednuas Lenoroc, Eldizzino, CLCStudent, Adrian BeatHerSon, Nevatas-

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org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/1479_Stein_der_f%C3%BCnften_Sonne%2C_sog._Aztekenkalender%2C_Ollin_Tonatiuh_anagoria.JPG
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Original artist: Luis Alberto Lecuna/Melograna

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File:Mayan_Frieze_from_Classic_Era_-_Palenque_Archaeological_Site_Museum_-_Chiapas_-_Mexico_-_01_(15057686313)
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Solemne_y_pacfica_entrada_del_Ejrcito_de_las_Tres_Garantas_a_la_Ciudad_de_Mxico.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Solemne_y_pac%C3%ADfica_entrada_del_Ej%C3%A9rcito_de_las_Tres_Garant%
C3%ADas_a_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.inehrm.gob.mx Original artist:
Anonymous
File:Storming_of_the_Teocalli_by_Cortez_and_His_Troops.jpeg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f6/
Storming_of_the_Teocalli_by_Cortez_and_His_Troops.jpeg License: PD Contributors:
Personal Photograph.
Original artist:
Emanuel Leutze.
File:Subcomandante_Marcos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Subcomandante_Marcos.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: taken from ickr. Link: http://flickr.com/photos/uncut/64601617/ Original artist: tj scenes / cesar bojorquez (ickr)
File:Telamones_Tula.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Tetitla_Teotihuacan_Great_Goddess_mural_(Abracapocus).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
1d/Tetitla_Teotihuacan_Great_Goddess_mural_%28Abracapocus%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Toma_de_Juarez.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Toma_de_Juarez.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Ocial phooto of the victory of the Battle of Ciudad Juarez Original artist: ?
File:V_Huerta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/V_Huerta.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: The original uploader was Adam Faanes at English Wikipedia
File:Venustiano_Carranza_en_La_Caada,_Queretaro.JPG Source:
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Venustiano_Carranza_en_La_Ca%C3%B1ada%2C_Queretaro.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Libro de Texto Gratuito, Mexico. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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File:Vicente_Fox_Singh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Vicente_Fox_Singh.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:View_from_Pyramide_de_la_luna.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/View_from_Pyramide_
de_la_luna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: uploaded on 25. Jul. 2006 to english wikipedia by author Original artist: Jackhynes
File:Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Michel wal (Own work) Original artist: ?
File:Zapataandvilla.png Source:
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Public domain Contributors:
unknown Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img
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svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
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40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>

18.3

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