History http://www.imagesco.com/articles/high-voltage/van_de_graaf.

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The first Van de Graff Generator was invented by Dr. Robert J Van De Graff in
1931 in the Unites States of America (USA) for the sole purpose of generating
and using high voltages for use in nuclear physics experiments. Dr. Robert J Van
De Graff, a professor in the reputed Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
USA, designed and built the world's largest air-insulated Van de Graaff generator
for use in X-ray experiments and for research in atom-smashing. Later on, as
different methods to accelerate atoms became available, the original Van De
Graaff generator became used for academic and instructional purposes.
The largest Van De Graff Generator was constructed in an unused dock in South
Dartmouth, Massachusetts. It was constructed on railroad tracks for easier
mobility and access. The two colossal domes were connected via a tube. Each of
the two domes had a laboratory where scientists were able to carry out
experiments and study the effects of large amounts of electricity on particles in
the connecting tube.
In the 1950's, MIT generously donated the giant Van De Graaff generator to the
Museum of Science. In 1980, the Van De Graaff generator was featured in the
newly completed Thomson Theatre of Electricity. Today, the colossal Van De
Graaff generator is demonstrated twice or more times a day to enlighten school
students and other academia on the theories of electricity.
Description
Van De Graaff generators are a common sight in many science laboratories and
for many people it is a device that looks like a large metal ball on a pedestal and
can make hair stand on its end literally. However, there is more to the Van De
Graff generators than just deploying static charge.
The Van De Graaff Generator is basically an electrostatic machine that can
generate high voltages. A typical Van De Graaff Generator consists of an
insulating belt that transports electrical charge to a terminal. The charges that
are sent on the belt are generated through a high voltage DC supply. These
charges are collected in the inside of the terminal and transferred to its external
surface.
A Van De Graaff generator can be used to generator high amounts of potential
difference to the order of about 5 Mega Volts. Generally used for scientific
experiments, the generated charges are used to speed particles such as ions. Let
us now take a detailed look into the history, construction and working of Van De
Graaff Generators.
How does a Van De Graff Generator Work?
The Van De Graaff generator works simply on the principle of static electricity.
All matter, as we know is made up of atoms which further constituted of
electrons, neutrons and protons. Electrons carry negative charge whereas
protons are considered to be positively charged. When the number of electrons

and protons remain the same, the matter is considered to be neutral in charge. A
negatively charged matter has more number of electrons than protons while the
opposite holds true for a positively charged matter. Electrons can flow from one
matter to another.
When two materials are rubbed together, a flow of electrons can take place
depending on the triboelectric properties. When such a transfer occurs, the
material that lost electrons will become positively charged and the one that
gained electrons becomes negatively charged. This basically how static
electricity is generated.
A Van de Graaff generator creates static electricity. The current generated by a
Van De Graaff generator remains the same, while the voltage changes according
to the applied load. A very simple Van De Graaff generator is made of the
following:
A motor
Rollers, two in number
Insulated belt
Brush assemblies, two in number
Metal sphere as the output terminal
The motor is required to turn the belt at a constant speed around the two rollers.
The lower roller is built of a material that has a stronger triboelectric property.
Now when the motor starts turning the belt around the lower roller, electrons are
captured from the insulated belt onto the lower roller. Slowly more and more
charge becomes concentrated on the roller. This phenomenon of concentration of
charge results in repelling the electrons from the tips of the brush assembly. It
also starts to attract electrons from the air molecules between the lower roller
and brush assembly. Due to this phenomenon, the positively charged air
molecules get carried on the belt away from the negatively charged roller. The
belt therefore gets charged positively and moves towards the upper rollers.
The upper roller is made from or coated with a material that is higher up in the
triboelectric series such as nylon due to which it tries to repel the positive charge
on the belt. The upper brush is directly connected to the inside of the output
terminal or sphere at one end and almost touches the upper roller and belt at the
other. The electrons in the brush become attracted to the positive charges on the
belt. The air particles break down too and the free electrons move towards the
belt. The sphere takes up all of the charge and the excess charge gets spread to
the outside of the terminal output or sphere.
It is this simple electrostatic effect that allows the Van De Graaff generator to
output very high voltages continuously.

http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/vdg3.htm

Principle of operation http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/van-degraaff-generator-basics

Some insulating materials when separated from the surface of others, leave
those surfaces electrically charged, each with the opposite sign of charge and
with a high potential difference (p.d.).
A machine to make charges was invented in 1929 by a young American called
Van de Graaff. Huge machines, some over 30 m high, based on his ideas have
been built to produce extremely high potential differences.
Belts and rollers
A flexible belt made from an insulating material and running continuously over two rollers can, by
the same process, produce a supply of charge where the surfaces separate. The two rollers have
to have different surfaces (often acrylic and metal) and together with the belt-rubber, are chosen
by experiment.
Combs
Charges are sprayed on to and removed from the moving belt by combs situated adjacent to
the rollers. Actual contact between the combs and the belt is not essential because of the high
potential differences. Combs can be simply a stretched wire, or a sharp or serrated edge: action
depends on very high potential gradients due to their small radii (similar action to lightning
conductors).
The lower comb is maintained at or close to earth potential and is a drain for negative charge,
leaving the belt with positive charges that are carried up to the top comb.
Collecting sphere
The top comb is connected to a collecting sphere which, having inherent electrical capacity
(proportional to its radius) will collect and store the charge on its outer surface until discharged
either by breakdown of the surrounding air as a spark, or by conduction to an adjacent earthed
object.
Charging current
So long as the belt continues to move, the process continues, the drive (motor or manual)
supplying the power to overcome the electrical repulsion between the charges collected on the
sphere and those arriving on the belt.
The charging current is usually a few mA and potential difference achieved by junior generators
will be 100-150 kV and by senior generators up to about 300 kV.
The whole apparatus
The mechanical arrangement of the belt/roller system is very simple. The lower roller is driven
either manually or by motor. The former usually involves a hand wheel and pulley with belt-drive;
this pulley can be mounted directly on the motor spindle. In junior models, fixed speed, shadedpole induction motors are usual; senior models often incorporate small H.P. variable-speed
(sewing-machine) motors, with carbon brushes, control being by either a simple rotary rheostat
or a solid state circuit. The motors, control switches and mains input socket are housed in a

metal or plastic enclosure, although some junior models have used a transparent plastic cakecover.
The support column for the collecting sphere can be a simple PVC plastic rod or acrylic tube or a
pair of acrylic strips with separators. In some models the belt is enclosed within a plastic pipe
with windows along its length. Not all generators have means of adjusting the separation of the
upper and lower rollers i.e. the belts have to be tailored for a particular machine.
Since the diameter of the collecting sphere determines the maximum p.d. (voltage) achievable,
large spheres are mounted on taller columns to be more remote from the earth motor and control
box.
Machines are usually supplied with a discharger", often another, smaller, sphere mounted on a
metal rod that has to be earthed to draw sparks from the collecting sphere.