Jazz - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/28/2016
Jazz - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jazz
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
JazzisagenreofmusicthatoriginatedfromAfricanAmerican
communitiesofNewOrleansintheUnitedStatesduringthelate
19thandearly20thcenturies.Itemergedintheformof
independenttraditionalmusicandpopularmusicalstyles,all
linkedbythecommonbondsofAfricanAmericanandEuropean
Americanmusicalparentagewithaperformanceorientation.[1]
Jazzspansaperiodofoverahundredyears,encompassinga
rangeofmusicfromragtimetojazzrockfusionofthe1970s
and1980s,andhasprovedtobedifficulttodefine.Jazzmakes
heavyuseofimprovisation,polyrhythms,syncopationandthe
swingnote,[2]aswellasaspectsofEuropeanharmony,
Americanpopularmusic,[3]thebrassbandtradition,andAfrican
musicalelementssuchasbluenotesandAfricanAmerican
stylessuchasragtime.[1]AlthoughthefoundationofJazzis
deeplyrootedwithintheblackexperienceofAmerica,different
cultureshavecontributedtheirownexperiencetothemusic
aswhile.Jazzmusichasledintellectualsfromaroundtheworld
tohailjazzas"oneofAmerica'soriginalartforms".[4]
Asjazzspreadaroundtheworld,itdrewondifferentnational,
regional,andlocalmusicalcultures,whichgaverisetomany
distinctivestyles.NewOrleansjazzbeganintheearly1910s,
combiningearlierbrassbandmarches,Frenchquadrilles,
biguine,ragtimeandblueswithcollectivepolyphonic
improvisation.Inthe1930s,heavilyarrangeddanceoriented
swingbigbands,KansasCityjazz,ahardswinging,bluesy,
improvisationalstyleandGypsyjazz(astylethatemphasized
musettewaltzes)weretheprominentstyles.Bebopemergedin
the1940s,shiftingjazzfromdanceablepopularmusictowardsa
morechallenging"musician'smusic"whichwasplayedatfaster
temposandusedmorechordbasedimprovisation.Cooljazz
developedintheendofthe1940s,introducingcalmer,smoother
soundsandlong,linearmelodiclines.
The1950ssawtheemergenceoffreejazz,whichexplored
playingwithoutregularmeter,beatandformalstructures,andin
themid1950s,hardbopemerged,whichintroducedinfluences
fromrhythmandblues,gospelmusic,andblues,especiallyin
thesaxophoneandpianoplaying.Modaljazzdevelopedinthe
late1950s,usingthemode,ormusicalscale,asthebasisof
musicalstructureandimprovisation.Jazzrockfusionappeared
inthelate1960sandearly1970s,combiningjazzimprovisation
withrockrhythms,electricinstrumentsandthehighlyamplified
stagesoundofrock.Intheearly1980s,acommercialformof
jazzfusioncalledsmoothjazzbecamesuccessful,garnering
significantradioairplay.Otherstylesandgenresaboundinthe
2000s,suchasLatinjazzandAfroCubanjazz.
InNewOrleans,awhiteMarchBandleadernamedPapaJack
Lainewaswellknownforintergratingblacksandwhitesinhis
marchingband.Laineplayeddrums,tubaandaltohornasa
child.Heformedhisfirstbandin1888andafewyearslater
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz
Jazz
LouisArmstrong(19011971)isconsideredoneof
thepivotalmusiciansinjazzforhiscontributionsas
atrumpetplayer,composerandsinger.
Stylistic
origins
Bluesfolkmarchesragtime
classicalmusic
Cultural
origins
Late19thcenturyUnitedStates
Typical
Doublebassdrumsguitar(typically
instruments electricguitar)pianosaxophone
trumpetclarinettrombonevocals
vibraphoneHammondorgan
harmonica
.Injazzfusionofthe1970s,
electricbass,electricpianoand
synthesizerwerecommon.
Derivative
forms
Funkjumpbluesreggae
rhythmandbluesskahiphop
Subgenres
AvantgardejazzBebopBigbandChamberjazz
CooljazzECMJazzFreejazzGypsyjazz
HardBopLatinjazzMainstreamjazz
ModaljazzMBaseNeobopPostbop
SouljazzSwingThirdstreamTraditionaljazz
Fusiongenres
AcidjazzAfrobeatBluegrassCrossoverjazz
DansbandFolkjazzFreefunkHumppa
IndojazzJambandJazzcoreJazzfunk
JazzfusionJazzrapKwelaMambo
ManilaSoundNujazzNusoulPunkjazz
ShibuyakeiSkajazzSmoothjazz
SwingrevivalWorldfusion
Regionalscenes
AustraliaAzerbaijanBrazilCanadaCuba
FranceGermanyHaitiIndiaItalyJapan
MalawiNetherlandsPolandSouthAfrica
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foundedandledtheRelianceBrassBandinNewOrleans,a
SpainUnitedKingdom
groupthatlastedforoverfourdecades.Hewaslaterknownas
Othertopics
"thefatherofwhitejazz"becauseofthemanytopplayerswho
JazzclubsJazzstandardJazz(word)
passedthroughhisbands(includingGeorgeBrunies,Sharkey
BonanoandthefuturemembersoftheOriginalDixielandJazz
Band),Lainewasnottechnicallyajazzmusicianhimselfbuthewasamasterfultalentscout.Lainewouldretire
fromleadingmarchingbandsaround1917.Duringtheearly1900s,Jazzwouldbenourishedpredominatelyinthe
AfricanAmericanandmulattocommunitiesaftersegregationlaws.ItwastheredlightdistrictofStoryville,New
Orleansthatwascrucialinbringingjazzmusictoawideraudienceviatouriststotheportcity.[5]Thisareawas
governedbyTomAnderson,aselfmadebusinessmanandpoliticianwhoownednumerousrestaurants,clubsand
brothelswithinStoryville.[6]Thedistricthadexperimentinglaws[7]inregardstoprostitutionandsegregationand
manyjazzmusiciansfromtheAfricanAmericancommunitieswerehiredtoperformlivemusicinAndersons
venuesincludingmanyearlyjazzpioneerssuchasBuddyBoldenandJellyRollMorton,inadditiontothosefrom
NewOrleansothercommunitiessuchasLorenzoTioandAlcideNunez.LouisArmstrongalsogothisstartin
Storyville[8]andwouldlaterfindsuccessinChicago(alongwithothersfromNewOrleans)aftertheUnitedStates
governmentshutdownStoryvillein1917.[7]
LouisArmstrong,whosecareerspannedfromthe1920stothe1960s,observed:"Atonetimetheywerecallingit
leveecampmusic,theninmydayitwasragtime.WhenIgotupNorthIcommencedtohearaboutjazz,Chicago
style,Dixieland,swing.AllrefinementsofwhatweplayedinNewOrleans...Thereain'tnothingnew."[9]Oras
jazzmusicianJ.J.Johnsonputitina1988interview:"Jazzisrestless.Itwon'tstayputanditneverwill."[10]
Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Importanceofimprovisation
1.2 Debates
2 Etymology
3 Race
4 Roleofwomen
4.1 Women'sJazzFestival
5 History
5.1 Origins
5.1.1 BlendedAfricanandEuropeanmusicsensibilities
5.1.1.1 Africanrhythmicretention
5.1.2 "Spanishtinge"theAfroCubanrhythmicinfluence
5.2 1890s1910s
5.2.1 Ragtime
5.2.2 Blues
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5.2.2.1 Africangenesis
5.2.2.2 W.C.Handy:earlypublishedblues
5.2.2.3 WithinthecontextofWesternharmony
5.2.3 NewOrleans
5.2.3.1 Syncopation
5.2.3.2 Swing
5.2.4 Otherregions
5.3 1920sand1930s
5.3.1 JazzAge
5.3.2 Swing
5.3.3 BeginningsofEuropeanjazz
5.4 1940sand1950s
5.4.1 "Americanmusic"theinfluenceofEllington
5.4.2 Bebop
5.4.2.1 Rhythm
5.4.2.2 Harmony
5.4.3 AfroCubanjazz(cubop)
5.4.3.1 MachitoandMarioBauza
5.4.3.2 DizzyGillespieandChanoPozo
5.4.3.3 Africancrossrhythm
5.4.4 Dixielandrevival
5.4.5 Cooljazz
5.4.6 Hardbop
5.4.7 Modaljazz
5.4.8 Freejazz
5.5 1960sand1970s
5.5.1 Latinjazz
5.5.1.1 AfroCubanjazz
5.5.1.1.1 Guajeos
5.5.1.1.2 AfroCubanjazzrenaissance
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5.5.1.2 AfroBrazilianjazz
5.5.2 Postbop
5.5.3 Souljazz
5.5.4 Africaninspired
5.5.4.1 Themes
5.5.4.2 Rhythm
5.5.4.3 Pentatonicscales
5.5.5 Jazzfusion
5.5.5.1 MilesDavis'newdirections
5.5.5.2 Psychedelicjazz
5.5.5.2.1 BitchesBrew
5.5.5.2.2 HerbieHancock
5.5.5.2.3 WeatherReport
5.5.5.3 Jazzrock
5.5.6 Jazzfunk
5.5.7 Othertrends
5.6 1980s
5.6.1 Resurgenceoftraditionalism
5.6.2 Smoothjazz
5.6.3 Acidjazz,nujazzandjazzrap
5.6.4 Punkjazzandjazzcore
5.6.5 MBase
5.7 1990s2010s
6 Seealso
7 Notes
8 References
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks
Definitions
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Jazzhasprovedtobeverydifficulttodefine,sinceitencompassessuchawiderangeofmusicspanningaperiod
ofover100years,fromragtimetothe2010erarockinfused
"AmazingGrace"(jazzvocalversion)
fusion.Attemptshavebeenmadetodefinejazzfromthe
MENU
0:00
perspectiveofothermusicaltraditions,suchasEuropeanmusic
"AmazingGrace"jazzvocalversion
historyorAfricanmusic.ButcriticJoachimErnstBerendt
bytheUnitedStatesAirForceBand
arguesthatitstermsofreferenceanditsdefinitionshouldbe
broader,[11]definingjazzasa"formofartmusicwhich
Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
originatedintheUnitedStatesthroughtheconfrontationofthe
NegrowithEuropeanmusic"[12]andarguingthatitdiffersfromEuropeanmusicinthatjazzhasa"special
relationshiptotimedefinedas'swing'",involves"aspontaneityandvitalityofmusicalproductioninwhich
improvisationplaysarole"andcontainsa"sonorityandmannerofphrasingwhichmirrortheindividualityofthe
performingjazzmusician".[11]
Abroaderdefinitionthatencompassesalloftheradicallydifferenteras
ofjazzhasbeenproposedbyTravisJackson:"itismusicthatincludes
qualitiessuchasswing,improvising,groupinteraction,developingan
'individualvoice',andbeingopentodifferentmusicalpossibilities".[13]
KrinGibbardhasprovidedanoverviewofthediscussionon
definitions,arguingthat"jazzisaconstruct"that,whileartificial,still
isusefultodesignate"anumberofmusicswithenoughincommonto
beunderstoodaspartofacoherenttradition".[14]Incontrasttothe
effortsofcommentatorsandenthusiastsofcertaintypesofjazz,who
havearguedfornarrowerdefinitionsthatexcludeothertypes,the
musiciansthemselvesareoftenreluctanttodefinethemusictheyplay.
AsDukeEllington,oneofjazz'smostfamousfigures,said:"It'sall
music".[15]
DoublebassistReggieWorkman,
saxophoneplayerPharoahSanders,and
drummerIdrisMuhammadperformingin
1978
Importanceofimprovisation
Althoughjazzisconsideredhighlydifficulttodefine,atleastinpartbecauseitcontainssomanyvariedsubgenres,
improvisationisconsistentlyregardedasbeingoneofitskeyelements.Thecentralityofimprovisationinjazzis
attributedtoinfluentialearlierformsofmusic:theearlyblues,aformoffolkmusicwhicharoseinpartfromthe
worksongsandfieldhollersoftheAfricanAmericanslavesonplantations.Thesewerecommonlystructured
aroundarepetitivecallandresponsepattern,butearlyblueswasalsohighlyimprovisational.Europeanclassical
musicperformanceisevaluatedbyitsfidelitytothemusicalscore,withmuchlessdiscretionoverinterpretation,
ornamentationandaccompaniment:theclassicalperformer'sprimarygoalistoplayacompositionasitwas
written.Incontrast,jazzisoftencharacterizedastheproductofgroupcreativity,interaction,andcollaboration,
whichplacesvaryingdegreesofvalueonthecontributionsofcomposer(ifthereisone)andperformers.[16]In
jazz,theskilledperformerwillinterpretatuneinveryindividualways,neverplayingthesamecomposition
exactlythesamewaytwice:dependingupontheperformer'smoodandpersonalexperience,interactionswithother
musicians,orevenmembersoftheaudience,ajazzmusicianmayaltermelodies,harmoniesortimesignatureat
will.[17]
Theapproachtoimprovisationhasdevelopedenormouslyoverthehistoryofthemusic.InearlyNewOrleansand
Dixielandjazz,performerstookturnsplayingthemelody,whileothersimprovisedcountermelodies.Bytheswing
era,bigbandswerecomingtorelymoreonarrangedmusic:arrangementswereeitherwrittenorlearnedbyearand
memorized,whileindividualsoloistswouldimprovisewithinthesearrangements.Later,inbebopthefocusshifted
backtowardssmallgroupsandminimalarrangementsthemelodywouldbestatedbrieflyatthestartandendofa
piece,butthecoreoftheperformancewouldbetheseriesofimprovisations.Laterstylessuchasmodaljazz
abandonedthestrictnotionofachordprogression,allowingtheindividualmusicianstoimproviseevenmore
freelywithinthecontextofagivenscaleormode.Inmanyformsofjazz,asoloistisoftensupportedbyarhythm
sectionconsistingofoneormorechordalinstruments(piano,guitar,etc.),doublebassplayingthebasslinesand
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drumkit.Theseperformersprovideaccompanimentbyplayingchordsandrhythmsthatoutlinethesongstructure
andcomplementthesoloist.[18]Inavantgardeandfreejazzidioms,theseparationofsoloistandbandisreduced,
andthereislicense,orevenarequirement,fortheabandoningofchords,scalesandrhythmicmeters.
Debates
Sinceatleasttheemergenceofbebop,formsofjazzthatarecommerciallyoriented
orinfluencedbypopularmusichavebeencriticizedbypurists.AccordingtoBruce
Johnson,therehasalwaysbeena"tensionbetweenjazzasacommercialmusicand
anartform".[13]Traditionaljazzenthusiastshavedismissedbebop,freejazz,the
1970sjazzfusioneraandmuchelseasperiodsofdebasementofthemusicand
betrayalsofthetradition.Analternativeviewpointisthatjazzisabletoabsorband
transforminfluencesfromdiversemusicalstyles,[20]andthat,byavoidingthe
creationof'norms',othernewer,avantgardeformsofjazzwillbefreeto
emerge.[13]
TosomeAfricanAmericans,jazzhashighlightedtheircontributiontoAmerican
societyandhelpedbringattentiontoblackhistoryandculture,butforothers,the
musicandterm"jazz"areremindersof"anoppressiveandracistsocietyand
restrictionsontheirartisticvisions".[21]
Mostofuswould
saythatinventing
meaningwhile
lettinglooseisthe
essenceand
promiseofjazz.
Neoconservatives
wouldn'tmaybe
becausethey're
notuptoit.
RobertChristgau,The
VillageVoice[19]
Etymology
Thequestionoftheoriginofthewordjazzhasresultedinconsiderable
research,anditshistoryiswelldocumented.Thewordbegan[under
variousspellings]asWestCoastslangaround1912,themeaningofwhich
variedbutdidnotrefertomusic.Theuseofthewordinamusicalcontext
wasdocumentedasearlyas1915intheChicagoDailyTribune.[22]Itsfirst
documenteduseinamusicalcontextinNewOrleanswasinaNovember
14,1916TimesPicayunearticleabout"jasbands."[23]TheAmerican
DialectSocietynamedittheWordoftheTwentiethCentury.
Race
AmiriBarakaarguesthatthereisadistinct"whitejazz"musicgenre
AlbertGleizes,1915,Composition
expressiveofwhiteness.[24]Whitejazzmusiciansappearedintheearly
pourJazz,fromtheSolomonR.
1920sintheMidwesternUnitedStates,aswellasotherareas.Bix
GuggenheimMuseum,NewYork
[25]
Beiderbeckewasoneofthemostprominentwhitejazzmusicians. An
influentialstylereferredtoastheChicagoSchool(orChicagoStyle)was
developedbywhitemusiciansincludingBudFreeman,JimmyMcPartland.FrankTeschemacher,DaveTough,and
EddieCondon.OthersfromChicagosuchasBennyGoodmanandGeneKrupabecameleadingmembersofbig
bandswingduringthe1930s.[26]
Roleofwomen
Womenjazzperformersandcomposershavecontributedthroughoutjazzhistory.WhilewomensuchasBillie
HolidayandEllaFitzgeraldarefamousfortheirjazzsinging,womenhaveachievedmuchlessrecognitionfortheir
contributionsascomposers,bandleadersandinstrumentalperformers.Othernotablejazzwomenincludepiano
playerLilHardinArmstrongandjazzsongwritersIreneHigginbotham(19181988)andDorothyFields(1905
1974).Womenbeganplayinginstrumentsinjazzintheearly1920s,withthepianobeingoneoftheearliest
instrumentsusedwhichallowedfemaleartistsadegreeofsocialacceptance.[28]Somewellknownartistsofthe
timeconsistsofSweetEmmaBarrett,MaryLouWilliams,BilliePierce,JeanetteKimballandLovieAustin.
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WhenthemenweredraftedforWWII,manyallwomenbigbandjazzbandstook
over.[28]However,withtheracialdivisionsthatwereatthattimepartofsociety,
therewasnorealbandthatanyonesocietylistenedto.TheInternationalSweethearts
ofRhythmwasawellknowngroupofthisera.Thedresscodesoftheerarequired
womentowearstraplessdressesandhighheeledshoes,whichwassomewhatofa
hindrancetotheintegrationofwomenintobandsofsuitwearingmen.Nevertheless,
womenwerehiredintomanyofthebigleaguebigbandssuchasWoodyHerman
andGeraldWilson'sgroups.
Women'sJazzFestival
Dr.BillyTaylor(19212010),theKennedyCenter'sArtisticDirectorforjazz,
createdtheWomen'sJazzFestival,Itwasdedicatedtothecomposerandpianist
MaryLouWilliams,inhonorofherextraordinarytalent.[29]TheMaryLouWilliams
JazzFestivalhasexistedforsixteenyears,showcasingwomenofanyageorrace.
History
Jazzoriginatedinthelate19thtoearly20thcenturyasinterpretationsofAmerican
andEuropeanclassicalmusicentwinedwithAfricanandslavefolksongsandthe
influencesofWestAfricanculture.[30]Itscompositionandstylehavechangedmany
timesthroughouttheyearswitheachperformer'spersonalinterpretationand
improvisation,whichisalsooneofthegreatestappealsofthegenre.[31]
LovieAustin(18871972)
wasanAmericanChicago
basedbandleader,session
musician(piano),
composer,singer,and
arrangerduringthe1920s
classicbluesera.Sheand
LilHardinArmstrongare
oftenrankedastwoofthe
bestfemalejazzblues
pianoplayersofthe
period.[27]
Origins
BlendedAfricanandEuropeanmusicsensibilities
By1866,theAtlanticslavetradehadbroughtnearly400,000AfricanstoNorthAmerica.[32][33]Theslavescame
largelyfromWestAfricaandthegreaterCongoRiverbasin,andbroughtstrongmusicaltraditionswiththem.[34]
TheAfricantraditionsprimarilymakeuseofasinglelinemelodyandcallandresponsepattern,andtherhythms
haveacountermetricstructureandreflectAfricanspeechpatterns.
LavishfestivalsfeaturingAfricanbaseddancestodrumswereorganizedon
SundaysatPlaceCongo,orCongoSquare,inNewOrleansuntil1843.[35]
Therearehistoricalaccountsofothermusicanddancegatherings
elsewhereinthesouthernUnitedStates.RobertPalmersaidofpercussive
slavemusic:
Usuallysuchmusicwasassociatedwithannualfestivals,when
theyear'scropwasharvestedandseveraldaysweresetaside
forcelebration.Aslateas1861,atravelerinNorthCarolina
sawdancersdressedincostumesthatincludedhorned
headdressesandcowtailsandheardmusicprovidedbya
sheepskincovered"gumbobox",apparentlyaframedrum
trianglesandjawbonesfurnishedtheauxiliarypercussion.
Therearequiteafew[accounts]fromthesoutheasternstates
andLouisianadatingfromtheperiod18201850.Someofthe
earliest[Mississippi]Deltasettlerscamefromthevicinityof
NewOrleans,wheredrummingwasneveractivelydiscouraged
forverylongandhomemadedrumswereusedtoaccompany
publicdancinguntiltheoutbreakoftheCivilWar.[36]
DanceinCongoSquareinthelate
1700s,artist'sconceptionbyE.W.
Kemblefromacenturylater.
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Anotherinfluencecamefromtheharmonicstyleofhymnsofthechurch,
whichblackslaveshadlearnedandincorporatedintotheirownmusicas
spirituals.[37]Theoriginsofthebluesareundocumented,thoughtheycan
beseenasthesecularcounterpartofthespirituals.However,asGerhard
Kubikpointsout,whereasthespiritualsarehomophonic,ruralbluesand
earlyjazz"waslargelybasedonconceptsofheterophony."[38]
Duringtheearly19thcenturyanincreasingnumberofblackmusicians
learnedtoplayEuropeaninstruments,particularlytheviolin,whichthey
usedtoparodyEuropeandancemusicintheirowncakewalkdances.In
turn,EuropeanAmericanminstrelshowperformersinblackface
popularizedthemusicinternationally,combiningsyncopationwith
Europeanharmonicaccompaniment.Inthemid1800sthewhiteNew
OrleanscomposerLouisMoreauGottschalkadaptedslaverhythmsand
melodiesfromCubaandotherCaribbeanislandsintopianosalonmusic.
NewOrleanswasthemainnexusbetweentheAfroCaribbeanandAfrican
Americancultures.
Inthelate18thcenturypaintingThe
OldPlantation,AfricanAmericans
dancetobanjoandpercussion.
Africanrhythmicretention
The"BlackCodes"outlaweddrummingbyslaves,whichmeantthat
AfricandrummingtraditionswerenotpreservedinNorthAmerica,unlike
inCuba,Haiti,andelsewhereintheCaribbean.Africanbasedrhythmic
patternswereretainedintheUnitedStatesinlargepartthrough"body
rhythms"suchasstomping,clapping,andpattingjuba.[39]
TheblackfaceVirginiaMinstrelsin
1843,featuringtambourine,fiddle,
banjoandbones.
IntheopinionofjazzhistorianErnestBorneman,whatprecededNew
Orleansjazzbefore1890was"AfroLatinmusic",similartowhatwasplayedintheCaribbeanatthetime.[40]A
threestrokepatternknowninCubanmusicastresilloisafundamentalrhythmicfigureheardinmanydifferent
slavemusicsoftheCaribbean,aswellastheAfroCaribbeanfolkdancesperformedinNewOrleansCongoSquare
andGottschalk'scompositions(forexample"SouvenirsFromHavana"(1859)).Tresilloisthemostbasicandmost
prevalentduplepulserhythmiccellinsubSaharanAfricanmusictraditionsandthemusicoftheAfrican
Diaspora.[41][42]
Tresillo.[43][44] Play
TresilloisheardprominentlyinNewOrleanssecondlinemusicandinotherformsofpopularmusicfromthatcity
fromtheturnofthe20thcenturytopresent.[45]"ByandlargethesimplerAfricanrhythmicpatternssurvivedin
jazz...becausetheycouldbeadaptedmorereadilytoEuropeanrhythmicconceptions,"theJazzhistorianGunther
Schullerobserved."Somesurvived,otherswerediscardedastheEuropeanizationprogressed."[46]
InthepostCivilWarperiod(after1865),AfricanAmericanswereabletoobtainsurplusmilitarybassdrums,snare
drumsandfifes,andanoriginalAfricanAmericandrumandfifemusicemerged,featuringtresilloandrelated
syncopatedrhythmicfigures.[47]ThiswasadrummingtraditionthatwasdistinctfromitsCaribbeancounterparts,
expressingauniquelyAfricanAmericansensibility."Thesnareandbassdrummersplayedsyncopatedcross
rhythms,"observedthewriterRobertPalmer(writer),speculatingthat"thistraditionmusthavedatedbacktothe
latterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,anditcouldhavenothavedevelopedinthefirstplaceiftherehadn'tbeena
reservoirofpolyrhythmicsophisticationinthecultureitnurtured."[48]
"Spanishtinge"theAfroCubanrhythmicinfluence
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AfricanAmericanmusicbeganincorporatingAfroCubanrhythmicmotifsinthe19thcentury,whenthehabanera
(Cubancontradanza)gainedinternationalpopularity.[49]MusiciansfromHavanaandNewOrleanswouldtakethe
twicedailyferrybetweenbothcitiestoperform,andthehabaneraquicklytookrootinthemusicallyfertile
CrescentCity.JohnStormRobertsstatesthatthemusicalgenrehabanera"reachedtheU.S.twentyyearsbeforethe
firstragwaspublished."[50]Forthemorethanquartercenturyinwhichthecakewalk,ragtime,andprotojazzwere
forminganddeveloping,thehabanerawasaconsistentpartofAfricanAmericanpopularmusic.[51]
Habaneraswerewidelyavailableassheetmusic,andwerethefirstwrittenmusicwhichwasrhythmicallybasedon
anAfricanmotif(1803),[52]FromtheperspectiveofAfricanAmericanmusic,thehabanerarhythm(alsoknown
ascongo,[53]tangocongo,[54]ortango.[55])canbethoughtofasacombinationoftresilloandthebackbeat.[56]The
habanerawasthefirstofmanyCubanmusicgenreswhichenjoyedperiodsofpopularityintheUnitedStates,and
reinforcedandinspiredtheuseoftresillobasedrhythmsinAfricanAmericanmusic.
Habanerarhythmwrittenasacombination
oftresillo(bottomnotes)withthebackbeat
(topnote). Play
NewOrleansnativeLouisMoreauGottschalk'spianopiece"OjosCriollos(DanseCubaine)"(1860)was
influencedbythecomposer'sstudiesinCuba:thehabanerarhythmisclearlyheardinthelefthand.[57]In
Gottschalk'ssymphonicwork"ANightintheTropics"(1859),thetresillovariantcinquilloappearsextensively.[58]
ThefigurewaslaterusedbyScottJoplinandotherragtimecomposers.
Cinquillo. Play
ComparingthemusicofNewOrleanswiththemusicofCuba,WyntonMarsalisobservesthattresilloistheNew
Orleans"clave",aSpanishwordmeaning'code'or'key',asinthekeytoapuzzle,ormystery.[59]Although
technicallythepatternisonlyhalfaclave,Marsalismakesthepointthatthesinglecelledfigureistheguide
patternofNewOrleansmusic.JellyRollMortoncalledtherhythmicfiguretheSpanishtinge,andconsidereditan
essentialingredientofjazz.[60]
1890s1910s
Ragtime
Theabolitionofslaveryin1865ledtonewopportunitiesfortheeducationoffreedAfricanAmericans.Although
strictsegregationlimitedemploymentopportunitiesformostblacks,manywereabletofindworkinentertainment.
Blackmusicianswereabletoprovideentertainmentindances,minstrelshows,andinvaudeville,duringwhich
timemanymarchingbandswereformed.Blackpianistsplayedinbars,clubsandbrothels,asragtime
developed.[61][62]
Ragtimeappearedassheetmusic,popularizedbyAfricanAmericanmusicianssuchastheentertainerErnest
Hogan,whosehitsongsappearedin1895.Twoyearslater,VessOssmanrecordedamedleyofthesesongsasa
banjosoloknownas"RagTimeMedley".[63][64]Alsoin1897,thewhitecomposerWilliamH.Krellpublishedhis
"MississippiRag"asthefirstwrittenpianoinstrumentalragtimepiece,andTomTurpinpublishedhis"Harlem
Rag",thefirstragpublishedbyanAfricanAmerican.
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TheclassicallytrainedpianistScottJoplinproducedhis"OriginalRags"in1898,
andin1899hadaninternationalhitwith"MapleLeafRag",amultistrainragtime
marchwithfourpartsthatfeaturerecurringthemesandabasslinewithcopious
seventhchords.Itsstructurewasthebasisformanyotherrags,andthe
syncopationsintherighthand,especiallyinthetransitionbetweenthefirstand
secondstrain,werenovelatthetime.[65]
ScottJoplinin1903
Excerptfrom"MapleLeafRag"byScottJoplin(1899).Seventh
chordresolution.[66] Play.Notethattheseventhresolvesdownby
halfstep.
Africanbasedrhythmicpatternssuchastresilloanditsvariants,thehabanerarhythmandcinquillo,areheardin
theragtimecompositionsofJoplin,Turpin,andothers.Joplin's"Solace"(1909)isgenerallyconsideredtobe
withinthehabaneragenre:[53][67]bothofthepianist'shandsplayinasyncopatedfashion,completelyabandoning
anysenseofamarchrhythm.NedSublettepostulatesthatthetresillo/habanerarhythm"founditswayintoragtime
andthecakewalk,"[68]whilstRobertssuggeststhat"thehabanerainfluencemayhavebeenpartofwhatfreedblack
musicfromragtime'sEuropeanbass."[69]
Blues
Africangenesis
Bluesisthenamegiventobothamusicalformandamusic
genre,[70]whichoriginatedinAfricanAmericancommunitiesof
primarilythe"DeepSouth"oftheUnitedStatesattheendofthe
19thcenturyfromtheirspirituals,worksongs,fieldhollers,shouts
andchantsandrhymedsimplenarrativeballads.[71]
TheAfricanuseofpentatonicscalescontributedtothe
developmentofbluenotesinbluesandjazz.[72]AsKubik
explains:
Playbluesscaleor pentatonicscale
ManyoftheruralbluesoftheDeepSouthare
stylisticallyanextensionandmergerofbasicallytwo
broadaccompaniedsongstyletraditionsinthewest
centralSudanicbelt:
AstronglyArabic/Islamicsongstyle,asfound
forexampleamongtheHausa.Itis
characterizedbymelisma,wavyintonation,
pitchinstabilitieswithinapentatonic
framework,andadeclamatoryvoice.
AnancientwestcentralSudanicstratumof
pentatonicsongcomposition,oftenassociated
withsimpleworkrhythmsinaregularmeter,
butwithnotableoffbeataccents(1999:94).[73]
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W.C.Handy:earlypublishedblues
W.C.HandybecameintriguedbythefolkbluesoftheDeepSouthwhilsttraveling
throughtheMississippiDelta.Inthisfolkbluesform,thesingerwouldimprovise
freelywithinalimitedmelodicrange,soundinglikeafieldholler,andtheguitar
accompanimentwasslappedratherthanstrummed,likeasmalldrumwhich
respondedinsyncopatedaccents,functioningasanother"voice".[74]Handyandhis
bandmemberswereformallytrainedAfricanAmericanmusicianswhohadnot
grownupwiththeblues,yethewasabletoadaptthebluestoalargerband
instrumentformat,andarrangetheminapopularmusicform.
Handywroteabouthisadoptingoftheblues:
TheprimitivesouthernNegro,ashesang,wassuretobeardownonthe
thirdandseventhtoneofthescale,slurringbetweenmajorandminor.
WhetherinthecottonfieldoftheDeltaorontheLeveeupSt.Louis
way,itwasalwaysthesame.Tillthen,however,Ihadneverheardthis
slurusedbyamoresophisticatedNegro,orbyanywhiteman.Itriedto
conveythiseffect...byintroducingflatthirdsandsevenths(nowcalled
bluenotes)intomysong,althoughitsprevailingkeywasmajor...,andI
carriedthisdeviceintomymelodyaswell.[75]
WCHandyage19,1892
Thepublicationofhis"MemphisBlues"sheetmusicin1912introducedthe12barbluestotheworld(although
GuntherSchullerarguesthatitisnotreallyablues,but"morelikeacakewalk"[76]).Thiscomposition,aswellas
hislater"St.LouisBlues"andothers,includedthehabanerarhythm,[77]andwouldbecomejazzstandards.Handy's
musiccareerbeganintheprejazzera,andcontributedtothecodificationofjazzthroughthepublicationofsome
ofthefirstjazzsheetmusic.
WithinthecontextofWesternharmony
Thebluesformwhichisubiquitousinjazzischaracterizedbyspecificchordprogressions,ofwhichthetwelvebar
bluesprogressionisthemostcommon.Animportantpartofthesoundarethebluenoteswhich,forexpressive
purposes,aresungorplayedflattened,orgraduallybent(minor3rdtomajor3rd)inrelationtothepitchofthe
majorscale.TheblueswerethekeythatopenedupanentirelynewapproachtoWesternharmony,ultimately
leadingtoahighlevelofharmoniccomplexityinjazz.
NewOrleans
ThemusicofNewOrleanshadaprofoundeffectonthecreationofearly
jazz.Manyearlyjazzperformersplayedinvenuesthroughoutthecity,such
asthebrothelsandbarsoftheredlightdistrictaroundBasinStreet,known
as"Storyville".[78]Inadditiontodancebands,therewerenumerous
marchingbandswhoplayedatlavishfunerals(latercalledjazzfunerals),
whichwerearrangedbytheAfricanAmericanandEuropeanAmerican
communities.Theinstrumentsusedinmarchingbandsanddancebands
becamethebasicinstrumentsofjazz:brass,reedstunedintheEuropean
12tonescale,anddrums.Smallbandswhichmixedselftaughtandwell
TheBoldenBandaround1905.
educatedAfricanAmericanmusicians,manyofwhomcamefromthe
funeralprocessiontraditionofNewOrleans,playedaseminalroleinthe
developmentanddisseminationofearlyjazz.ThesebandstravelledthroughoutBlackcommunitiesintheDeep
Southand,fromaround1914onwards,AfroCreoleandAfricanAmericanmusiciansplayedinvaudevilleshows
whichtookjazztowesternandnorthernUScities.[79]
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Syncopation
ThecornetistBuddyBoldenledabandwhoareoftenmentionedasoneoftheprimeoriginatorsofthestylelaterto
becalled"jazz".HeplayedinNewOrleansaround18951906,beforedevelopingamentalillnessthereareno
recordingsofhimplaying.Bolden'sbandiscreditedwithcreatingthebigfour,thefirstsyncopatedbassdrum
patterntodeviatefromthestandardonthebeatmarch.[80]Astheexamplebelowshows,thesecondhalfofthebig
fourpatternisthehabanerarhythm.
BuddyBolden's"bigfour"pattern.[81] Play
AfroCreolepianistJellyRollMortonbeganhiscareerinStoryville.From1904,he
touredwithvaudevilleshowsaroundsoutherncities,alsoplayinginChicagoand
NewYork.In1905hecomposedhis"JellyRollBlues",whichonitspublicationin
1915becamethefirstjazzarrangementinprint,introducingmoremusicianstothe
NewOrleansstyle.[82]
Mortonconsideredthetresillo/habanera(whichhecalledtheSpanishtinge)tobe
anessentialingredientofjazz.[83]Inhisownwords:
Mortonpublished"JellyRoll
Blues"in1915,thefirstjazz
workinprint.
Nowinoneofmyearliesttunes,"NewOrleansBlues,"youcannotice
theSpanishtinge.Infact,ifyoucan'tmanagetoputtingesofSpanish
inyourtunes,youwillneverbeabletogettherightseasoning,Icallit,
forjazz.[60]
ExcerptfromJellyRollMorton's"NewOrleansBlues"(c.1902).Theleft
handplaysthetresillorhythm.Therighthandplaysvariationsoncinquillo.
Play
Mortonwasacrucialinnovatorintheevolutionfromtheearlyjazzformknownasragtimetojazzpiano,andcould
performpiecesineitherstylein1938,MortonmadeaseriesofrecordingsfortheLibraryofCongress,inwhich
hedemonstratedthedifferencebetweenthetwostyles.Morton'ssoloshoweverwerestillclosetoragtime,and
werenotmerelyimprovisationsoverchordchangesasinlaterjazzbuthisuseoftheblueswasofequal
importance.
Swing
Mortonloosenedragtime'srigidrhythmicfeeling,decreasingitsembellishmentsandemployingaswing
feeling.[84]SwingisthemostimportantandenduringAfricanbasedrhythmictechniqueusedinjazz.Anoft
quoteddefinitionofswingbyLouisArmstrongis:"ifyoudon'tfeelit,you'llneverknowit."[85]TheNewHarvard
DictionaryofMusicstatesthatswingis:"Anintangiblerhythmicmomentuminjazz...Swingdefiesanalysis
claimstoitspresencemayinspirearguments."Thedictionarydoesnonethelessprovidetheusefuldescriptionof
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triplesubdivisionsofthebeatcontrastedwithduple
subdivisions:[86]swingsuperimposessixsubdivisionsofthebeat
overabasicpulsestructureorfoursubdivisions.Thisaspectof
swingisfarmoreprevalentinAfricanAmericanmusicthanin
AfroCaribbeanmusic.Oneaspectofswing,whichisheardin
morerhythmicallycomplexDiasporamusics,placesstrokesin
betweenthetripleandduplepulse"grids".[87]
Bottom:evenduplesubdivisionsofthebeat.
Top:swungcorrelativecontrastingofduple
andtriplesubdivisionsofthebeat. Play
straightdrumpatternor Playswungpattern
NewOrleansbrassbandsarealastinginfluence,contributinghorn
playerstotheworldofprofessionaljazzwiththedistinctsoundof
thecitywhilsthelpingblackchildrenescapepoverty.Theleaderof
NewOrleans'CameliaBrassBand,D'JalmaGanier,taughtLouisArmstrongtoplaytrumpetArmstrongwould
thenpopularizetheNewOrleansstyleoftrumpetplaying,andthenexpandit.LikeJellyRollMorton,Armstrong
isalsocreditedwiththeabandonmentofragtime'sstiffnessinfavorofswungnotes.Armstrong,perhapsmorethan
anyothermusician,codifiedtherhythmictechniqueofswinginjazz,andbroadenedthejazzsolovocabulary.[88]
TheOriginalDixielandJassBandmadethemusic'sfirstrecordingsearlyin1917,
andtheir"LiveryStableBlues"becametheearliestreleasedjazz
record.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95]Thatyear,numerousotherbandsmaderecordings
featuring"jazz"inthetitleorbandname,butmostwereragtimeornoveltyrecords
ratherthanjazz.InFebruary1918duringWorldWarI,JamesReeseEurope's
"Hellfighters"infantrybandtookragtimetoEurope,[96]thenontheirreturn
recordedDixielandstandardsincluding"DarktownStrutters'Ball".[97]
Otherregions
Sheetmusicfor"Livery
StableBlues"/"Barnyard
Blues"bytheOriginal
DixielandJazzBand,Leo
Feist,Inc.,NewYork,
copyright1917.
InthenortheasternUnitedStates,a"hot"styleofplayingragtimehaddeveloped,
notablyJamesReeseEurope'ssymphonicClefCluborchestrainNewYork,which
playedabenefitconcertatCarnegieHallin1912.[97][98]TheBaltimoreragstyleof
EubieBlakeinfluencedJamesP.Johnson'sdevelopmentofstridepianoplaying,in
whichtherighthandplaysthemelody,whilethelefthandprovidestherhythmand
bassline.[99]
InOhioandelsewhereinthemidwestthemajorinfluencewasragtime,untilabout
1919.Around1912,whenthefourstringbanjoandsaxophonecamein,musicians
begantoimprovisethemelodyline,buttheharmonyandrhythmremainedunchanged.Acontemporaryaccount
statesthatbluescouldonlybeheardinjazzinthegutbucketcabarets,whichweregenerallylookeddownuponby
theBlackmiddleclass.[100]
1920sand1930s
JazzAge
From1920to1933ProhibitionintheUnitedStatesbannedthe
saleofalcoholicdrinks,resultinginillicitspeakeasieswhich
becamelivelyvenuesofthe"JazzAge",hostingpopularmusic
includingcurrentdancesongs,noveltysongsandshowtunes.
JazzMeBlues
0:00
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TheOriginalDixielandJassBand
performing"JazzMeBlues",an
exampleofajazzpiecefrom1921.
Jazzbegantogetareputationasbeingimmoral,andmany
membersoftheoldergenerationssawitasthreateningtheold
Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
culturalvaluesandpromotingthenewdecadentvaluesofthe
Roaring20s.ProfessorHenryvanDykeofPrincetonUniversitywrote:"...itisnotmusicatall.It'smerelyan
irritationofthenervesofhearing,asensualteasingofthestringsofphysicalpassion."[101]Themediatoobeganto
denigratejazz.TheNewYorkTimesusedstoriesandheadlinestopickatjazz:Siberianvillagersweresaidbythe
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papertohaveusedjazztoscareoffbears,wheninfacttheyhadusedpots
andpansanotherstoryclaimedthatthefatalheartattackofacelebrated
conductorwascausedbyjazz.[101]
From1919,KidOry'sOriginalCreoleJazzBandofmusiciansfromNew
OrleansplayedinSanFranciscoandLosAngeles,wherein1922they
becamethefirstblackjazzbandofNewOrleansorigintomake
recordings.[102][103]ThatyearalsosawthefirstrecordingbyBessieSmith,
themostfamousofthe1920sbluessingers.[104]Chicagomeanwhilewas
themaincenterdevelopingthenew"HotJazz",whereKingOliverjoined
BillJohnson.BixBeiderbeckeformedTheWolverinesin1924.
TheKing&CarterJazzingOrchestra
photographedinHouston,Texas,
January1921.
In1924,LouisArmstrongjoinedtheFletcherHendersondancebandfora
year,asfeaturedsoloist.TheoriginalNewOrleansstylewaspolyphonic,withthemevariationandsimultaneous
collectiveimprovisation.Armstrongwasamasterofhishometownstyle,butbythetimehejoinedHenderson's
band,hewasalreadyatrailblazerinanewphaseofjazz,withitsemphasisonarrangementsandsoloists.
Armstrong'ssoloswentwellbeyondthethemeimprovisationconcept,andextemporizedonchords,ratherthan
melodies.AccordingtoSchuller,bycomparison,thesolosbyArmstrong'sbandmates(includingayoungColeman
Hawkins),sounded"stiff,stodgy,"with"jerkyrhythmsandagreyundistinguishedtonequality."[105]The
followingexampleshowsashortexcerptofthestraightmelodyof"Mandy,MakeUpYourMind"byGeorgeW.
MeyerandArthurJohnston(top),comparedwithArmstrong'ssoloimprovisations(below)(recorded1924).[106]
(TheexampleapproximatesArmstrong'ssolo,asitdoesn'tconveyhisuseofswing.)
Top:excerptfromthestraightmelodyof"Mandy,MakeUpYourMind"by
GeorgeW.Meyer&ArthurJohnston.Bottom:correspondingsoloexcerptby
LouisArmstrong(1924).
Armstrong'ssoloswereasignificantfactorinmakingjazzatrue20thcenturylanguage.AfterleavingHenderson's
group,ArmstrongformedhisvirtuosicHotFiveband,wherehepopularizedscatsinging.[107]
JellyRollMortonrecordedwiththeNewOrleansRhythmKingsinanearlymixedracecollaboration,thenin1926
formedhisRedHotPeppers.Therewasalargermarketforjazzydancemusicplayedbywhiteorchestras,suchas
JeanGoldkette'sorchestraandPaulWhiteman'sorchestra.In1924WhitemancommissionedGershwin'sRhapsody
inBlue,whichwaspremieredbyWhiteman'sOrchestra.Bythemid1920s,Whitemanwasthemostpopular
bandleaderintheU.S.Hissuccesswasbasedona"rhetoricofdomestication"accordingtowhichhehadelevated
andrenderedvaluableapreviouslyinchoatekindofmusic.[108]OtherinfluentiallargeensemblesincludedFletcher
Henderson'sband,DukeEllington'sband(whichopenedaninfluentialresidencyattheCottonClubin1927)in
NewYork,andEarlHines'BandinChicago(whoopenedinTheGrandTerraceCafetherein1928).All
significantlyinfluencedthedevelopmentofbigbandstyleswingjazz.[109]By1930,theNewOrleansstyle
ensemblewasarelic,andjazzbelongedtotheworld.[110]
Swing
The1930sbelongedtopopularswingbigbands,inwhichsomevirtuososoloistsbecameasfamousastheband
leaders.Keyfiguresindevelopingthe"big"jazzbandincludedbandleadersandarrangersCountBasie,Cab
Calloway,JimmyandTommyDorsey,DukeEllington,BennyGoodman,FletcherHenderson,EarlHines,Glenn
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Miller,ArtieShaw,andHarryJames.Althoughitwasacollectivesound,
swingalsoofferedindividualmusiciansachanceto"solo"andimprovise
melodic,thematicsoloswhichcouldattimesbeverycomplexand
"important"music.
Swingwasalsodancemusic.Itwasbroadcastontheradio"live"nightly
acrossAmericaformanyyears,especiallybyEarlHinesandhisGrand
TerraceCafeOrchestrabroadcastingcoasttocoastfromChicago[111](well
placedfor"live"UStimezones).
BennyGoodman(1943)
Overtime,socialstricturesregardingracialsegregationbegantorelaxin
America:whitebandleadersbegantorecruitblackmusiciansandblack
bandleaderswhiteones.Inthemid1930s,BennyGoodmanhiredpianistTeddyWilson,vibraphonistLionel
HamptonandguitaristCharlieChristiantojoinsmallgroups.Inthe1930s,KansasCityJazzasexemplifiedby
tenorsaxophonistLesterYoungmarkedthetransitionfrombigbandstothebebopinfluenceofthe1940s.Anearly
1940sstyleknownas"jumpingtheblues"orjumpbluesusedsmallcombos,uptempomusicandblueschord
progressions,drawingonboogiewoogiefromthe1930s.
BeginningsofEuropeanjazz
AsonlyalimitedamountofAmericanjazzrecordswerereleasedinEurope,Europeanjazztracesmanyofitsroots
toAmericanartistssuchasJamesReeseEurope,PaulWhitemanandLonnieJohnson,whovisitedEuropeduring
andafterWorldWarI.ItwastheirliveperformanceswhichinspiredEuropeanaudiences'interestinjazz,aswell
astheinterestinallthingsAmerican(andthereforeexotic)whichaccompaniedtheeconomicandpoliticalwoesof
Europeduringthistime.[112]ThebeginningsofadistinctEuropeanstyleofjazzbegantoemergeinthisinterwar
period.
ThisdistinctstyleenteredfullswinginFrancewiththeQuintetteduHotClubdeFrance,whichbeganin1934.
MuchofthisFrenchjazzwasacombinationofAfricanAmericanjazzandthesymphonicstylesinwhichFrench
musicianswerewelltrainedinthis,itiseasytoseetheinspirationtakenfromPaulWhiteman,sincehisstylewas
alsoafusionofthetwo.[113]BelgianguitarvirtuosoDjangoReinhardtpopularizedgypsyjazz,amixof1930s
Americanswing,Frenchdancehall"musette"andEasternEuropeanfolkwithalanguid,seductivefeelthemain
instrumentsaresteelstringedguitar,violin,anddoublebass,andsolospassfromoneplayertoanotherasthe
guitarandbassplaytheroleoftherhythmsection.SomemusicresearchersholdthatitwasPhiladelphia'sEddie
LangandJoeVenutiwhopioneeredtheguitarviolinpartnershiptypicalofthegenre,[114]whichwasbroughtto
FranceaftertheyhadbeenheardliveoronOkehRecordsinthelate1920s.[115]
1940sand1950s
"Americanmusic"theinfluenceofEllington
Bythe1940s,DukeEllington'smusichadtranscendedtheboundsofswing,bridgingjazzandartmusicina
naturalsynthesis.Ellingtoncalledhismusic"AmericanMusic"ratherthanjazz,andlikedtodescribethosewho
impressedhimas"beyondcategory."[116]Theseincludedmanyofthemusicianswhoweremembersofhis
orchestra,someofwhomareconsideredamongthebestinjazzintheirownright,butitwasEllingtonwhomelded
themintooneofthemostwellknownjazzorchestralunitsinthehistoryofjazz.Heoftencomposedspecifically
forthestyleandskillsoftheseindividuals,suchas"Jeep'sBlues"forJohnnyHodges,"ConcertoforCootie"for
CootieWilliams(whichlaterbecame"DoNothingTillYouHearfromMe"withBobRussell'slyrics),and"The
Mooche"forTrickySamNantonandBubberMiley.Healsorecordedsongswrittenbyhisbandsmen,suchasJuan
Tizol's"Caravan"and"Perdido",whichbroughtthe"SpanishTinge"tobigbandjazz.Severalmembersofthe
orchestraremainedwithhimforseveraldecades.Thebandreachedacreativepeakintheearly1940s,when
Ellingtonandasmallhandpickedgroupofhiscomposersandarrangerswroteforanorchestraofdistinctive
voiceswhodisplayedtremendouscreativity.[117]
Bebop
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Intheearly1940s,bebopstyleperformersbegantoshiftjazzfromdanceable
popularmusictowardsamorechallenging"musician'smusic."Themostinfluential
bebopmusiciansincludedsaxophonistCharlieParker,pianistsBudPowelland
TheloniousMonk,trumpetersDizzyGillespieandCliffordBrown,anddrummer
MaxRoach.Divorcingitselffromdancemusic,bebopestablisheditselfmoreasan
artform,thuslesseningitspotentialpopularandcommercialappeal.
ComposerGuntherSchullerwrote:
DukeEllingtonatthe
HurricaneClub(1943)
...In1943IheardthegreatEarlHines
bandwhichhadBirdinitandallthose
othergreatmusicians.Theywere
playingalltheflattedfifthchordsand
allthemodernharmoniesand
substitutionsandDizzyGillespieruns
inthetrumpetsectionwork.Twoyears
laterIreadthatthatwas'bop'andthe
beginningofmodernjazz...butthe
bandnevermaderecordings.[118]
EarlHines1947
DizzyGillespiewrote:
TheloniousMonkat
Minton'sPlayhouse,1947,
NewYorkCity.
...PeopletalkabouttheHinesbandbeing'theincubatorofbop'andthe
leadingexponentsofthatmusicendedupintheHinesband.But
peoplealsohavetheerroneousimpressionthatthemusicwasnew.It
wasnot.Themusicevolvedfromwhatwentbefore.Itwasthesame
basicmusic.Thedifferencewasinhowyougotfromheretohereto
here...naturallyeachagehasgotitsownshit.[119]
Rhythm
Sincebebopwasmeanttobelistenedto,notdancedto,itcouldusefastertempos.Drummingshiftedtoamore
elusiveandexplosivestyle,inwhichtheridecymbalwasusedtokeeptimewhilethesnareandbassdrumwere
usedforaccents.Thisledtoahighlysyncopatedlinearrhythmiccomplexity.[120]
Harmony
Bebopmusiciansemployedseveralharmonicdeviceswhichwerenotpreviouslytypicalinjazz,engagingina
moreabstractedformofchordbasedimprovisation.Bebopscalesaretraditionalscaleswithanaddedchromatic
passingnote[121]bebopalsouses"passing"chords,substitutechords,andalteredchords.Newformsof
chromaticismanddissonancewereintroducedintojazz,andthedissonanttritone(or"flattedfifth")interval
becamethe"mostimportantintervalofbebop"[122]Chordprogressionsforbeboptuneswereoftentakendirectly
frompopularswingerasongsandreusedwithanewandmorecomplexmelodytoformnewcompositions,a
practicewhichwasalreadywellestablishedinearlierjazz,butcametobecentraltothebebopstyle.Bebopmade
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useofseveralrelativelycommonchordprogressions,suchasblues(atbase,IIV
V,butinfusedwithIIVmotion)and'rhythmchanges'(IVIIIV)thechordsto
the1930spopstandard"IGotRhythm."Latebopalsomovedtowardsextended
formsthatrepresentedadeparturefrompopandshowtunes.
Theharmonicdevelopmentinbebopisoftentracedbacktoatranscendentmoment
experiencedbyCharlieParkerwhileperforming"Cherokee"atClarkMonroe's
UptownHouse,NewYork,inearly1942:
CharlieParker,Tommy
Potter,MilesDavis,Max
Roach(Gottlieb06941)
I'dbeengettingboredwiththestereotypedchangesthatwerebeing
used,...andIkeptthinkingthere'sboundtobesomethingelse.Icould
hearitsometimes.Icouldn'tplayit....Iwasworkingover'Cherokee,'
and,asIdid,Ifoundthatbyusingthehigherintervalsofachordasa
melodylineandbackingthemwithappropriatelyrelatedchanges,I
couldplaythethingI'dbeenhearing.ItcamealiveParker.[123]
GerhardKubikpostulatesthattheharmonicdevelopmentinbebopsprangfromthebluesandotherAfricanrelated
tonalsensibilities,ratherthan20thcenturyWesternartmusicassomehavesuggested:
AuditoryinclinationsweretheAfricanlegacyin[Parker's]life,reconfirmedbytheexperienceofthe
bluestonalsystem,asoundworldatoddswiththeWesterndiatonicchordcategories.Bebop
musicianseliminatedWesternstylefunctionalharmonyintheirmusicwhileretainingthestrong
centraltonalityofthebluesasabasisfordrawinguponvariousAfricanmatrices.[124]
SamuelFloydstatesthatblueswereboththebedrockandpropellingforceofbebop,bringingaboutthreemain
developments:
Anewharmonicconception,usingextendedchordstructuresthatledtounprecedentedharmonicand
melodicvariety.
Adevelopedandevenmorehighlysyncopated,linearrhythmiccomplexityandamelodicangularityin
whichthebluenoteofthefifthdegreewasestablishedasanimportantmelodicharmonicdevice.
Thereestablishmentofthebluesasthemusic'sprimaryorganizingandfunctionalprinciple.[120]
AsKubikexplained:
Whileforanoutsideobserver,theharmonicinnovationsinbebopwouldappeartobeinspiredby
experiencesinWestern"serious"music,fromClaudeDebussytoArnoldSchoenberg,suchascheme
cannotbesustainedbytheevidencefromacognitiveapproach.ClaudeDebussydidhavesome
influenceonjazz,forexample,onBixBeiderbecke'spianoplaying.AnditisalsotruethatDuke
EllingtonadoptedandreinterpretedsomeharmonicdevicesinEuropeancontemporarymusic.West
Coastjazzwouldrunintosuchdebtsaswouldseveralformsofcooljazz,butbebophashardlyany
suchdebtsinthesenseofdirectborrowings.Onthecontrary,ideologically,bebopwasastrong
statementofrejectionofanykindofeclecticism,propelledbyadesiretoactivatesomethingdeeply
buriedinself.Bebopthenrevivedtonalharmonicideastransmittedthroughthebluesand
reconstructedandexpandedothersinabasicallynonWesternharmonicapproach.Theultimate
significanceofallthisisthattheexperimentsinjazzduringthe1940sbroughtbacktoAfrican
AmericanmusicseveralstructuralprinciplesandtechniquesrootedinAfricantraditions[125]
Thesedivergencesfromthejazzmainstreamofthetimeinitiallymetwithadivided,sometimeshostile,response
amongfansandfellowmusicians,especiallyestablishedswingplayers,whobristledatthenewharmonicsounds.
Tohostilecritics,bebopseemedtobefilledwith"racing,nervousphrases".[126]Butdespitetheinitialfriction,by
the1950sbebophadbecomeanacceptedpartofthejazzvocabulary.
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AfroCubanjazz(cubop)
MachitoandMarioBauza
Thegeneralconsensusamongmusiciansandmusicologistsisthatthefirstoriginal
jazzpiecetobeovertlybasedinclavewas"Tanga"(1943),composedbyCuban
bornMarioBauzaandrecordedbyMachitoandhisAfroCubansinNewYork
City."Tanga"beganasaspontaneousdescarga(Cubanjamsession),withjazz
solossuperimposedontop.[127]
ThiswasthebirthofAfroCubanjazz.TheuseofclavebroughttheAfrican
timeline,orkeypattern,intojazz.Musicorganizedaroundkeypatternsconveya
Machito(maracas)andhis
twocelled(binary)structure,whichisacomplexlevelofAfricancross
sisterGraciellaGrillo
rhythm.[128]Withinthecontextofjazzhowever,harmonyistheprimaryreferent,
(claves)
notrhythm.Theharmonicprogressioncanbeginoneithersideofclave,andthe
harmonic"one"isalwaysunderstoodtobe"one".Iftheprogressionbeginsonthe
"threeside"ofclave,itissaidtobein32clave.Iftheprogressionbeginsonthe"twoside",itsin23clave.[129]
Clave:Spanishfor'code,'orkey,'asinthekeytoapuzzle.The
antecedenthalf(threeside)consistsoftresillo.Theconsequenthalf
consistsoftwostrokes(thetwoside). Play
BobbySanabriamentionsseveralinnovationsofMachito'sAfroCubans,citingthemasthefirstband:towedbig
bandjazzarrangingtechniqueswithinanoriginalcomposition,withjazzorientedsoloistsutilizinganauthentic
AfroCubanbasedrhythmsectioninasuccessfulmannertoexploremodalharmony(aconceptexploredmuch
laterbyMilesDavisandGilEvans)fromajazzarrangingperspectiveandtoovertlyexploretheconceptofclave
counterpointfromanarrangingstandpoint(theabilitytoweaveseamlesslyfromonesideoftheclavetotheother
withoutbreakingitsrhythmicintegritywithinthestructureofamusicalarrangement).Theywerealsothefirst
bandintheUnitedStatestopubliclyutilizethetermAfroCubanastheband'smoniker,thusidentifyingitselfand
acknowledgingtheWestAfricanrootsofthemusicalformtheywereplaying.ItforcedNewYorkCity'sLatino
andAfricanAmericancommunitiestodealwiththeircommonWestAfricanmusicalrootsinadirectway,
whethertheywantedtoacknowledgeitpubliclyornot.[130]
DizzyGillespieandChanoPozo
ItwasMarioBauzwhointroducedbebopinnovatorDizzyGillespietotheCuban
congadrummerandcomposerChanoPozo.GillespieandPozo'sbriefcollaboration
producedsomeofthemostenduringAfroCubanjazzstandards."Manteca"(1947)
isthefirstjazzstandardtoberhythmicallybasedonclave.AccordingtoGillespie,
Pozocomposedthelayered,contrapuntalguajeos(AfroCubanostinatos)oftheA
sectionandtheintroduction,whileGillespiewrotethebridge.Gillespierecounted:
"IfI'dletitgolike[Chano]wantedit,itwouldhavebeenstrictlyAfroCubanall
theway.Therewouldn'thavebeenabridge.IthoughtIwaswritinganeightbar
bridge,but...Ihadtokeepgoingandendedupwritingasixteenbarbridge."[131]
Thebridgegave"Manteca"atypicaljazzharmonicstructure,settingthepieceapart
fromBauza'smodal"Tanga"ofafewyearsearlier.
DizzyGillespie,1955
Gillespie'scollaborationwithPozobroughtspecificAfricanbasedrhythmsinto
bebop.Whilepushingtheboundariesofharmonicimprovisation,cubop,asitwas
called,alsodrewmoredirectlyfromAfricanrhythmicstructures.Jazzarrangementswitha"Latin"Asectionanda
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swungBsection,withallchorusesswungduringsolos,becamecommonpracticewithmany"Latintunes"ofthe
jazzstandardrepertoire.Thisapproachcanbeheardonpre1980recordingsof"Manteca","ANightinTunisia",
"TinTinDeo",and"OnGreenDolphinStreet".
Africancrossrhythm
CubanpercussionistMongoSantamariafirstrecordedhiscomposition"AfroBlue"
in1959.[132]"AfroBlue"wasthefirstjazzstandardbuiltuponatypicalAfrican
threeagainsttwo(3:2)crossrhythm,orhemiola.[133]Thesongbeginswiththe
bassrepeatedlyplaying6crossbeatspereachmeasureof12/8,or6crossbeatsper
4mainbeats6:4(twocellsof3:2).Thefollowingexampleshowstheoriginal
ostinato"AfroBlue"basslinetheslashednoteheadsindicatethemainbeats(not
bassnotes),whereyouwouldnormallytapyourfootto"keeptime."
MongoSantamaria(1969)
"AfroBlue"bassline,withmainbeatsindicatedbyslashed
noteheads.
WhenJohnColtranecovered"AfroBlue"in1963,heinvertedthemetrichierarchy,interpretingthetuneasa3/4
jazzwaltzwithduplecrossbeatssuperimposed(2:3).OriginallyaBpentatonicblues,Coltraneexpandedthe
harmonicstructureof"AfroBlue."
PerhapsthemostrespectedAfrocubanjazzcomboofthelate1950swasvibraphonistCalTjader'sband.Tjader
hadMongoSantamaria,ArmandoPeraza,andWillieBoboonhisearlyrecordingdates.
Dixielandrevival
Inthelate1940stherewasarevivalof"Dixieland"music,harkingbacktotheoriginalcontrapuntalNewOrleans
style.ThiswasdriveninlargepartbyrecordcompanyreissuesofearlyjazzclassicsbytheOliver,Morton,and
Armstrongbandsofthe1930s.Thereweretwotypesofmusiciansinvolvedintherevival:thefirstgroupwas
madeupofthosewhohadbeguntheircareersplayinginthetraditionalstyleandwerereturningtoit(orcontinuing
whattheyhadbeenplayingallalong),suchasBobCrosby'sBobcats,MaxKaminsky,EddieCondon,andWild
BillDavison.[134]MostoftheseplayerswereoriginallyMidwesterners,althoughtherewereasmallnumberof
NewOrleansmusiciansinvolved.Thesecondgroupofrevivalistsconsistedofyoungermusicians,suchasthosein
theLuWattersband,ConradJanis,andWardKimballandhisFirehouseFivePlusTwoJazzBand.Bythelate
1940s,LouisArmstrong'sAllstarsbandbecamealeadingensemble.Throughthe1950sand1960s,Dixielandwas
oneofthemostcommerciallypopularjazzstylesintheUS,Europe,andJapan,althoughcriticspaidlittleattention
toit.[134]
Cooljazz
Bytheendofthe1940s,thenervousenergyandtensionofbebopwasreplacedwithatendencytowardscalmand
smoothnesswiththesoundsofcooljazz,whichfavouredlong,linearmelodiclines.ItemergedinNewYorkCity,
anddominatedjazzinthefirsthalfofthe1950s.Thestartingpointwasacollectionof1949and1950singlesbya
nonetledbyMilesDavis,releasedastheBirthoftheCool.LatercooljazzrecordingsbymusicianssuchasChet
Baker,DaveBrubeck,BillEvans,GilEvans,StanGetzandtheModernJazzQuartetusuallyhada"lighter"sound
thatavoidedtheaggressivetemposandharmonicabstractionofbebop.
CooljazzlaterbecamestronglyidentifiedwiththeWestCoastjazzscene,butalsohadaparticularresonancein
Europe,especiallyScandinavia,wherefiguressuchasbaritonesaxophonistLarsGullinandpianistBengtHallberg
emerged.ThetheoreticalunderpinningsofcooljazzweresetoutbytheChicagopianistLennieTristano,andits
influencestretchesintosuchlaterdevelopmentsasbossanova,modaljazz,andevenfreejazz.
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Hardbop
Hardbopisanextensionofbebop(or"bop")musicwhichincorporates
influencesfromrhythmandblues,gospelmusicandblues,especiallyin
thesaxophoneandpianoplaying.Hardbopwasdevelopedinthemid
1950s,coalescingin1953and1954itdevelopedpartlyinresponseto
thevogueforcooljazzintheearly1950s,andparalleledtheriseof
rhythmandblues.MilesDavis'1954performanceof"Walkin'"atthe
firstNewportJazzFestivalannouncedthestyletothejazzworld.The
quintetArtBlakeyandtheJazzMessengers,frontedbyBlakeyand
featuringpianistHoraceSilverandtrumpeterCliffordBrown,were
leadersinthehardbopmovementalongwithDavis.
Modaljazz
Modaljazzisadevelopmentwhichbeganinthelater1950swhichtakes
themode,ormusicalscale,asthebasisofmusicalstructureand
improvisation.Previously,asolowasmeanttofitintoagivenchord
progression,butwithmodaljazzthesoloistcreatesamelodyusingone,
orasmallnumberofmodes.Theemphasisisthusshiftedfromharmony
tomelody:[135]"Historically,thiscausedaseismicshiftamongjazz
musicians,awayfromthinkingvertically(thechord),andtowardsa
morehorizontalapproach(thescale),"[136]explainedpianistMark
Levine.
ThemodaltheorystemsfromaworkbyGeorgeRussell.MilesDavis
introducedtheconcepttothegreaterjazzworldwithKindofBlue
(1959),anexplorationofthepossibilitiesofmodaljazzwhichwould
becomethebestsellingjazzalbumofalltime.IncontrasttoDavis'
earlierworkwithhardbopanditscomplexchordprogressionand
improvisation,[137]theentireKindofBluealbumwascomposedasa
seriesof"modalsketches",inwhicheachperformerwasgivenasetof
scalesthatdefinedtheparametersoftheirimprovisationandstyle.[138]"I
didn'twriteoutthemusicforKindofBlue,butbroughtinsketchesfor
whateverybodywassupposedtoplaybecauseIwantedalotof
spontaneity,"[139]recalledDavis.Thetrack"SoWhat"hasonlytwo
chords:D7andE7.[140]
"TakeThe'A'Train"
This1941sampleofDukeEllington's
signaturetuneisanexampleofthe
swingstyle.
"YardbirdSuite"
0:00
Excerptfromasaxophonesoloby
CharlieParker.Thefast,complex
rhythmsandsubstitutechordsof
bebopexhibitedwereofpivotal
importancetotheformationofJazz
music.
"Mr.P.C."
0:00
ThishardbluesbyJohnColtraneisan
exampleofhardbop,apostbebop
stylewhichisinformedbygospel
music,bluesandworksongs.
"BirdsofFire"
0:00
This1973piecebytheMahavishnu
Orchestramergesjazzimprovisation
androckinstrumentationintojazz
fusion
"TheJazzstep"
0:00
This2000trackbyCourtneyPine
showshowelectronicaandhiphop
influencescanbeincorporatedinto
modernjazz.
Problemsplayingthesefiles?See
mediahelp.
OtherinnovatorsinthisstyleincludeJackieMcLean,[141]andtwoofthemusicianswhohadalsoplayedonKind
ofBlue:JohnColtraneandBillEvans.
Bythe1950s,AfroCubanjazzhadbeenusingmodesforatleastadecade,asmuchofitborrowedfromCuban
populardanceformswhicharestructuredaroundmultipleostinatoswithonlyafewchords.Acaseinpointis
MarioBauza's"Tanga"(1943),thefirstAfroCubanjazzpiece.Machito'sAfroCubansrecordedmodaltunesin
the1940s,featuringjazzsoloistssuchasHowardMcGhee,BrewMoore,CharlieParkerandFlipPhillips.
However,thereisnoevidencethatDavisorothermainstreamjazzmusicianswereinfluencedbytheuseofmodes
inAfroCubanjazz,orotherbranchesofLatinjazz.
Freejazz
Freejazz,andtherelatedformofavantgardejazz,brokethroughintoanopenspaceof"freetonality"inwhich
meter,beat,andformalsymmetryalldisappeared,andarangeofWorldmusicfromIndia,AfricaandArabiawere
meldedintoanintense,evenreligiouslyecstaticororgiasticstyleofplaying.[142]Whilelooselyinspiredbybebop,
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freejazztunesgaveplayersmuchmorelatitudethelooseharmonyandtempowasdeemedcontroversialwhenthis
approachwasfirstdeveloped.ThebassistCharlesMingusisalsofrequentlyassociatedwiththeavantgardein
jazz,althoughhiscompositionsdrawfrommyriadstylesandgenres.
Thefirstmajorstirringscameinthe1950s,withtheearlyworkofOrnetteColeman
andCecilTaylor.Inthe1960s,exponentsincludedArchieShepp,SunRa,Albert
Ayler,PharoahSandersandJohnColtrane.Indevelopinghislatestyle,Coltrane
wasespeciallyinfluencedbythedissonanceofAyler'striowithbassistGary
PeacockanddrummerSunnyMurray,arhythmsectionhonedwithCecilTayloras
leader.Coltranechampionedmanyyoungerfreejazzmusicians,notablyArchie
Shepp),andunderhisinfluenceImpulse!Recordsbecamealeadingfreejazz
recordlabel.
Ashotfroma2006
performancebyPeter
Brtzmann,akeyfigurein
Europeanfreejazz
AseriesofrecordingswiththeClassicQuartetinthefirsthalfof1965show
Coltrane'splayingbecomingincreasinglyabstract,withgreaterincorporationof
deviceslikemultiphonics,utilizationofovertones,andplayinginthealtissimo
register,aswellasamutatedreturntoColtrane'ssheetsofsound.Inthestudio,he
allbutabandonedhissopranotoconcentrateonthetenorsaxophone.Inaddition,
thequartetrespondedtotheleaderbyplayingwithincreasingfreedom.Thegroup's
evolutioncanbetracedthroughtherecordingsTheJohnColtraneQuartetPlays,
LivingSpaceandTransition(bothJune1965),NewThingatNewport(July1965),
SunShip(August1965)andFirstMeditations(September1965).
InJune1965,ColtraneandtenothermusiciansrecordedAscension,a40minute
longpiecethatincludedadventuroussolosbyyoungavantgardemusiciansaswellasColtrane,andwas
controversialprimarilyforthecollectiveimprovisationsectionsthatseparatedthesolos.Afterrecordingwiththe
quartetoverthenextfewmonths,ColtraneinvitedPharoahSanderstojointhebandinSeptember1965.While
Coltraneusedoverblowingfrequentlyasanemotionalexclamationpoint,Sanderswouldopttooverblowhis
entiresolo,resultinginaconstantscreamingandscreechinginthealtissimorangeoftheinstrument.
FreejazzquicklyfoundafootholdinEurope,inpartbecausemusicianssuchasAyler,Taylor,SteveLacyandEric
Dolphyspentextendedperiodsthere.AdistinctiveEuropeancontemporaryjazz(oftenincorporatingelementsof
freejazzbutnotlimitedtoit)alsoflourishedbecauseoftheemergenceofEuropeanmusicians(suchasJohn
Surman,ZbigniewNamysowski,AlbertMangelsdorff,KennyWheelerandMikeWestbrook)whowereanxious
todevelopnewapproachesreflectingtheirnationalandregionalmusicalculturesandcontexts.Eversincethe
1960s,variouscreativecentersofjazzhavedevelopedinEurope,suchasthecreativejazzsceneinAmsterdam.
FollowingtheworkofveterandrummerHanBenninkandpianistMishaMengelberg,musiciansstartedtoexplore
freemusicbycollectivelyimprovisinguntilacertainform(melody,rhythm,orevenfamoussong)isfoundbythe
band.JazzcriticKevinWhitheaddocumentedthefreejazzsceneinAmsterdamandsomeofitsmainexponents
suchastheICP(InstantComposersPool)orchestrainhisbookNewDutchSwing.Throughoutthe1990sand
2000s,KeithJarretthasbeenprominentindefendingfreejazzfromcriticismbytraditionalists.
1960sand1970s
Latinjazz
LatinjazzisthetermusedtodescribejazzwhichemploysLatinAmericanrhythms,andisgenerallyunderstoodto
haveamorespecificmeaningthansimplyjazzfromLatinAmerica.AmoreprecisetermmightbeAfroLatinjazz,
asthejazzsubgenretypicallyemploysrhythmsthateitherhaveadirectanaloginAfrica,orexhibitanAfrican
rhythmicinfluencebeyondwhatisordinarilyheardinotherjazz.ThetwomaincategoriesofLatinjazzareAfro
CubanjazzandBrazilianjazz.
Inthe1960sand1970smanyjazzmusicianshadonlyabasicunderstandingofCubanandBrazilianmusic,and
jazzcompositionswhichusedCubanorBrazilianelementswereoftenreferredtoas"Latintunes",withno
distinctionbetweenaCubansonmontunoandaBrazilianbossanova.Evenaslateas2000,inMarkGridley'sJazz
Styles:HistoryandAnalysis,abossanovabasslineisreferredtoasa"Latinbassfigure."[143]Itwasnot
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uncommonduringthe1960sand1970stohearacongaplayingaCubantumbaowhilethedrumsetandbassplayed
aBrazilianbossanovapattern.Manyjazzstandardssuchas"Manteca","OnGreenDolphinStreet"and"Songfor
MyFather"havea"Latin"AsectionandaswungBsection.Typically,thebandwouldonlyplayaneveneighth
"Latin"feelintheAsectionofthehead,andswingthroughoutallofthesolos.LatinjazzspecialistslikeCal
Tjadertendedtobetheexception.Forexample,ona1959liveTjaderrecordingof"ANightinTunisia",pianist
VinceGuaraldisoloedthroughtheentireformoveranauthenticmambo.[144]
AfroCubanjazz
AfroCubanjazzoftenusesAfroCubaninstrumentssuchascongas,timbales,giroandclaves,combinedwith
piano,doublebass,etc.AfroCubanjazzbeganwithMachito'sAfroCubansintheearly1940s,buttookoffand
enteredthemainstreaminthelate1940swhenbebopmusicianssuchasDizzyGillespieandBillyTaylorbegan
experimentingwithCubanrhythms.MongoSantamariaandCalTjaderfurtherrefinedthegenreinthelate1950s.
AlthoughagreatdealofCubanbasedLatinjazzismodal,Latinjazzisnotalwaysmodal:itcanbeas
harmonicallyexpansiveaspostbopjazz.Forexample,TitoPuenterecordedanarrangementof"GiantSteps"done
toanAfroCubanguaguanc.ALatinjazzpiecemaymomentarilycontractharmonically,asinthecaseofa
percussionsolooveraoneortwochordpianoguajeo.
Guajeos
GuajeoisthenameforthetypicalAfroCubanostinatomelodieswhicharecommonlyusedmotifsinLatinjazz
compositions.Theyoriginatedinthegenreknownasson.Guajeosprovidearhythmicandmelodicframeworkthat
maybevariedwithincertainparameters,whilststillmaintainingarepetitiveandthus"danceable"structure.
Mostguajeosarerhythmicallybasedonclave(rhythm).
GuajeosareoneofthemostimportantelementsofthevocabularyofAfroCubandescarga(jazzinspired
instrumentaljams),providingameansoftensionandresolutionandasenseofforwardmomentum,withina
relativelysimpleharmonicstructure.Theuseofmultiple,contrapuntalguajeosinLatinjazzfacilitates
simultaneouscollectiveimprovisationbasedonthemevariation.Inaway,thispolyphonictextureisreminiscentof
theoriginalNewOrleansstyleofjazz.
AfroCubanjazzrenaissance
Formostofitshistory,AfroCubanjazzhadbeenamatterofsuperimposingjazzphrasingoverCubanrhythms.
Butbytheendofthe1970sanewgenerationofNewYorkCitymusicianshademergedwhowerefluentinboth
salsadancemusicandjazz,leadingtoanewlevelofintegrationofjazzandCubanrhythms.Thiseraofcreativity
andvitalityisbestrepresentedbytheGonzalezbrothersJerry(congasandtrumpet)andAndy(bass).[145]During
19741976theyweremembersofoneofEddiePalmieri'smostexperimentalsalsagroups:salsawasthemedium,
butPalmieriwasstretchingtheforminnewways.Heincorporatedparallelfourths,withMcCoyTynertype
vamps.TheinnovationsofPalmieri,theGonzalezbrothersandothersledtoanAfroCubanjazzrenaissancein
NewYorkCity.
ThisoccurredinparallelwithdevelopmentsinCuba[146]ThefirstCubanbandofthisnewwavewasIrakere.Their
"Chkereson"(1976)introducedastyleof"Cubanized"bebopflavoredhornlinesthatdepartedfromthemore
angularguajeobasedlineswhichweretypicalofCubanpopularmusicandLatinjazzupuntilthattime.Itwas
basedonCharlieParker'scomposition"Billie'sBounce",jumbledtogetherinawaythatfusedclaveandbebop
hornlines.[147]InspiteoftheambivalenceofsomebandmemberstowardsIrakere'sAfroCubanfolkloric/jazz
fusion,theirexperimentsforeverchangedCubanjazz:theirinnovationsarestillheardinthehighlevelofharmonic
andrhythmiccomplexityinCubanjazz,andinthejazzyandcomplexcontemporaryformofpopulardancemusic
knownastimba.
AfroBrazilianjazz
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Brazilianjazzsuchasbossanovaisderivedfromsamba,withinfluencesfromjazz
andother20thcenturyclassicalandpopularmusicstyles.Bossaisgenerally
moderatelypaced,withmelodiessunginPortugueseorEnglish,whilstherelated
termjazzsambadescribesanadaptationofstreetsambaintojazz.
ThebossanovastylewaspioneeredbyBraziliansJooGilbertoandAntnio
CarlosJobim,andwasmadepopularbyElizeteCardoso'srecordingof"Chegade
Saudade"ontheCanodoAmorDemaisLP.Gilberto'sinitialreleases,andthe
1959filmBlackOrpheus,achievedsignificantpopularityinLatinAmericathis
spreadtoNorthAmericaviavisitingAmericanjazzmusicians.Theresulting
recordingsbyCharlieByrdandStanGetzcementedbossanova'spopularityand
ledtoaworldwideboom,with1963'sGetz/Gilberto,numerousrecordingsby
famousjazzperformerssuchasEllaFitzgeraldandFrankSinatra,andtheeventual
entrenchmentofthebossanovastyleasalastinginfluenceinworldmusic.
BrazilianpercussionistssuchasAirtoMoreiraandNanVasconcelosalso
influencedjazzinternationallybyintroducingAfroBrazilianfolkloricinstruments
andrhythmsintoawidevarietyofjazzstyles,thusattractingagreateraudienceto
them.[148][149][150]
NanVasconcelosplaying
theAfroBrazilianBerimbau
Postbop
Postbopjazzisaformofsmallcombojazzderivedfromearlierbopstyles.Thegenre'soriginslieinseminalwork
byJohnColtrane,MilesDavis,BillEvans,CharlesMingus,WayneShorterandHerbieHancock.Generally,the
termpostbopistakentomeanjazzfromthemidsixtiesonwardsthatassimilatesinfluencesfromhardbop,modal
jazz,theavantgardeandfreejazz,withoutnecessarilybeingimmediatelyidentifiableasanyoftheabove.
MuchpostbopwasrecordedforBlueNoteRecords.KeyalbumsincludeSpeakNoEvilbyShorterTheReal
McCoybyMcCoyTynerMaidenVoyagebyHancockMilesSmilesbyDavisandSearchfortheNewLandby
LeeMorgan(anartistwhoisnottypicallyassociatedwiththepostbopgenre).Mostpostbopartistsworkedin
othergenresaswell,withaparticularlystrongoverlapwiththelaterhardbop.
Souljazz
Souljazzwasadevelopmentofhardbopwhichincorporatedstronginfluencesfromblues,gospelandrhythmand
bluestocreatemusicforsmallgroups,oftentheorgantrioofHammondorgan,drummerandtenorsaxophonist.
Unlikehardbop,souljazzgenerallyemphasizedrepetitivegroovesandmelodichooks,andimprovisationswere
oftenlesscomplexthaninotherjazzstyles.Itoftenhadasteadier"funk"stylegroove,whichwasdifferentfrom
theswingrhythmstypicalofmuchhardbop.
HoraceSilverhadalargeinfluenceonthesouljazzstyle,withsongsthatusedfunkyandoftengospelbasedpiano
vamps.ImportantsouljazzorganistsincludedJimmyMcGriff,JimmySmithandJohnnyHammondSmith,and
influentialtenorsaxophoneplayersincludedEddie"Lockjaw"DavisandStanleyTurrentine.
Africaninspired
Themes
TherewasaresurgenceofinterestinjazzandotherformsofAfricanAmericanculturalexpressionduringthe
BlackArtsMovementandBlacknationalistperiodofthe1960sand1970s.Africanthemesbecamepopular,and
manynewjazzcompositionsweregivenAfricanrelatedtitles:"BlackNile"(WayneShorter),"BlueNile"(Alice
Coltrane),"ObirinAfrican"(ArtBlakey),"Zambia"(LeeMorgan),"AppointmentinGhana"(JackieMcLean),
"Marabi"(CannonballAdderley),"Yoruba"(HubertLaws),andmanymore.PianistRandyWeston'smusic
incorporatedAfricanelements,suchasinthelargescalesuite"UhuruAfrica"(withtheparticipationofpoet
LangstonHughes)and"Highlife:MusicFromtheNewAfricanNations."BothWestonandsaxophonistStanley
TurrentinecoveredtheNigerianBobbyBenson'spiece"NigerMambo",whichfeaturesAfroCaribbeanandjazz
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elementswithinaWestAfricanHighlifestyle.Somemusicians,includingPharoah
Sanders,HubertLawsandWayneShorter,beganusingAfricaninstrumentssuchas
kalimbas,bells,beadedgourdsandotherinstrumentswhichwerenottraditionalto
jazz.
Rhythm
DuringthisperiodtherewasanincreaseduseofthetypicalAfrican12/8cross
rhythmicstructureinjazz.HerbieHancock's"Succotash"onInventionsand
Dimensions(1963)isanopenendedmodal12/8improvisedjam,inwhich
Hancock'spatternofattackpoints,ratherthanthepatternofpitches,istheprimary
focusofhisimprovisations,accompaniedbyPaulChambersonbass,percussionist
OsvaldoMartinezplayingatraditionalAfroCubanchekerpartandWillieBobo
playinganAbakubellpatternonasnaredrumwithbrushes.
RandyWeston
ThefirstjazzstandardcomposedbyanonLatinotouseanovertAfrican12/8crossrhythmwasWayneShorter's
"Footprints"(1967).[151]OntheversionrecordedonMilesSmilesbyMilesDavis,thebassswitchestoa4/4
tresillofigureat2:20."Footprints"isnot,however,aLatinjazztune:Africanrhythmicstructuresareaccessed
directlybyRonCarter(bass)andTonyWilliams(drums)viatherhythmicsensibilitiesofswing.Throughoutthe
piece,thefourbeats,whethersoundedornot,aremaintainedasthetemporalreferent.Intheexamplebelow,the
mainbeatsareindicatedbyslashednoteheads,whichdonotindicatebassnotes.
RonCarter'stwomainbasslinesfor"Footprints"byWaynerShorter
(1967).Themainbeatsareindicatedbyslashednoteheads.
Pentatonicscales
TheuseofpentatonicscaleswasanothertrendassociatedwithAfrica.TheuseofpentatonicscalesinAfrica
probablygoesbackthousandsofyears.[152]
McCoyTynerperfectedtheuseofthepentatonicscaleinhissolos,[153]andalsousedparallelfifthsandfourths,
whicharecommonharmoniesinWestAfrica.[154]
Theminorpentatonicscaleisoftenusedinbluesimprovisation,andlikeabluesscale,aminorpentatonicscalecan
beplayedoverallofthechordsinablues.ThefollowingpentatoniclickwasplayedoverblueschangesbyJoe
HendersononHoraceSilver's"AfricanQueen"(1965).[155]
Jazzpianist,theorist,andeducatorMarkLevinereferstothescalegeneratedbybeginningonthefifthstepofa
pentatonicscaleastheVpentatonicscale.[156]
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CpentatonicscalebeginningontheI(Cpentatonic),IV(Fpentatonic),andV
(Gpentatonic)stepsofthescale.
LevinepointsoutthattheVpentatonicscaleworksforallthreechordsofthestandardIIVIjazzprogression.[157]
Thisisaverycommonprogression,usedinpiecessuchasMilesDavis'"TuneUp."Thefollowingexampleshows
theVpentatonicscaleoveraIIVIprogression.[158]
VpentatonicscaleoverIIVIchordprogression.
Accordingly,JohnColtrane's"GiantSteps"(1960),withits26chordsper16bars,canbeplayedusingonlythree
pentatonicscales.ColtranestudiedNicolasSlonimsky'sThesaurusofScalesandMelodicPatterns,whichcontains
materialthatisvirtuallyidenticaltoportionsof"GiantSteps".[159]Theharmoniccomplexityof"GiantSteps"ison
thelevelofthemostadvanced20thcenturyartmusic.Superimposingthepentatonicscaleover"GiantSteps"is
notmerelyamatterofharmonicsimplification,butalsoasortof"Africanizing"ofthepiece,whichprovidesan
alternateapproachforsoloing.MarkLevineobservesthatwhenmixedinwithmoreconventional"playingthe
changes",pentatonicscalesprovide"structureandafeelingofincreasedspace."[160]
Jazzfusion
Inthelate1960sandearly1970s,thehybridformofjazzrockfusionwas
developedbycombiningjazzimprovisationwithrockrhythms,electric
instrumentsandthehighlyamplifiedstagesoundofrockmusicianssuchas
JimiHendrixandFrankZappa.Jazzfusionoftenusesmixedmeters,odd
timesignatures,syncopation,complexchordsandharmonies.
AccordingtoAllMusic:
...untilaround1967,theworldsofjazzandrockwerenearly
completelyseparate.[However,...]asrockbecamemore
creativeanditsmusicianshipimproved,andassomeinthejazz
worldbecameboredwithhardbopanddidnotwanttoplay
strictlyavantgardemusic,thetwodifferentidiomsbeganto
tradeideasandoccasionallycombineforces."[161]
FusiontrumpeterMilesDavisin1989
MilesDavis'newdirections
In1969DavisfullyembracedtheelectricinstrumentapproachtojazzwithInaSilentWay,whichcanbe
consideredhisfirstfusionalbum.ComposedoftwosidelongsuiteseditedheavilybyproducerTeoMacero,this
quiet,staticalbumwouldbeequallyinfluentialuponthedevelopmentofambientmusic.
AsDavisrecalls:
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ThemusicIwasreallylisteningtoin1968wasJamesBrown,thegreatguitarplayerJimiHendrix,
andanewgroupwhohadjustcomeoutwithahitrecord,"DancetotheMusic",SlyandtheFamily
Stone...Iwantedtomakeitmorelikerock.WhenwerecordedInaSilentWayIjustthrewoutallthe
chordsheetsandtoldeveryonetoplayoffofthat."[162]
TwocontributorstoInaSilentWayalsojoinedorganistLarryYoungtocreateoneoftheearlyacclaimedfusion
albums:Emergency!byTheTonyWilliamsLifetime.
Psychedelicjazz
BitchesBrew
Davis'BitchesBrew(1970)albumwashismostsuccessfulofthisera.Althoughinspiredbyrockandfunk,Davis'
fusioncreationswereoriginal,andbroughtaboutanewtypeofavantgarde,electronic,psychedelicjazz,asfar
frompopmusicasanyotherDaviswork.
HerbieHancock
PianistHerbieHancock(aDavisalumnus)releasedfouralbumsintheshortlived(19701973)psychedelicjazz
subgenre:Mwandishi(1972),Crossings(1973)andSextant(1973).Therhythmicbackgroundwasamixofrock,
funk,andAfricantypetextures.
MusicianswhohadpreviouslyworkedwithDavisformedthefourmostinfluentialfusiongroups:WeatherReport
andMahavishnuOrchestraemergedin1971,andweresoonfollowedbyReturntoForeverandTheHeadhunters.
WeatherReport
WeatherReport'sselftitledelectronicandpsychedelicWeatherReportdebutalbumcausedasensationinthejazz
worldonitsarrivalin1971,thankstothepedigreeofthegroup'smembers(includingpercussionistAirtoMoreira),
andtheirunorthodoxapproachtomusic.Thealbumfeaturedasoftersoundthanwouldbethecaseinlateryears
(predominantlyusingacousticbasswithShorterexclusivelyplayingsopranosaxophone,andwithnosynthesizers
involved),butisstillconsideredaclassicofearlyfusion.ItbuiltontheavantgardeexperimentswhichJoe
ZawinulandShorterhadpioneeredwithMilesDavisonBitchesBrew,includinganavoidanceofheadandchorus
compositioninfavourofcontinuousrhythmandmovementbuttookthemusicfurther.Toemphasisethegroup's
rejectionofstandardmethodology,thealbumopenedwiththeinscrutableavantgardeatmosphericpiece"Milky
Way",whichfeaturedbyShorter'sextremelymutedsaxophoneinducingvibrationsinZawinul'spianostrings
whilethelatterpedalledtheinstrument.DownBeatdescribedthealbumas"musicbeyondcategory",andawarded
itAlbumoftheYearinthemagazine'spollsthatyear.
WeatherReport'ssubsequentreleaseswerecreativefunkjazzworks.[163]
Jazzrock
Althoughsomejazzpuristsprotestedagainsttheblendofjazzandrock,manyjazzinnovatorscrossedoverfrom
thecontemporaryhardbopsceneintofusion.Aswellastheelectricinstrumentsofrock(suchaselectricguitar,
electricbass,electricpianoandsynthesizerkeyboards),fusionalsousedthepowerfulamplification,"fuzz"pedals,
wahwahpedalsandothereffectsthatwereusedby1970serarockbands.Notableperformersofjazzfusion
includedMilesDavis,EddieHarris,keyboardistsJoeZawinul,ChickCoreaandHerbieHancock,vibraphonist
GaryBurton,drummerTonyWilliams(drummer),violinistJeanLucPonty,guitaristsLarryCoryell,AlDiMeola,
JohnMcLaughlinandFrankZappa,saxophonistWayneShorterandbassistsJacoPastoriusandStanleyClarke.
JazzfusionwasalsopopularinJapan,wherethebandCasiopeareleasedoverthirtyfusionalbums.
Inthe21stcentury,almostalljazzhasinfluencesfromothernationsandstylesofmusic,makingjazzfusionas
muchacommonpracticeasstyle.
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Jazzfunk
Bythemid1970sthesoundknownasjazzfunkhaddeveloped,characterizedbyastrongbackbeat(groove),
electrifiedsounds[164]and,often,thepresenceofelectronicanalogsynthesizers.Jazzfunkalsodrawsinfluences
fromtraditionalAfricanmusic,AfroCubanrhythmsandJamaicanreggae,notablyKingstonbandleaderSonny
Bradshaw.Anotherfeatureistheshiftofemphasisfromimprovisationtocomposition:arrangements,melodyand
overallwritingbecameimportant.Theintegrationoffunk,soulandR&Bmusicintojazzresultedinthecreationof
agenrewhosespectrumiswideandrangesfromstrongjazzimprovisationtosoul,funkordiscowithjazz
arrangements,jazzriffsandjazzsolos,andsometimessoulvocals.[165]
EarlyexamplesareHerbieHancock'sHeadhuntersbandandMilesDavis'OntheCorneralbum,whichin1972
beganDavis'forayintojazzfunkandwas,heclaimed,anattemptatreconnectingwiththeyoungblackaudience
whichhadlargelyforsakenjazzforrockandfunk.Whilethereisadiscerniblerockandfunkinfluenceinthe
timbresoftheinstrumentsemployed,othertonalandrhythmictextures,suchastheIndiantamboraandtablasand
Cubancongasandbongos,createamultilayeredsoundscape.Thealbumwasaculminationofsortsofthemusique
concrteapproachthatDavisandproducerTeoMacerohadbeguntoexploreinthelate1960s.
Othertrends
Jazzcontinuedtoexpandandchange,influencedbyothertypesofmusicsuchasworldmusic,avantgarde
classicalmusicandrockandpop.Jazzmusiciansbegantoimproviseonunusualinstruments,suchasthejazzharp
(AliceColtrane),theelectricallyamplifiedandwahwahpedaledjazzviolin(JeanLucPonty)andthebagpipes
(RufusHarley).GuitaristJohnMcLaughlin'sMahavishnuOrchestraplayedamixofrockandjazzinfusedwith
EastIndianinfluences.TheECMrecordlabelbeganinGermanyinthe1970swithartistsincludingKeithJarrett,
PaulBley,thePatMethenyGroup,JanGarbarek,RalphTowner,KennyWheeler,JohnTaylor,JohnSurmanand
EberhardWeber,establishinganewchambermusicaestheticwhichfeaturedmainlyacousticinstruments,
occasionallyincorporatingelementsofworldmusicandfolk.Amostrecenttrendistodescribeartistswhofuse
differentgenres,butkeepimprovisationattheheartoftheirmusicaspostjazz.Thepostjazzquartetundiscovered
televisionbeingoneexample.
1980s
In1987,theUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesandSenatepassedabillproposedbyDemocratic
RepresentativeJohnConyers,Jr.todefinejazzasauniqueformofAmericanmusic,stating:
...thatjazzisherebydesignatedasarareandvaluablenationalAmericantreasuretowhichweshould
devoteourattention,supportandresourcestomakecertainitispreserved,understoodand
promulgated.
ItpassedintheHouseofRepresentativesonSeptember23,1987andintheSenateonNovember4,1987.[166]
Resurgenceoftraditionalism
The1980ssawsomethingofareactionagainsttheFusionandFreeJazzthathaddominatedthe1970s.Trumpeter
WyntonMarsalisemergedearlyinthedecade,andstrovetocreatemusicwithinwhathebelievedwasthe
tradition,rejectingbothfusionandfreejazzandcreatingextensionsofthesmallandlargeformsinitiallypioneered
bysuchartistsasLouisArmstrongandDukeEllington,aswellasthehardbopofthe1950s.WhetherMarsalis'
criticalandcommercialsuccesswasacauseorasymptomofthereactionagainstFusionandFreeJazzandthe
resurgenceofinterestinthekindofjazzpioneeredinthe1960s(particularlyModalJazzandPostBop)is
debatablenonethelessthereweremanyothermanifestationsofaresurgenceoftraditionalism,evenifFusionand
FreeJazzwerebynomeansabandonedandcontinuedtodevelopandevolve.
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Forexample,severalmusicianswhohadbeenprominentinthefusion
genreduringthe1970sbegantorecordacousticjazzoncemore,including
ChickCoreaandHerbieHancock.Othermusicianswhohadexperimented
withelectronicinstrumentsinthepreviousdecadehadabandonedthemby
the1980s,forexampleBillEvans,JoeHendersonandStanGetz.Eventhe
1980smusicofMilesDavis,althoughcertainlystillfusion,adoptedafar
moreaccessibleandrecognisablyjazzorientedapproachthanhisabstract
workofthemid1970s,suchasareturntoathemeandsolosapproach.
Theemergenceofyoungjazztalentbeginningtoperforminolder,
WyntonMarsalis
establishedmusicians'groupsfurtherimpactedtheresurgenceof
traditionalisminthejazzcommunity.Inthe1970s,thegroupsofBetty
CarterandArtBlakeyandtheJazzMessengersretainedtheirconservativejazzapproachesinthemidstoffusion
andjazzrock,andinadditiontodifficultybookingtheiracts,struggledtofindyoungergenerationsofpersonnel
toauthenticallyplaytraditionalstylessuchashardbopandbebop.Inthelate1970s,however,aresurgenceof
youngerjazzplayersinBlakey'sbandbegantooccur.ThismovementincludedmusicianssuchasValery
PonomarevandBobbyWatson,DennisIrwinandJamesWilliams.Inthe1980s,inadditiontoWyntonand
BranfordMarsalis,theemergenceofpianistsintheJazzMessengerssuchasDonaldBrown,MulgrewMiller,and
later,BennyGreen,bassistssuchasCharlesFambrough,LonniePlaxico(andlater,PeterWashingtonandEssiet
Essiet)hornplayerssuchasBillPierce,DonaldHarrisonandlaterJavonJacksonandTerenceBlanchardemerged
astalentedjazzmusicians,allofwhommadesignificantcontributionsinlater1990sand2000sjazzmusic.[167]
[168]
TheyoungJazzMessengers'contemporaries,includingRoyHargrove,MarcusRoberts,WallaceRoneyandMark
WhitfieldwerealsoinfluencedbyWyntonMarsalis'semphasistowardjazztradition.Theseyoungerrisingstars
rejectedavantgardeapproachesandinsteadchampionedtheacousticjazzsoundofCharlieParker,Thelonious
MonkandearlyrecordingsofthefirstMilesDavisquintet.Thisgroupof"YoungLions"soughttoreaffirmjazzas
ahigharttraditioncomparabletothedisciplineofEuropeanclassicalmusic.[169]
Inaddition,BettyCarter'srotationofyoungmusiciansinhergroupforeshadowedmanyofNewYork'spreeminent
traditionaljazzplayerslaterintheircareers.AmongthesemusicianswereJazzMessengeralumniBennyGreen,
BranfordMarsalisandRalphPeterson,Jr.,aswellasKennyWashington,LewisNash,CurtisLundy,Cyrus
Chestnut,MarkShim,CraigHandy,GregHutchinsonandMarcCary,TaurusMateenandGeriAllen.[170]
BlueNoteRecords'sO.T.B.ensemblefeaturedarotationofyoungjazzmusicianssuchasKennyGarrett,Steve
Wilson,KennyDavis,ReneeRosnes,RalphPeterson,Jr.,BillyDrummondandRobertHurst.[171]
Asimilarreactiontookplaceagainstfreejazz.AccordingtoTedGioia:
theveryleadersoftheavantgardestartedtosignalaretreatfromthecoreprinciplesofFreeJazz.
AnthonyBraxtonbeganrecordingstandardsoverfamiliarchordchanges.CecilTaylorplayedduetsin
concertwithMaryLouWilliams,andlethersetoutstructuredharmoniesandfamiliarjazzvocabulary
underhisblisteringkeyboardattack.Andthenextgenerationofprogressiveplayerswouldbeeven
moreaccommodating,movinginsideandoutsidethechangeswithoutthinkingtwice.Musicianssuch
asDavidMurrayorDonPullenmayhavefeltthecalloffreeformjazz,buttheyneverforgotallthe
otherwaysonecouldplayAfricanAmericanmusicforfunandprofit.[172]
PianistKeithJarrettwhosebandsofthe1970shadplayedonlyoriginalcompositionswithprominentfreejazz
elementsestablishedhissocalled'StandardsTrio'in1983,which,althoughalsooccasionallyexploring
collectiveimprovisation,hasprimarilyperformedandrecordedjazzstandards.ChickCoreasimilarlybegan
exploringjazzstandardsinthe1980s,havingneglectedthemforthe1970s.
Smoothjazz
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Intheearly1980sacommercialformofjazzfusioncalled"popfusion"or"smooth
jazz"becamesuccessful,garneringsignificantradioairplayin"quietstorm"time
slotsatradiostationsinurbanmarketsacrosstheU.S.Thishelpedtoestablishor
bolsterthecareersofvocalistsincludingAlJarreau,AnitaBaker,ChakaKhanand
Sade,aswellassaxophonistsincludingGroverWashington,Jr.,KennyG,Kirk
Whalum,BoneyJamesandDavidSanborn.Ingeneral,smoothjazzisdowntempo
(themostwidelyplayedtracksareof90105beatsperminute),andhasalead
melodyplayinginstrument(saxophone,especiallysopranoandtenor,andlegato
electricguitararepopular).
InhisNewsweekarticle"TheProblemWithJazzCriticism",[173]StanleyCrouch
considersMilesDavis'playingoffusiontobeaturningpointthatledtosmooth
jazz.CriticAaronJ.Westhascounteredtheoftennegativeperceptionsofsmooth
jazz,stating:
DavidSanborn,2008
Ichallengetheprevalentmarginalizationandmalignmentofsmooth
jazzinthestandardjazznarrative.Furthermore,Iquestionthe
assumptionthatsmoothjazzisanunfortunateandunwelcomed
evolutionaryoutcomeofthejazzfusionera.Instead,Iarguethat
smoothjazzisalonglivedmusicalstylethatmeritsmultidisciplinary
analysesofitsorigins,criticaldialogues,performancepractice,and
reception.[174]
Acidjazz,nujazzandjazzrap
AcidjazzdevelopedintheUKinthe1980sand1990s,influencedbyjazzfunkandelectronicdancemusic.Acid
jazzoftencontainsvarioustypesofelectroniccomposition(sometimesincludingSampling(music)oraliveDJ
cuttingandscratching),butitisjustaslikelytobeplayedlivebymusicians,whooftenshowcasejazz
interpretationaspartoftheirperformance.JazzfunkmusicianssuchasRoyAyersandDonaldByrdareoften
creditedastheforerunnersofacidjazz.[175]
Nujazzisinfluencedbyjazzharmonyandmelodies,andthereareusuallynoimprovisationalaspects.Itcanbe
veryexperimentalinnatureandcanvarywidelyinsoundandconcept.Itrangesfromthecombinationoflive
instrumentationwiththebeatsofjazzhouse(asexemplifiedbyStGermain,JazzanovaandFilaBrazillia)tomore
bandbasedimprovisedjazzwithelectronicelements(forexampleTheCinematicOrchestra,Kobolandthe
Norwegian"futurejazz"stylepioneeredbyBuggeWesseltoft,JagaJazzistandNilsPetterMolvr).
Jazzrapdevelopedinthelate1980sandearly1990s,andincorporatesjazzinfluencesintohiphop.In1988,Gang
Starrreleasedthedebutsingle"WordsIManifest",whichsampledDizzyGillespie's1962"NightinTunisia",and
Stetsasonicreleased"Talkin'AllThatJazz",whichsampledLonnieListonSmith.GangStarr'sdebutLPNoMore
Mr.NiceGuy(1989)andtheir1990track"JazzThing"sampledCharlieParkerandRamseyLewis.Thegroups
whichmadeuptheNativeTonguesPossetendedtowardsjazzyreleases:theseincludetheJungleBrothers'debut
StraightOuttheJungle(1988),andATribeCalledQuest'sPeople'sInstinctiveTravelsandthePathsofRhythm
(1990)andTheLowEndTheory(1991).RapduoPeteRock&CLSmoothincorporatedjazzinfluencesontheir
1992debutMeccaandtheSoulBrother.RapperGuru'sJazzmatazzseriesbeganin1993,usingjazzmusicians
duringthestudiorecordings.
Thoughjazzraphadachievedlittlemainstreamsuccess,MilesDavis'finalalbumDooBop(releasedposthumously
in1992)wasbasedaroundhiphopbeatsandcollaborationswithproducerEasyMoBee.Davis'exbandmate
HerbieHancockalsoabsorbedhiphopinfluencesinthemid1990s,releasingthealbumDisIsDaDrumin1994.
Punkjazzandjazzcore
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TherelaxationoforthodoxywhichwasconcurrentwithpostpunkinLondonand
NewYorkCityledtoanewappreciationofjazz.InLondon,thePopGroupbegan
tomixfreejazzanddubreggaeintotheirbrandofpunkrock.[176]InNewYork,
NoWavetookdirectinspirationfrombothfreejazzandpunk.Examplesofthis
styleincludeLydiaLunch'sQueenofSiam,[177]Gray,theworkofJamesChance
andtheContortions(whomixedSoulwithfreejazzandpunk)[177]andtheLounge
Lizards[177](thefirstgrouptocallthemselves"punkjazz)."
JohnZorntooknoteoftheemphasisonspeedanddissonancethatwasbecoming
prevalentinpunkrock,andincorporatedthisintofreejazzwiththereleaseofthe
Spyvs.Spyalbumin1986,acollectionofOrnetteColemantunesdoneinthe
contemporarythrashcorestyle.[178]Inthesameyear,SonnySharrock,Peter
Brtzmann,BillLaswellandRonaldShannonJacksonrecordedthefirstalbum
underthenameLastExit(freejazzband),asimilarlyaggressiveblendofthrash
andfreejazz.[179]Thesedevelopmentsaretheoriginsofjazzcore,thefusionoffree
jazzwithhardcorepunk.
MBase
JohnZornperformingin
2006
TheMBasemovementstartedinthe1980s,whenaloosecollectiveof
youngAfricanAmericanmusiciansinNewYorkwhichincludedSteve
Coleman,GregOsbyandGaryThomasdevelopedacomplexbut
grooving[180]sound.
Inthe1990smostMBaseparticipantsturnedtomoreconventionalmusic,
butColeman,themostactiveparticipant,continueddevelopinghismusicin
accordancewiththeMBaseconcept.[181]Coleman'saudiencedecreased,
buthismusicandconceptsinfluencedmanymusicians,[182]bothinterms
SteveColemaninParis,July2004
ofmusictechnique[183]andofthemusic'smeaning.[184]Hence,MBase
changedfromamovementofaloosecollectiveofyoungmusicianstoa
kindofinformalColeman"school",[185]withamuchadvancedbutalreadyoriginallyimpliedconcept.[186]Steve
Coleman'smusicandMBaseconceptgainedrecognitionas"nextlogicalstep"afterCharlieParker,JohnColtran
andOrnetteColeman.[187]
1990s2010s
Sincethe1990sjazzhasbeencharacterisedbyapluralisminwhichnoonestyledominates,butratherawide
rangeofactivestylesandgenresarepopular.Individualperformersoftenplayinavarietyofstyles,sometimesin
thesameperformance.PianistBradMehldauandpowertrioTheBadPlushaveexploredcontemporaryrockmusic
withinthecontextofthetraditionaljazzacousticpianotrio,recordinginstrumentaljazzversionsofsongsbyrock
musicians.TheBadPlushavealsoincorporatedelementsoffreejazzintotheirmusic.Afirmavantgardeorfree
jazzstancehasbeenmaintainedbysomeplayers,suchassaxophonistsGregOsbyandCharlesGayle,while
others,suchasJamesCarter,haveincorporatedfreejazzelementsintoamoretraditionalframework.
Ontheotherside,evenasingerlikeHarryConnick,Jr.(whohastennumber1USjazzalbums)[188]issometimes
calledajazzmusician,althoughthereareonlyafewelementsfromjazzhistoryinhismainlypoporientedmusic.
Otherrecentvocalistshaveachievedpopularitywithamixoftraditionaljazzandpop/rockforms,suchasDiana
Krall,NorahJones,CassandraWilson,KurtEllingandJamieCullum.
Anumberofplayerswhousuallyperforminlargelystraightaheadsettingshaveemergedsincethe1990s,
includingpianistsJasonMoranandVijayIyer,guitaristKurtRosenwinkel,vibraphonistStefonHarris,trumpeters
RoyHargroveandTerenceBlanchard,saxophonistsChrisPotterandJoshuaRedman,clarinetistKenPeplowski
andbassistChristianMcBride.
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Althoughjazzrockfusionreachedtheheightofitspopularityinthe1970s,theuseofelectronicinstrumentsand
rockderivedmusicalelementsinjazzcontinuedinthe1990sand2000s.MusiciansusingthisapproachincludePat
Metheny,JohnAbercrombie,JohnScofieldandtheSwedishgroupe.s.t.
Seealso
Timelineofjazzeducation
VictorianJazzArchive
Notes
1.Hennessey,Thomas,FromJazztoSwing:BlackJazzMusiciansandTheirMusic,19171935
(https://books.google.com/books/about/From_jazz_to_swing_black_jazz_musicians.html?id=nvskngEACAAJ).Ph.D.
dissertation,NorthwesternUniversity,1973,pp.470473.
2.AlynShipton,ANewHistoryofJazz,2ndedn.,Continuum,2007,pp.45.
3.BillKirchner,TheOxfordCompaniontoJazz,OxfordUniversityPress,2005,ChapterTwo.
4.Starr,Larry,andChristopherWaterman."PopularJazzandSwing:America'sOriginalArtForm."
(http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/08/20080812212457eaifas0.7410852.html#axzz3QeZKNVtc
)IIPDigital.OxfordUniversityPress,26July2008.
5.http://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazzmap.htm
6.http://www.storyvilledistrictnola.com/anderson.html
7.http://web.archive.org/web/20140506062223/http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm
8.http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempelside/
9.Wald,Elijah,HowTheBeatlesDestroyedRock'n'Roll,2009,p.27
10.J.J.Johnsoncontinued,"[Jazz]isforeverseekingandreachingoutandexploring":DownBeat:TheGreatJazz
InterviewsA75thAnniversaryAnthology:p.250.
11.JoachimE.Berendt.TheJazzBook:FromRagtimetoFusionandBeyond.TranslatedbyH.andB.BredigkeitwithDan
Morgenstern.1981.LawrenceHillBooks,p.371.
12.Berendt,JoachimErnst(1964)TheNewJazzBook:aHistoryandGuide,p.278.PeterOwen.
(https://books.google.com/books?ei=8Rz
UdDVDefb7AbhvYCYBA&id=pjgYAQAAIAAJ&dq=Joachim+Berendt+which+originated+in+the+United+States+thro
ugh+the+confrontation+of+blacks&q=confrontation#search_anchor)AtGoogleBooks.Retrieved4August2013.
13.InReviewofTheCambridgeCompaniontoJazz(http://www.fzmw.de/2003/2003_12.htm)byPeterElsdon,FZMw
(FrankfurtJournalofMusicology)No.6,2003.
14.Cooke,MervynHorn,DavidG.(2002).TheCambridgecompaniontojazz.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.
pp.1,6.ISBN0521663881.
15.Luebbers,Johannes(September8,2008)."It'sAllMusic".Resonate(AustralianMusicCentre).
16.Giddins1998,70.
17.Giddins1998,89.
18.JazzDrumLessons(http://www.drumbook.org/drumlessons/jazzdrums/jazzdrumming/)Drumbook.org
19.Christgau,Robert(October28,1986)."Christgau'sConsumerGuide".TheVillageVoice(NewYork).Retrieved
September10,2015.
20.JazzInc.:ThebottomlinethreatensthecreativelineincorporateAmerica'sapproachtomusic
(https://web.archive.org/web/20010720153446/http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html)atthe
WaybackMachine(archivedJuly20,2001)byAndrewGilbert,MetroTimes,December23,1998.
21."AfricanAmericanMusiciansReflectOn'WhatIsThisThingCalledJazz?'InNewBookByUCProfessor".Oakland
Post38(79):77.20March2001.RetrievedDecember6,2011.
22.Seagrove,Gordon(July11,1915)."BluesisJazzandJazzIsBlues"(PDF).ChicagoDailyTribune.Retrieved
November4,2011.ArchivedatObservatoireMusicalFranais,ParisSorbonneUniversity.
23.BenjaminZimmer(June8,2009)." "Jazz":ATaleofThreeCities".WordRoutes.TheVisualThesaurus.Retrieved
June8,2009.
24.ImamuAmiriBaraka(2000).TheLeRoiJones/AmiriBarakaReader(2ed.).BasicBooks.p.42.ISBN1560252383.
25.PhilipLarkin(2004).JazzWritings.ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup.p.94.ISBN0826476996.
26.AndrewR.L.Cayton,RichardSisson,ChrisZacher,eds.(2006).TheAmericanMidwest:AnInterpretiveEncyclopedia.
IndianaUniversityPress.p.569.ISBN0253003490.
27.Santelli,Robert.TheBigBookofBlues,PenguinBooks,pg.20,(2001)ISBN0141001453
28.Murph,John."NPR'sJazzProfiles:WomenInJazz,Part1".www.npr.org.Retrieved20150424.
29."MaryLouWilliams:WomeninJazzFestival".www.kennedycenter.org.Retrieved20150422.
30."15MostInfluentialJazzArtists".Listverse.20100227.Retrieved27July2014.
31.Criswell,Chad."WhatIsaJazzBand?".Retrieved25July2014.
32.http://www.pbs.org/wnet/africanamericansmanyriverstocross/history/howmanyslaveslandedintheus/
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1/28/2016
33.https://web.archive.org/web/20150921182328/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/africanamericansmanyriversto
cross/history/howmanyslaveslandedintheus/
34.Cooke1999,pp.79
35."TheprimaryinstrumentforaculturalmusicexpressionwasalongnarrowAfricandrum.Itcameinvarioussizedfrom
threetoeightfeetlongandhadpreviouslybeenbannedintheSouthbywhites.Otherinstrumentsusedwerethetriangle,
ajawbone,andearlyancestorstothebanjo.ManytypesofdanceswereperformedinCongoSquare,includingthe'flat
footedshuffle'andthe'Bamboula.'"AfricanAmericanRegistry.(http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/congo
squaresoulneworleans)
36.Palmer,Robert(1981:37).DeepBlues.NewYork:Penguin.
37.Cooke1999,pp.1417,2728
38.Kubik,Gerhard(1999:112).
39.Palmer,Robert(1981:39).DeepBlues.
40.Borneman,Ernest(1969:104).JazzandtheCreoleTradition."JazzResearchI:99112.
41.Sublette,Ned(2008:124,287).TheWorldthatmadeNewOrleans:fromSpanishsilvertoCongoSquare.Chicago:
LawrenceHillBooks.ISBN1556529589
42.Pealosa2010,pp.3846
43.Garrett,CharlesHiroshi(2008).StrugglingtoDefineaNation:AmericanMusicandtheTwentiethCentury,p.54.ISBN
9780520254862.Shownincommontimeandthenincuttimewithtiedsixteenth&eighthnoteratherthanrest.
44.Sublette,Ned(2007),CubaandItsMusic:FromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo,p.134.ISBN9781556526329.
Shownwithtiedsixteenth&eighthnoteratherthanrest.
45.WyntonMarsalisstatesthattresilloistheNewOrleans"clave.""WyntonMarsalispart2."60Minutes.CBSNews(June
26,2011).
46.Schuller,Gunther(1968:19)EarlyJazzItsRootsandMusicalDevelopment.NewYork:OxfordPress.
47.Kubik,Gerhard(1999:52).AfricaandtheBlues.Jackson,MI:UniversityPressofMississippi.
48.Palmer(1981:39).
49."[Afro]LatinrhythmshavebeenabsorbedintoblackAmericanstylesfarmoreconsistentlythanintowhitepopular
music,despiteLatinmusic'spopularityamongwhites"(Roberts1979:41).
50.Roberts,JohnStorm(1999:12)LatinJazz.NewYork:SchirmerBooks.
51.Roberts,JohnStorm(1999:16)LatinJazz.NewYork:SchirmerBooks.
52.Manuel,Peter(2009:67).CreolizingContradanceintheCaribbean.Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress.
53.Manuel,Peter(2009:69).CreolizingContradanceintheCaribbean.Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress.
54.Acosta,Leonardo(2003:5).CubanoBeCubanoBopOneHundredYearsofJazzinCuba.WashingtonD.C.:
SmithsonianBooks.
55.Maulen(1999:4),SalsaGuidebookforPianoandEnsemble.Petaluma,California:SherMusic.ISBN0961470194.
56.Pealosa2010,p.42
57.Sublette,Ned(2008:125).TheWorldthatmadeNewOrleans:fromSpanishsilvertoCongoSquare.Chicago:Lawrence
HillBooks.ISBN1556529589
58.Sublette,Ned(2008:125).CubaanditsMusicFromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo.Chicago:ChicagoReviewPress.
59."WyntonMarsalispart2."60Minutes.CBSNews(June26,2011).
60.Morton,JellyRoll(1938:LibraryofCongressRecording)TheCompleteRecordingsByAlanLomax.
61.Cooke1999,pp.28,47
62.CatherineSchmidtJones(2006)."Ragtime".Connexions.RetrievedOctober18,2007.
63.Cooke1999,pp.2829
64."TheFirstRagtimeRecords(18971903)".RetrievedOctober18,2007.
65.Tanner,Paul,DavidW.Megill,andMauriceGerow.Jazz.11thedn.Boston:McGrawHillHigherEducation,2009,pp.
328331.
66.Benward&Saker2003,p.203.
67.Matthiesen,Bill(2008:8).Habaneras,Maxixies&TangosTheSyncopatedPianoMusicofLatinAmerica.MelBay.
ISBN0786676353
68.Sublette,Ned(2008:155).CubaanditsMusicFromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo.Chicago:ChicagoReviewPress.
69.Roberts,JohnStorm(1999:40).TheLatinTinge.OxfordUniversityPress.
70.Kunzler'sDictionaryofJazzprovidestwoseparateentries:blues,anoriginallyAfricanAmericangenre(p.128),andthe
bluesform,awidespreadmusicalform(p.131).
71."TheEvolutionofDifferingBluesStyles".HowToPlayBluesGuitar.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20100118.
Retrieved20080811.
72.Cooke1999,pp.1114
73.Kubik,Gerhard(1999:96).
74.Palmer(1981:46).
75.Handy,Father(1941),p.99.
76.Schuller(1968:66,145n.).
77.W.C.Handy,FatheroftheBlues:AnAutobiography,editedbyArnaBontemps:forewordbyAbbeNiles.Macmillan
Company,NewYork(1941),pp.99,100(noISBNinthisfirstprinting).
78.Cooke1999,pp.47,50
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79."OriginalCreoleOrchestra".TheRedHotArchive.RetrievedOctober23,2007.
80."Marsalis,Wynton(2000:DVDn.1).Jazz.PBS".Pbs.org.Retrieved20131002.
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82.Cooke1999,pp.38,56
83.Roberts,JohnStorm1979.TheLatinTinge:TheimpactofLatinAmericanmusicontheUnitedStates.Oxford.
84.Gridley,MarkC.(2000:61).JazzStyles:HistoryandAnalysis,7thedn.
85.Schuller(1968:6).
86.TheNewHarvardDictionaryofMusic(1986:818).
87.Greenwood,DavidPealosaPetercollaboratoreditor(2009).TheClaveMatrix:AfroCubanrhythm:itsprinciples
andAfricanorigins.Redway,CA:BembeBooks.p.229.ISBN1886502803.
88.Gridley,MarkC.(2000).JazzStyles:history&analysis(7thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall.pp.7273.
ISBN9780130212276.
89.Schoenherr,Steven."RecordingTechnologyHistory".history.sandiego.edu.RetrievedDecember24,2008.
90.Thomas,Bob(1994)."TheOriginsofBigBandMusic".redhotjazz.com.RetrievedDecember24,2008.
91.Alexander,Scott."TheFirstJazzRecords".redhotjazz.com.RetrievedDecember24,2008.
92."JazzMilestones".apassion4jazz.net.RetrievedDecember24,2008.
93."OriginalDixielandJazzBandBiography".pbs.org.RetrievedDecember24,2008.
94.Martin,HenryWaters,Keith(2005).Jazz:TheFirst100Years.ThomsonWadsworth.p.55.ISBN0534628044.
95."TimGracyk'sPhonographs,Singers,andOldRecordsJassin19161917andTinPanAlley".RetrievedOctober27,
2007.
96.Cooke1999,p.44
97.FloydLevin(1911)."JimEurope's369thInfantry"Hellfighters"Band".TheRedHotArchive.RetrievedOctober24,
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98.Cooke1999,p.78
99.Cooke1999,pp.4142
100.Palmer(1968:67).
101.Ward,GeoffreyC.Burns,Ken(October8,2002).Jazz:AHistoryofAmerica'sMusic(1sted.).NewYork:AlfredA.
Knopf.ISBN9780679765394.Retrieved27July2014.
102.Cooke1999,p.54
103."KidOry".TheRedHotArchive.RetrievedOctober29,2007.
104."BessieSmith".TheRedHotArchive.RetrievedOctober29,2007.
105.Schuller(1968:91)
106.Schuller(1968:93)
107.Cooke1999,pp.5659,7879,6670
108.MarioDunkel,"W.C.Handy,AbbeNiles,and(Auto)biographicalPositioningintheWhitemanEra,"PopularMusic
andSociety38.2(2015):122139.
109.Cooke1999,pp.8283,100103
110.Schuller(1968:88)
111.SeelengthyinterviewswithHinesin[Nairn]Earl"Fatha"Hines:[1](https://vimeo.com/58414566)seeExternalLinks
below.
112.Wynn,editedbyNeilA.(2007).CrosstheWaterBlues:AfricanAmericanmusicinEurope(1sted.).Jackson,Miss.:
UniversityPressofMississippi.p.67.ISBN9781604735468.Retrieved27July2014.
113.Jackson,Jeffrey(2002)."MakingJazzFrench:TheReceptionofJazzMusicinParis,19271934.".FrenchHistorical
Studies25(1):149170.doi:10.1215/00161071251149.
114."EdLangandhisOrchestra".redhotjazz.com.RetrievedMarch28,2008.
115.Crow,Bill(1990).JazzAnecdotes.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
116.Tucker1995,p.6writes"Hetriedtoavoidtheword'jazz'preferring'Negro'or'American'music.Heclaimedtherewere
onlytwotypesofmusic,'good'and'bad'...AndheembracedaphrasecoinedbyhiscolleagueBillyStrayhorn'beyond
category'asaliberatingprinciple."
117."JazzMusiciansDukeEllington".TheoryJazz.RetrievedJuly14,2009.
118.GuntherSchullerNovember14,1972.Dance,p.290.
119.Dancep.260.
120.Floyd,SamuelA.,Jr.(1995).ThePowerofBlackMusic:InterpretingitshistoryfromAfricatotheUnitedStates.New
York:OxfordUniversityPress.
121.Levine1995,p.171
122.JoachimBerendt.TheJazzBook,1981,p.15.
123.CharlieParkerquotedbyGerhardKubik(2005)."Bebop:ACaseinPoint.TheAfricanMatrixinJazzHarmonic
Practices"(criticalessay),BlackMusicResearchJournal22March.Digital.
124.GerhardKubik(2005)."Bebop:ACaseinPoint.TheAfricanMatrixinJazzHarmonicPractices"(criticalessay),Black
MusicResearchJournalMarch22,Digital.
125.Kubik(2005).
126.JoachimBerendt.TheJazzBook.1981,p.16.
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127.In1992Bauzarecorded"Tanga"intheexpandedformofanAfroCubansuite,consistingoffivemovements.Mario
BauzaandhisAfroCubanOrchestra.MessidorCD(1992).
128.Pealosa2010,p.56
129.Pealosa2010,pp.131136
130.BobbySanabria,postingtotheLatinjazzdiscussionlist(2008).http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/latinjazz/
131.Fraser,DizzyGillespie,withAl(March1,1985).ToBeorNottoBop:MemoirsofDizzyGillespie.NewYork,N.Y.:Da
CapoPress.p.77.ISBN9780306802362.
132."AfroBlue",AfroRoots(MongoSantamaria)PrestigeCD240182(1959).
133.Pealosa2010,p.26
134.Collier,1978.
135.Litweiler1984,pp.110111
136.Levine1995,p.30
137."Linernotereprint:MilesDavisKindofBlue(FLACMasterSoundSuperBitMapping)".Stupidand
Contagious.RetrievedJuly27,2008.
138.Palmer,Robert(1997)."KindofBlue(CD)".NewYork,NY:SonyMusicEntertainment,Inc./ColumbiaRecords.
|contribution=ignored(help)
139.Davis,Miles(1989:234).TheAutobiography.NewYork:Touchstone.
140.Levine1995,p.29
141.Litweiler1984,pp.120123
142.JoachimBerendt.TheJazzBook.1981.Page21.
143.Gridley,MarkC.(2000:444).JazzStyles:HistoryandAnalysis,7thed.
144.Tjader,Cal(1959).MontereyConcerts.PrestigeCD.ASIN:B000000ZCY.
145.AndyGonzalezinterviewedbyLarryBirnbaum.Ed.Boggs,VernonW.(1992:297298).SalsiologyAfroCubanMusic
andtheEvolutionofSalsainNewYorkCity.NewYork:GreenwoodPress.ISBN0313284687
146.Acosta,Leonardo(2003).CubanoBe,CubanoBop:OneHundredYearsofJazzinCuba,p.59.Washington,D.C.:
SmithsonianBooks.ISBN158834147X
147.Moore,Kevin(2007)"HistoryandDiscographyofIrakere".Timba.com.
(http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/historyanddiscographyofirakere)
148.Yanow,Scott(August5,1941)."AirtoMoreira".AllMusic.Retrieved20111022.
149.AllmusicBiography(http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p6300/biography)
150.Palmer,Robert(19820628)."JazzFestivalJazzFestivalAStudyOfFolkJazzFusionReview".NewYorkTimes.
Retrieved20120707.
151."Footprints"MilesSmiles(MilesDavis).ColumbiaCD(1967).
152.AnancientwestcentralSudanicstratumofpentatonicsongcomposition,oftenassociatedwithsimpleworkrhythmsina
regularmeter,butwithnotableoffbeataccents...reachesbackperhapsthousandsofyearstoearlyWestAfricansorgum
agriculturalistsKubik,Gerhard(1999:95).AfricaandtheBlues.Jackson,MI:UniversityPressofMississippi.
153.Gridley,MarkC.(2000:270).JazzStyles:HistoryandAnalysis,7thed.
154.MapshowingdistributionofharmonyinAfrica.Jones,A.M.(1959).StudiesinAfricanMusic.OxfordPress.
155.Levine1995,p.235
156.Levine,Mark(1989:127).TheJazzPianoBook.Petaluma,CA:SherMusic.ASIN:B004532DEE
157.Levine(1989:127).
158.AfterMarkLevine(1989:127).TheJazzPianoBook.
159.Bair,Jeff(2003:5).CyclicPatternsinJohnColtrane'sMelodicVocabularyasInfluencedbyNicolasSlonimsky's
ThesaurusofScalesandMelodicPatterns:AnAnalysisofSelectedImprovisations.PhDThesis.UniversityofNorth
Texas.Web.http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf
160.Levine,Mark(1995:205).TheJazzTheoryBook.SherMusic.ISBN1883217040
161."Explore:Fusion".AllMusic.RetrievedNovember7,2010.
162.Davis,Miles,withQuincyTroupe(1989:298)TheAutobiography.NewYork:SimonandSchuster.
163.Dan,Morgenstern(1971).DownBeatMay13.
164.FreeJazzFunkMusic:Album,TrackandArtistCharts
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080920131709/http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html)attheWayback
Machine(archivedSeptember20,2008),RhapsodyOnlineRhapsody.com(October20,2010).
165.Explore:JazzFunk(https://web.archive.org/web/20101019041451/http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202)atthe
WaybackMachine(archivedOctober19,2010)
166.HR57CenterHR57CenterforthePreservationofJazzandBlues,withthesixpointmandate.
(http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html)
167.Fitzgerald,MichaelandSchwartz,Steve,ChronologyofArtBlakeyandtheJazzMessengers
(http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htmJ).
168.Drummerworld:ArtBlakey(http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htmJ).
169.Guiliatt,Richard."JAZZ:TheYoungLions'Roar:WyntonMarsalisandthe'Neoclassical'LincolnCenterOrchestraare
helpingfuelthenoisiestdebatesinceMileswentelectric(http://articles.latimes.com/19920913/entertainment/ca
1495_1_lincolncenterjazzorchestra)".
170.TheBettyCarterBiography(http://www.bettycarter.net/bio.html).
34/36
1/28/2016
171.OutofTheBlueAlbumDiscography(http://www.allmusic.com/artist/outofthebluemn0000419825/biography).
172."WhereDidOurRevolutionGo?(PartThree)Jazz.com|JazzMusicJazzArtistsJazzNews".Jazz.com.Retrieved
20131002.
173.StanleyCrouch(June5,2003)."Opinion:TheProblemWithJazzCriticism".Newsweek.RetrievedApril9,2010.
174."CaughtBetweenJazzandPop:TheContestedOrigins,Criticism,PerformancePractice,andReceptionofSmooth
Jazz".Digital.library.unt.edu.October23,2010.RetrievedNovember7,2010.
175.Ginell,RichardS."allmusiconRoyAyers".Allmusic.com.RetrievedNovember7,2010.
176.DaveLang,PerfectSoundForever,February1999.[2](http://www.furious.com/Perfect/popgroup.html)Accessdate:
November15,2008.
177.Bangs,Lester."FreeJazz/PunkRock".MusicianMagazine,1979.[3](http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html)Access
date:July20,2008.
178." "HouseOfZorn",GoblinArchives,at".Sonic.net.RetrievedNovember7,2010.
179."ProgressiveEarsAlbumReviews".Progressiveears.com.October19,2007.RetrievedNovember7,2010.
180."...circularandhighlycomplexpolymetricpatternswhichpreservetheirdanceablecharacterofpopularFunkrhythms
despitetheirinternalcomplexityandasymmetries..."(MusicologistandmusicianEkkehardJost,Sozialgeschichtedes
Jazz,2003,p.377)
181.[4](http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820)SteveColeman
182.PianistVijayIyer(whowaschosenas"Jazzmusicianoftheyear2010"bytheJazzJournalistsAssociation)said:"It's
hardtooverstateSteve(Coleman's)influence.He'saffectedmorethanonegeneration,asmuchasanyonesinceJohn
Coltrane."([5](http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703302604575294532527380178.html))
183."Hisrecombinantideasaboutrhythmandformandhiseagernesstomentormusiciansandbuildanewvernacularhave
hadaprofoundeffectonAmericanjazz."(BenRatliff,[6]
(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/15/arts/music/15undead.html?_r=1))
184.VijayIyer:"It'snotjustthatyoucanconnectthedotsbyplayingsevenor11beats.Whatsitsbehindhisinfluenceisthis
globalperspectiveonmusicandlife.Hehasapointofviewofwhathedoesandwhyhedoesit."([7]
(http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703302604575294532527380178.html))
185.MichaelJ.West(June2,2010)."JazzArticles:SteveColeman:VitalInformation".Jazztimes.com.RetrievedJune5,
2011.
186."WhatIsMBase?".Mbase.com.RetrievedJune5,2011.
187.In2014drummerBillyHartsaidthat"Colemanhasquietlyinfluencedthewholejazzmusicalworld,"andisthe"next
logicalstep"afterCharlieParker,JohnColtrane,andOrnetteColeman.(Source:KristinE.Holmes,Geniusgrant
saxmanSteveColemanredefiningjazz,October09,2014,webportalPhilly.com,PhiladelphiaMediaNetwork)Already
in2010pianistVijayIyer(whowaschosenas"JazzMusicianoftheYear2010"bytheJazzJournalistsAssociation)
said:"Tome,Steve[Coleman]isasimportantas[John]Coltrane.Hehascontributedanequalamounttothehistoryof
themusic.Hedeservestobeplacedinthepantheonofpioneeringartists."(Source:LarryBlumenfeld,ASaxophonist's
ReverberantSound,June11,2010,TheWallStreetJournal)InSeptember2014,ColemanwasawardedaMacArthur
Fellowship(a.k.a."GeniusGrant")for"redefiningthevocabularyandvernacularsofcontemporarymusic."(Source:
KristinE.Holmes,GeniusgrantsaxmanSteveColemanredefiningjazz,October09,2014,webportalPhilly.com,
PhiladelphiaMediaNetwork)
188.ChartBeat(http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/chart_beat/bonus.jsp?
JSESSIONID=jzkMJpxpRycnhnGmRDzvs4HCQnRB3ScTlysfnkLYKQxnwRNJvGSx!572034887),Billboard,April9,
2009
References
Litweiler,John(1984).TheFreedomPrinciple:JazzAfter1958.DaCapo.ISBN0306803771.
JoachimErnstBerendt,GntherHuesmann(Bearb.):DasJazzbuch.7.Auflage.S.FischerVerlag,FrankfurtamMain,
2005,ISBN3100038029
Burns,Ken,andGeoffreyC.Ward.2000.JazzAHistoryofAmerica'sMusic.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.Also:The
JazzFilmProject,Inc.
Levine,Mark(1995).TheJazztheorybook.Petaluma,Calif.:SherMusic.ISBN1883217040.
Cooke,Mervyn(1999).Jazz.London:ThamesandHudson.ISBN0500203180..
Carr,Ian.MusicOutside:ContemporaryJazzinBritain.2ndedition.London:Northway.ISBN9780955090868
Collier,JamesLincoln.TheMakingofJazz:AComprehensiveHistory(DellPublishingCo.,1978)
Dance,Stanley(1983).TheWorldofEarlHines.DaCapoPress.ISBN0306801825.Includesa120pageinterview
withHinesplusmanyphotos.
Davis,Miles.MilesDavis(2005).Boplicity.DeltaMusicplc.UPC4006408264637.
Downbeat(2009).TheGreatJazzInterviews:FrankAlkyer&EdEnright(eds).HalLeonardBooks.ISBN97814234
63849
Elsdon,Peter.2003."TheCambridgeCompaniontoJazz,EditedbyMervynCookeandDavidHorn,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress,2002.Review."FrankfrterZeitschriftfrMusikwissenschaft6:15975.
Giddins,Gary.1998.VisionsofJazz:TheFirstCentury.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195076753
35/36
1/28/2016
Gridley,MarkC.2004.ConciseGuidetoJazz,fourthedition.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson/PrenticeHall.ISBN0
131826573
Nairn,Charlie.1975.Earl'Fatha'HInes:1hour'solo'documentarymadein"BluesAlley"JazzClub,WashingtonDC,
forATV,England,1975:produced/directedbyCharlieNairn:original16mmfilmplusouttakesofadditionaltunesfrom
thatfilmarchivedinBritishFilmInstituteLibraryatbfi.org.ukandhttp://www.itvstudios.com:DVDcopieswithJean
GrayHargroveMusicLibrary[whoholdTheEarlHinesCollection/Archive],UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley:also
UniversityofChicago,HoganJazzArchiveTulaneUniversityNewOrleansandLouisArmstrongHouseMuseum
Libraries.
Pealosa,David(2010).TheClaveMatrixAfroCubanRhythm:ItsPrinciplesandAfricanOrigins.Redway,CA:
BembeInc.ISBN1886502803.
Schuller,Gunther.1968.EarlyJazz:ItsRootsandMusicalDevelopment.OxfordUniversityPress.Newprinting1986.
Schuller,Gunther.1991.TheSwingEra:TheDevelopmentofJazz,19301945.OxfordUniversityPress.
Furtherreading
Externallinks
JazzFoundationofAmerica(http://www.jazzfoundation.org/)
Wikiquotehasquotations
JazzattheSmithsonianMuseum(http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/)
relatedto:Jazz
AlabamaJazzHallofFamewebsite(http://www.jazzhall.com/)
JazzArtistandDiscographyResource(http://www.allmusic.com/)
WikimediaCommonshas
JazzScreenVideosandlivemusicResource
mediarelatedtoJazz.
(http://www.jazzscreen.com/)
RedHotJazz.com(http://www.redhotjazz.com/)
JazzatLincolnCenterwebsite(http://www.jalc.org/)
JazzAtLincolnCenterHallofFame(http://www.jalc.org/halloffame)
AmericanJazzMuseum(http://www.americanjazzmuseum.org/)website
TheInternationalArchivesfortheJazzOrgan(http://www.iajo.org/)
ClassicandContemporaryJazzMusic(http://jazzinternetradio.myradiotoolbar.com/)
TheJazzArchiveatDukeUniversity(http://library.duke.edu/specialcollections/collections/jazzindex.html)
JazzFestivalsinEurope(http://www.jazzfests.net/)
Free1920sJazzCollection(https://archive.org/details/Free_20s_Jazz_Collection)availablefordownloading
atArchive.org
JazzHistoryDatabase(http://www.jazzhistorydatabase.com/#)
AcidJazzDatabase(http://flacit.com/albums/genre/Acid_Jazz)
DownBeat'sJazz101AGuidetotheMusic(http://www.downbeat.com/default.asp?
sect=education&subsect=jazz)ThissectionoftheDownbeatmagazinewebsitehasseveralshortpagesto
allowthebeginningstudentofjazztoacquireaneducation.
Jazz(http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/j/jazz/index.html)collectednewsand
commentaryatTheNewYorkTimes
Jazz(http://www.theguardian.com/music/jazz)collectednewsandcommentaryatTheGuardian
Jazz(https://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Styles/J/Jazz)atDMOZ
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jazz&oldid=702110113"
Categories: Jazz AfricanAmericanhistory AfricanAmericanmusic Americanstylesofmusic
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TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
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