The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty, which extends the 1992

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gases
emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b)
man-made CO2 emissions have caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force
on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 Parties (Canada
withdrew effective December 2012)[4] to the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to
fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system" (Art. 2). The Protocol is based on
the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the
obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the
basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocols first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in
2012. A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as
the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37 countries have
binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member
states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway,
Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have
stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal
force the Amendment with second round targets.[8] Japan, New
Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have
not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other
developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which
withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States
(which has not ratified the Protocol). As of November 2015, 59 states
have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires
the acceptances of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding
commitments, 7 have ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC
Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second
commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in 2015 to the adoption

of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the

UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol.
Background
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the
observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming")
since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current
scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected
to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have
produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global
mean temperature might be. The IPCC's projections are "baseline"
projections, meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time
period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st
century. The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66%
probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgement) is
a projected increased in global mean temperature over the 21st century
of between 1.1 and 6.4 C.

The range in temperature projections partly reflects different

projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections
contain different assumptions of future social and economic
development (e.g., economic growth, population level, energy
policies), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions.[13]:2224 The range also reflects uncertainty in the
response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions
(measured by the climate sensitivity).
Chronology
1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is
held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on
Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.

1995 Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of

Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on
emissions.
1997 In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto,
Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC
bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal
from the Kyoto Protocol.
2012 On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the
Protocol expired.
Article 2 of the UNFCCC
Main article: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change Interpreting Article 2
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Article 2 of the
Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with
the climate system." The natural, technical, and social sciences can
provide information on decisions relating to this objective, e.g., the
possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. However, the
IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes
"dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary
between different regions of the world. Factors that might affect this
decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the
ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive
capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions
(mitigative capacity).
Objectives

The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the

main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in
ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions,
wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the
main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework
Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who
have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of
greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto
Protocol's first commitment period (20082012). These emissions
limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed
step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(Gupta et al., 2007). The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling
emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in
2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for
a second commitment period). The first period emission reduction
commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."
Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round
commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in
future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of
emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of
stabilizing atmospheric concentrations. Carbon dioxide (CO
2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the
effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the
Protocol[25] is that it established legally binding commitments to
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The
commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of
UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.[26][27]:290
Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex
I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the
reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition,
they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize
all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean
development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be
rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions
at home.
Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an
adaptation fund for climate change.
Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of
the Protocol.
Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce
compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Details of the agreement
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally
binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only
Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The
Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of
Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude
international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use,
land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets.
[65]
LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in

sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [66] and indeed the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land
Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry estimates that since 1750 a third
of global warming has been caused by land use change. [67] Particular
criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management,
and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol.
[68]
Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is
capped.[68]
Negotiations
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take]
the lead" in reducing emissions.[69] The initial aim was for
industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by
the year 2000.[69] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in
this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding
commitments.[69]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was
able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was
recognized that:[70]

developed nations had contributed most to the then-current

concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse
gas#Cumulative and historical emissions).

developing
country emissions
per-capita (i.e.,
average
emissions per head of population)[71] were still relatively low.

and that the share of global emissions from developing

countries would grow to meet their development needs.

During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries.

China was not a member of the group but an associate.[72] It has since
become a member.[73]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that
developing countries were not subject to emission reduction
commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period.[70] However, the
large potential for growth in developing country emissions made
negotiations on this issue tense.[74] In the final agreement, the Clean
Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in
developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do
not bear the costs for limiting emissions.[74] The general assumption
was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in
later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries
would meet their first round commitments.[74]
Emissions cuts
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains
a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties
during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong
uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [75] The U.S.
originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto
commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [76] In the end,
negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005.
[76]
Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can
"bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period.[76]

The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included CO

2, CH
4,
and N
2O with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately.[75] The EU
also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a
collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase
their emissions, while others cut theirs.[75]
The most vulnerable nations the Alliance of Small Island
States (AOSIS) pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations,
with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible
extent.[75] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had
different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different
indicators were proposed.[77] Two examples include differentiation of
targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation
based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output).[77]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute
political compromises.[75] The targets closely match those decided by
Argentinian Raul Estrada, thediplomat who chaired the negotiations.
[78]
The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based
on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest
negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible
environmental outcome.[79] The final targets are weaker than those
proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and
the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others,
e.g., Canada and the United States.[80]
Financial commitments[edit]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have
to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for
climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally
agreed in UNFCCC. One such project is The Adaptation Fund"[81]",

that has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete
adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
Implementational provisions[edit]
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth
Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to
resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was
unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European
Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States,
Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less
demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held
in Bonn where the required decisions were adopted. After some
concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European
Union) managed to get the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing
more use of carbon dioxide sinks.
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001
in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was
held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with
the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11).
See United Nations Climate Change Conference.
During COP13 in Bali 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a
party in the European Union) agreed to a 10% emissions increase
for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual
obligations,[82] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some
of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto
Protocol#Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990).
[83]
Reduction limitations expire in 2013.

Mechanism of compliance[edit]
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring
compliance with the commitments and penalties for noncompliance."[84] According
to
Grubb
(2003),[85] the
explicit
consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to
domestic law.[85] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly
contested in the Marrakesh Accords.[85]
Enforcement[edit]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in
compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required
to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus
an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from
making transfers under an emissions trading program.[86]
Ratification process[edit]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December
1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature
during one year by parties to UNFCCC, when it was signed Antigua
and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and
Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and
the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required
to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with
ratification of Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the
convention, which has the same legal effect.[1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force
"on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to
the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which
accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide
emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their
instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."[87]

The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [88] Of
the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May
2002
when Iceland ratified
the
Protocol.[1] The
ratification
by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and
brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the
required lapse of 90 days.[89]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic
organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement, representing over
61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex Icountries.[90] One of the 191
ratifying statesCanadahas denounced the protocol.
Convention Parties [show]
US position[edit]
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998,[91] during the
Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty
had to be ratified by the Senate, which had already passed the 1997
non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution, expressing disapproval of any
international agreement that did not require developing countries to
make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of
the United States". The resolution passed 95-0. [92] Therefore, even
though the Clinton administration signed the treaty,[93] it was never
submitted to the Senate for ratification.
When George W. Bush was elected US president in 2000, he was
asked by US Senator Hagel what his administration's position was on
climate change. Bush replied that he took climate change "very
seriously,"[94] but that he opposed the Kyoto treaty, because "it exempts
80% of the world, including major population centers such as China
and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US
economy".[95] The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research
reported in 2001 that, "This policy reversal received a massive wave of
criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media.

Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and

Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. [...] Almost all
world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.)
expressed their disappointment at Bushs decision." Bush's response
that, "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real
problem when it comes to energy" was, it said, "an overstatement used
to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil
and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration
and conservative Republican congressmen."[96]
The US accounted for 36% of emissions in 1990, and without U.S.
ratification, only an EU+Russia+Japan+small party coalition could
place the treaty into legal effect. A deal was reached in the Bonn
climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001.[97]
Withdrawal of Canada[edit]
Main article: Kyoto Protocol and government action Withdrawal of
Canada
See also: Canada and the Kyoto Protocol
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on
further Kyoto targets.[98] The Canadian government announced its
withdrawalpossible at any time three years after ratificationfrom
the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December
2012.[99] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to
6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17%
higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized tarsand
development in Alberta, and deprioritized improving the environment.
Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous
financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew.[98][100] He also
suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an
alternative way forward.[101] The Harper government claimed it would
find a "Made in Canada" solution, but never found any such solution.

Canada's decision received a generally negative response from

representatives of other ratifying countries.[102]