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2 AUTHORS:
David G Lloyd
Thor Besier
Griffith University
University of Auckland
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Abstract
This paper examined if an electromyography (EMG) driven musculoskeletal model of the human knee could be used to predict
knee moments, calculated using inverse dynamics, across a varied range of dynamic contractile conditions. Muscletendon lengths
and moment arms of 13 muscles crossing the knee joint were determined from joint kinematics using a three-dimensional anatomical
model of the lower limb. Muscle activation was determined using a second-order discrete non-linear model using rectied and lowpass ltered EMG as input. A modied Hill-type muscle model was used to calculate individual muscle forces using activation and
muscle tendon lengths as inputs. The model was calibrated to six individuals by altering a set of physiologically based parameters
using mathematical optimisation to match the net exion/extension (FE) muscle moment with those measured by inverse dynamics.
The model was calibrated for each subject using 5 different tasks, including passive and active FE in an isokinetic dynamometer,
running, and cutting manoeuvres recorded using three-dimensional motion analysis. Once calibrated, the model was used to predict
the FE moments, estimated via inverse dynamics, from over 200 isokinetic dynamometer, running and sidestepping tasks. The
inverse dynamics joint moments were predicted with an average R2 of 0.91 and mean residual error of B12 Nm. A re-calibration of
only the EMG-to-activation parameters revealed FE moments prediction across weeks of similar accuracy. Changing the muscle
model to one that is more physiologically correct produced better predictions. The modelling method presented represents a good
way to estimate in vivo muscle forces during movement tasks.
r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: EMG-driven model; Musculoskeletal model; Knee biomechanics
1. Introduction
Measuring the forces applied to a joint and estimating
how these forces are partitioned to surrounding muscles,
ligaments, and articular surfaces is fundamental to
understanding joint function, injury, and disease.
Inverse dynamics can be used to estimate the external
load applied to a joint, however, the contribution from
muscles to support or generate this load is far more
difcult to determine given the indeterminate nature of
the joint. One solution to this problem is to estimate
muscle forces based on an objective function within an
optimisation routine, for example, minimising muscle
stress. By default, the use of an objective function
cannot account individual muscle activation patterns.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-9-380-3919; fax: +61-9-3801039.
E-mail address: dlloyd@cyllene.uwa.edu.au (D.G. Lloyd).
0021-9290/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(03)00010-1
766
2. Methods
2.1. Model development
The model uses raw EMG and joint kinematics,
recorded during a range of static and dynamic trials, as
input to estimate individual muscle forces and, subsequently, joint moments. The model is generic in that it
can be adapted to any joint, given appropriate
anatomical and physiological data. For the purpose of
this study, we have modelled the human knee joint.
There are four main parts to this overall model: (1)
Anatomical model, (2) EMG-to-activation model, (3)
Hill-type muscle model, and (4) Model calibration.
2.2. Anatomical model
Using SIMMt (Musculographics Inc.; Delp and
Loan, 1995), a lower limb anatomical model was
developed based on that created by Delp et al. (1990)
and extended by Lloyd and Buchanan (1996). The
anatomical model included 13 musculotendon actuators, represented as line segments that wrap around
bones and other muscles. These were semimembranosus
(SM), semitendinosus (ST), biceps femoris long head
(BFL), biceps femoris short head (BFS), sartorius (SR),
tensor fascia latae (TFL), gracilis (GR), vastus lateralis
(VL), vastus intermedius (VI), vastus medialis (VM),
rectus femoris (RF), medial gastrocnemius (MG), and
lateral gastrocnemius (LG). The only 2 knee muscles not
included were the plantaris and popliteus as they have
very small physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA)
and it was assumed that they provide a negligible
contribution to the total knee exion/extension (FE)
moment.
Lower limb joint kinematic data were used as input
for the anatomical model to determine individual muscle
767
uj t aej t d b1 uj t 1 b2 uj t 2;
aj t
and
jC2 jo1:
eAuj t 1
;
eA 1
where aj t is the activation of muscle j; uj t the postprocessed EMG of muscle j at time t; A the non-linear
shape factor, constrained to 3oAj o0; with 0 being a
linear relationship.
The nal activation time series were obtained for 10 of
the 13 muscles previously mentioned (as per Lloyd and
Buchanan, 1996). In addition, muscle activation from
VI was estimated as an average of the VM and VL
activation, whilst ST was assumed to have the same
activation as SM and BFS was assumed to have the
same activation as the BFL.
2.4. Hill-type muscle model
Individual muscle tendon length and activation data
were then used as input to a modied Hill-type muscle
model to calculate individual muscle forces. The muscle
768
~
Normalised Muscle-Fibre Force (Fmax)
1.2
1
0.8
passive
active
0.6
0.4
activation @ 1.0
activation @ 0.75
activation @ 0.5
activation @ 0.5
passive force length curve
sum of passive and active force
change in L0m
0.2
0
0.2
0.7
-0.2
~
Lm
1.2
1.7
~
Normalised Muscle Fibre Length (Lm)
Fig. 1. Active and passive force length curves. Values are normalised by F max and L0m with 1.0 being 100% activation. Optimal muscle bre length
(L0m ) was scaled with activation (see text for details).
769
In the pilot work on the model, a 40 ms electromechanical delay (d) gave good temporal synchronisation between estimated and measured knee joint
moments, so it was xed at that value. The pilot work
also revealed that the percentage change in bre length
(g) was consistently calibrated to approximately 15%,
with little improvement in model predictions below 10%
and above 20%. Therefore, it was decided to x g to a
constant of 15% (0.15 in Eq. (5)). The other muscle
parameters, L0m and f0 ; were xed to values reported by
Delp (1990).
2.7. Model validation procedures
The model was calibrated to six male subjects in total,
chosen to be of similar build to the Anatomical Model
(mean age: 20.572.9 years; mean mass: 74.678.6 kg).
Following calibration, the activation and muscle model
parameters were used to predict FE knee moments for
approximately 30 other tasks for each subject, performed on a Biodex dynamometer or within the gait
laboratory. The University of Western Australia Human
Rights Committee approved all test procedures and all
subjects gave informed written consent prior to commencing the experimental trials.
The dynamometer tasks predicted by the knee model
included: maximum isometric contractions for exors
and extensors; eccentric hamstring and quadriceps
contraction at 120
/s; low effort FE at 120
/s; combined
FE with varus/valgus movements at 120
/s; and maximal effort FE at 60
/s. During these trials, knee FE
torque, knee exion angle, and EMG data were
collected at 2000 Hz using Waveview data collection
software (Eagle Technology, Cape Town). An inverse
dynamic model was developed to determine the net
muscular FE moment using the torque from the Biodex
machine and knee exion angle measured from an
electrical goniometer attached to the knee. Bipolar
surface EMG electrodes were used to collect muscle
activity from 10 knee joint muscles (as stated above)
using a ten-channel EMG system (Motion Lab Systems,
Baton Rouge, LA). Hip and ankle angles were measured
using a hand held goniometer and were assumed to be
constant for each trial as the subject was strapped into
position, allowing movement only at the knee joint.
The net FE muscle moment and knee exion angle
obtained from the Biodex trials were ltered using a
zero-lag low-pass Butterworth lter with a cut off
frequency of 6 Hz, then downsampled to 100 Hz for
input into the model.
Subjects also performed a series of running trials in
the gait laboratory including a straight run, sidestep to
60
and 30
from the direction of travel, and a crossover
cut to 30
from the direction of travel (Besier et al.,
2001). These tasks were performed at B3 m/s. Lower
limb joint kinematic data were collected with a 6-camera
770
3. Results
Following calibration, the model predicted FE knee
moments with a mean (S.D.) R2 of 0.9170.04 across 204
running, sidestepping, and dynamometer trials (Table 1).
Mean residual error for these predictions was B12 Nm
(Table 1) and when normalised to body weight was less
than 0.2 Nm/kg. Tables 2 and 3 summarise the global
parameters for each subject following calibration. The
dynamic knee model was capable of predicting FE
moments across a wide range of tasks from running, to
crossover cutting and eccentric dynamometer tasks.
Fig. 2 illustrates the ability of the model to well
predict FE moments at the knee for a single subject
Table 1
Summary of model predictions of external torque for running, cutting, and dynamometer tasks
Subject
R2
S.D.
Slope
S.D.
Intercept
S.D.
MRE (Nm)
S.D.
MRE (Nm/kg)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean
0.921
0.921
0.865
0.938
0.921
0.884
0.908
0.030
0.034
0.052
0.029
0.046
0.072
0.044
0.975
0.897
0.792
0.903
0.894
0.905
0.894
0.151
0.128
0.123
0.042
0.121
0.177
0.124
2.74
6.27
1.74
2.49
4.6
0.48
3.05
3.19
5.16
5.08
2.83
5.4
5.28
4.49
10.69
15.88
12.48
10.97
12.99
9.08
12.02
3.85
3.09
3.1
1.53
3.86
2.73
3.03
0.144
0.182
0.192
0.137
0.172
0.138
0.16
Mean and standard deviations are given for the 204 trials performed.
MRE (Nm)=mean residual error.
MRE (Nm/kg)=mean residual error normalised to subjects body weight.
Table 2
Flexion/extension coefcients (d and j; respectively) and activation parameters for each subject following calibration
Subject
C1
C2
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.025
1.216
0.867
1.025
0.893
1.110
1.125
1.461
1.234
1.125
1.325
1.203
0.033
0.091
0.265
0.097
0.006
0.015
0.019
0.093
0.182
0.313
0.014
0.033
0.200
1.975
0.955
1.287
0.938
0.708
771
Table 3
Tendon slack lengths (Ltsj ) for each muscle following calibration, the initial values prior to calibration (obtained using data from Lloyd and
Buchanan (1996)), and data from Delp (1990)
Tendon slack lengths for each subject (m)
Muscle
Mean
S.D.
Initial value
Delp
SM
ST
BFL
BFS
SR
RF
TFL
GR
VM
VI
VL
MG
LG
0.408
0.262
0.360
0.247
0.038
0.332
0.390
0.190
0.108
0.137
0.148
0.394
0.370
0.407
0.288
0.403
0.243
0.040
0.338
0.393
0.192
0.117
0.139
0.153
0.379
0.353
0.410
0.301
0.405
0.246
0.041
0.335
0.394
0.191
0.118
0.133
0.157
0.379
0.358
0.337
0.280
0.372
0.241
0.050
0.330
0.378
0.196
0.116
0.139
0.158
0.385
0.389
0.412
0.265
0.379
0.285
0.043
0.324
0.395
0.193
0.107
0.133
0.148
0.388
0.387
0.405
0.278
0.373
0.248
0.045
0.334
0.375
0.193
0.111
0.131
0.149
0.384
0.386
0.396
0.279
0.382
0.252
0.043
0.332
0.387
0.192
0.113
0.135
0.152
0.385
0.374
0.029
0.015
0.018
0.017
0.004
0.005
0.009
0.002
0.005
0.003
0.005
0.006
0.016
0.370
0.265
0.360
0.250
0.038
0.311
0.391
0.191
0.112
0.135
0.156
0.395
0.365
0.359
0.262
0.341
0.100
0.040
0.346
0.425
0.140
0.126
0.136
0.157
0.408
0.385
200
200
150
150
Moment (Nm)
Moment (Nm)
100
50
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
150
150
Moment (Nm)
200
100
50
0
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.4
0.8
R2 = 0.94
slope = 0.91
mre = 4.86 Nm
time (s)
100
50
0
0.4
2.8
-50
-100
0.6
200
0.4
0.4
-100
Moment (Nm)
0
-50
R2 = 0.97
slope = 0.95
mre = 7.76
time (s)
50
0.2
-50
-100
100
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.4
2.8
-50
time (s)
R2 = 0.89
slope = 0.94
mre = 7.76 Nm
-100
-150
time (s)
R2 = 0.95
slope = 0.95
mre = 18.30 Nm
Model prediction
Inverse dynamics
Fig. 2. Comparison of model predictions of knee exion/extension muscle moments and knee joint moments measured externally for subject 1.
Extension moments are positive on all graphs.
Session 2
R2
0.921
0.921
0.921
0.884
0.926
0.920
0.916
0.859
0.76
1.00
0.87
0.18
Isometric or
dynamic model?
1
2
5
6
Session 1
R2
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Isometric
Isometric
Dynamic
Subject
Predictions (R2 )
Table 4
Model predictions across different testing sessions
772
2
703
398
NA
108
204
2
10
10
6
7
6
Hip, knee, and ankle
Lower back
Lower back
Shoulder
Knee
Knee
White and Winter (1993)
Granata and Marras (1995)
Nussbaum and Chafn (1998)
Laursen et al. (1998)
Lloyd and Buchanan (1996)
Current Study
Total no.
of trials
No. of subjects
Joint modelled
Many studies have shown the promise of EMGdriven musculoskeletal models to estimate muscle forces
and predict human joint moments over a limited set of
test data. The current model, following subject-specic
calibration, predicted the inverse dynamic FE knee joint
moments determined from a wide range of tasks and
different contractile conditions, thus supporting the
hypothesis of this study. The same muscle model
parameters were also used to give close predictions of
knee joint moments across different testing sessions,
which give condence that the model and the subjectspecic parameters are representing the anatomy and
physiology of the system. The ability to predict gait
tasks as-well-as tasks performed using an isokinetic
dynamometer indicated that the model was not just
predicting moments for tasks that had similar patterns
of EMG and movement. The predictions were sensitive
to the physiological correctness of the model, where a
less physiologically correct model produced poorer
predictions. Finally, compared to previous EMG driven
models, the current model was better at predicting joint
moments calculated using inverse dynamics (Table 5).
Comparison of direct measures of muscle forces with
the EMG driven model estimates would be an ideal
method to validate the model. Unfortunately, ethical
Table 5
Comparison of previous EMG driven models and the current dynamic knee model
4. Discussion
773
774
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the
National Health and Medical Research Council of
Australia (Grant #991134) and Musculographics Inc.
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