Fisheries Paper Complete

The Coastal Fisheries of Small Island Developing States:
Examining the sustainability of these fisheries in the past and present
Robert Borgoo, Alex Villa, Courtney MacDonald, and Aaron Rosenblum

Boston University
GE 304
Spring 2014
Professor Baldwin
Introduction and Statement of Purpose
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Coastal Fisheries of SIDS
Small Island developing states (SIDS) are collections of islands that are characterized by
various unfortunate factors inhibiting sustainable development in their regions. Areas like the
Caribbean, the Pacific, and Africa, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea regions
(AIMS). These nations often have access to nearby coral reefs and fisheries, which are used for
various purposes but primarily for economic purposes. The benefits derived from healthy coral
reefs are substantial and contribute to the stability and growth of local and national economies.
However, their decline in recent decades has been linked to rising anthropogenic disturbances such
as the overexploitation of fisheries. We aim to explore connections between the current
socioeconomic conditions within a handful of SIDS and healthy reefs. We will examine the role of
fisheries primarily.
1. The Bahamas
Economy and Fisheries of the Bahamas

The Bahamian islands are an example of a Small Island Developing State that has undergone
significant social, economic, and environmental changes in the past few decades. The modernization
of the Bahamas is largely due to its economic shift, starting in the 1960s and expanding rapidly with
time, into the tourism sector of development. The tourism industry has been a light of hope for
Bahamian natives looking to make a living in an otherwise narrow and bleak economy. Bahamian
geography has kept the islands in a vulnerable and disadvantageous state throughout its history. The
isolation of the islands has ensured excessive Bahamian dependence on international trade. As is the
case with many other Small Island Developing States, the Bahamas suffers from lack of fertile soil
for agricultural gains and overall limitations on natural resources.
Today, the Bahamian economy is comprised of three significant sectors that account for most
all of the nations GDP. These three sectors are the tourism industry, offshore banking, and the
fishing industry.i The tourism industry is the most significant contribution to the economy, providing
about 60% of the total GDP and accounting for five billion US dollars (USD) of the total Bahamian
income annually. Financial services provide 17% of the total GDP, followed by 5% of the GDP from
the fishing industry and agriculture.ii
The two most lucrative resources harvested by the fishing industry are shellfish and scalefish. Scalefish encompasses the grouper, snapper, hogfish, jacks and grunts. The shellfish group
includes the conch, whelks, the Spiny Lobster, stone crab, and queen helmet. There are three main
fisheries in the Bahamian islands that account for the majority of income within the industry.
Together, they provide the economy with about $60 million USD each year, which is representative
of 2.25% of the national GDP.iii These industries include the Spiny Lobster, the Queen Conch, and
scalefish fisheries.
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The most valuable marine resource, according to the Bahamas Department of Fisheries in
1999, is that of crawfish or Spiny lobster tails. The total availability of tails themselves in 1999 was
valued at $53,364,247 USD and 5,478,508 lbs. In 1997 alone, 2600 metric tons of Spiny Lobster
were caught and brought in 58.7 million USD. Although a small portion of Spiny Lobster catch is
sold domestically, the majority is exported. The United States accounts for 60% of Spiny Lobster
exports, followed by France at 35%, and Canada at 5%. The Bahamian Spiny Lobster fishery is the
fourth largest in the world.iv
Bahamians use three different fishing techniques for Spiny Lobster catch. Traditionally,
Bahamian fishermen use artisanal fishing, which can be described as small-scale, non-commercial
fishing techniques. For example, spearing and trapping are popular Spiny Lobster fishing methods.
Unfortunately, both techniques can be significantly damaging to surrounding coral and marine life.v
For example, spear fishing has been shown to increase incidences of overfishing.vi A particularly
damaging and harmful fishing method seen in the Bahamas is that of bleach fishing and cyanide
fishing. Bleach fishing involves the injection of household bleach into a Spiny Lobster den, forcing
the lobster out in the open and shocking them into a paralyzing state that makes fishing easy and
efficient. However, bleach fishing and cyanide fishing has implications ranging from decreased
productivity to mortality of benthic communities.vii In particular, corals are destroyed by the
chemicals, which cause rapid colonization of algae. Algal blooms present competition for sunlight
that coral reefs are often unable to overcome.viii In the 1980s, a new fishing technique involving
artificial habits or condos was introduced. It is now a widely used method. The condos are created
using large rectangular pieces of aluminum and wood and are shown to attract lobster.ix However, the
condos can result in coral legions and degradation. In 2002, the most recent fishing rates available
show Spiny Lobster as being close to fully exploited and a declining trend for the abundance of
Spiny Lobster available in the Bahamian reef communities.x
Shallow water Queen Conch populations are heavily overfished, with the most severe
incidence occurring in the Exuma Cays. In addition, deep-water conch populations are also rapidly
moving toward the point of exploitation.xi In 2008, the conch alone was valued at $6,311,977 USD
and acquired stock was recorded as 1,890,426 lbs. The Bahamas brought in $2,000,000 USD just
with conch exports to the United States. In 2006, the Bahamian exports were roughly a half-million
USD less than in 2008.xii Therefore, the Queen Conch is an increasingly important asset to the
Bahamian economy and it is in the best interest of Bahamians to protect the stock through
sustainable fishing techniques. Unfortunately, poaching poses a threat to both the economy of the
Bahamas and to the Queen Conch communities.
The invasive Lionfish species currently poses a significant threat to the marine communities
and coral reefs. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew resulted in the destruction of an aquarium tank in Florida
containing Lionfish. This marked the release of a half-dozen Lionfish into the Atlantic Ocean. By
2007, there was a significant population explosion in the Bahamian Island aquatic ecosystem.
Lionfish, true to their name, are extremely threatening predators to small and even medium-sized
fish. Divers are said to have seen one Lionfish eat thirty small fish in a matter of twenty minutes.
Mark Albins of the Department of Zoology at Oregon State states: a Lionfish has the ability to kill
three-quarters of a reefs fish population in just five weeks. xiii Lionfish do not have any natural
predators in the reefs of the Bahamas, which puts the ecosystem in a particularly vulnerable position.
Lionfish are served as a delicacy in several other countries, however much like a Puffer fish they
contain poison and must be prepared correctly to ensure consumer safety. Currently, Bahamians do
not have the necessary knowledge to include the Lionfish as a food source. However, there are hopes
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that the Bahamians will adopt the Lionfish as a delicacy, thereby encouraging fishing of the species.
Because there is no current use for the fish, Bahamians do not have direct viable gains by
specifically fishing for them. Currently, fisheries management organizations are looking for solutions
to this issue and using encouragement techniques to decrease the Lionfish threat. In 2009, the first
Lionfish Control Project was instituted. The project invited fishermen to enter a two-day long
Lionfish catching tournament with cash prize incentives. xiv According to the Department of Marine
Resources, the Lionfish represents a potential major threat by decreasing survival of native groupers,
snappers, and Spiny Lobster by up to 79%.xv
Although economic gains of fishing have provided the Bahamian residents with opportunities
that are otherwise relatively non-existent, there are clear negative implications that result. The
prosperity of the coral reefs and the reef ecosystem depends heavily on the implementation of
sustainable fishing techniques, protection of marine resources, and efforts to maintain the health of
the marine communities. While there may seem to be a simple solution to fishing-imposed
environmental degradation and resource stress, social attitudes stall efforts to enforce significant
changes. In addition, the fishing industry itself is cause for social strains in the Bahamian Islands. A
pressing roadblock is the fact that the socioeconomic variables and perspectives on resource
management have been given very little consideration when conservation strategies and ecotourism
development strategies are designed.xvi[5]
The average wage in 2007 in the hotel industry was $361/week. The median weekly wage in
the fishing industry was $437 in New Providence. xvii Therefore, although there is significant
opportunity in the tourism industry, those that are already employed and making a higher income in
the fishing industry are slow to support marine reserves and management. Even if the fishing
industry migrated into the tourism sector of the economy, tourism accounts for debatably more
significant environmental impacts and is responsible for a significant amount of coral degradation.
Management is also hindered by the prevalence of multiple disadvantageous sector
conditions. First, the Bahamian government and agencies lack adequate biological data, which
prevents the completion of stock assessments. Economic and social data is essential in evaluating the
impacts of existing and proposed regulations and the social well-being of the fisheries sector. In
addition, there is an overall deficiency in adequate enforcement. This encompasses Illegal
Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing by foreign vessels-especially from the Dominican
Republic, foreign recreational vessels, and native recreational and fishing vessels. The fishing sector
also lacks adequate human and financial resources, which slows down sustainable development
within the sector. The Department of Marine Resources lacks sufficient funds and resources to
provide the sector with basic needs including research, data collection, marine reserve development,
and stock assessment. It is also difficult to find Bahamian crew members with necessary training and
willingness to work as a crew. Although there exists opportunity in hiring Dominican crew members,
it is largely looked down upon.xviii The Bahamians also have a similar negative attitude for Haitian
immigrants.xix
In 2000, the Bahamian government began developing a network of marine reserves with the
end goal of preserving 20% of their coastal marine environment by deeming them off-limits to the
fishing industry. In a survey conducting 200 interviews, 600 household surveys, and observations
from 2001-2005, the socio economic attitudes and roadblocks came to light. 19% of the total
household surveys conducted had at least one representative of the fishing industry. 67% of the
sample listed non-fishing impacts as the major threat to the ecosystem. The study found that
individuals who perceive the local environmental conditions as poor are more likely to support
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marine reserves. However, female respondents overwhelmingly responded with, I dont know,
when asked about the health of the marine ecosystem. This may be due to the fact that the male
Bahamian is usually the main source of income in the family, creating slight imbalance of power
between the male and female Bahamian. However, gender inequality is relative low in the Bahamas
compared to the majority of developing nations.xx [7]
In addition, households with higher incomes were significantly more likely to support marine
reserves. Households within communities that are heavily dependent on fishing did not support the
creation of reserves. 60% of respondents were found to have had a grandfather that worked in the
fishing industry, yet only 20% were currently working in the industry. Therefore, it is likely that the
attitudinal influence of fishers will continue to diminish in the future. On the other hand, those in the
tourism industry generally supported marine reserves.xxi This is likely due to the fact that tourism
workers are aware that the industry relies on ecosystem and coral health for the attraction of tourists.
Tourists travel to the Bahamas to enjoy the marine life and the lively coral, not a dead, barren reef.
Currently, the Bahamian population is around 370,000 inhabitants. The islands exhibit a
young population with an expanding population curve. The female to male ratio is relatively
equivalent. By 1990, only ~3% of Bahamians were not educated. Education is accessible to both
men and women. In the 1990s, AIDS was prevalent in the Bahamas and declared the leading killer
of Bahamians from ages twenty to forty. However, the issue has significantly declined in present
day.xxii Therefore, although the geographical location of the Bahamas provides significant barriers for
development, the nation does not suffer from many of the prominent issues in other developing
nations.
In 2011, the Nature Conservancy established coral nurseries in the south coast of New
Providence. The process of creating nurseries involves divers gluing two-inch coral shards to disks
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or pucks and attaching them to cement blocks. The conservancy nurseries have the potential of
maintaining 5000 healthy corals. Coral nurseries, however, require a significant amount of
maintenance. Divers must visit the nurseries once a month to ensure the stability of the corals and to
clean algae off of the coral (Nature Conservancy). However, stormy weather calls for more frequent
management.xxiii
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is responsible for upholding their established laws
and regulations in the fishing community. One of the particularly successful laws established by the
Ministry is the banning of bleach fishing. Although it is still illegally practiced, incidents are far
fewer.xxiv In addition, the Bahamas Reef Environment Educational Foundation (BREEF) promotes a
sustainable and positive relationship between the Bahamas, visitors, and the marine environment.
BREEF takes on the responsibility of publicly educating Bahamians and tourists on the importance
of coral and marine health and how to uphold it. In addition, BREEF conducts research and supports
policy decisions.xxv The BSCA (Bahamas Sport-fishing Conservation Association) promotes
sustainable fishing and focuses on raising public awareness.xxvi
Going forward, a positive attitude of fishers toward marine reserves would help improve
policy making and enforcement. In addition, tourist attitudes need improvement. Often, tourists are
unaware of how fragile the Bahamian ecosystem is and cause direct physical damage to it. More
data must be acquired and presented to increase policy making and overall awareness of
environmental threats; therefore, there is a need for sufficient funding. Although the Bahamas is
experiencing significant environmental degradation influenced by economic and socioeconomic
pressures, the islands are not facing many of the sustainable development issues that pose a threat to
most developing nations. This in itself provides hope for attaining future development that is both
sustainable economically and environmentally.
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2. Belize
The Fisheries of Belize
The benefits derived from healthy coral reefs are substantial and contribute to the stability
and growth of local and national economies. However, their decline in recent decades has been
linked to rising anthropogenic disturbances such as the overexploitation of fisheries. Additional
human impacts contributing to the change in Caribbean reefs after the extreme coral bleaching
event in 1998, and Hurricane Iris in 2001 include nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, direct damage,
and oil spills.xxvii Belizes reefs provide an invaluable case-study in Caribbean reef health and usage
because they make up the very diverse Belize Barrier Reef System (sometimes referred to as the
Mesoamerican Barrier reef System or MBRS, which is the largest reef in the Western
Hemisphere); there are about 65 coral species and 300 fish species in the region, compared with just
over 70 coral species and 520 fish species in the entire Caribbean. Thus, studying the relationship
between fisheries and reef ecosystems in Belize will provide information on less well studied and
documented areas in the Caribbean. Coral reefs have undeniable socioeconomic value and this fact is
clear in Belize where, for example, the artisanal fishers depend on the seasonal productivity of the
reefs for subsistence. Other key economic and social benefits that outline the diverse ecological
services associated with healthy coral reefs includehigh tourism-related incomes, protection from
coastal erosion, and good nutrition for coastal communities. However, it should be noted that the
valuation of coral reefs is a highly complex process, regional level valuation does not capture the
economic contribution of coral reefs to subsistence livelihoods, nor does it take into account the
cultural importance that reefs often have. In order to protect all of these assets, Belize has become a
leader in fisheries management with its many fishing cooperatives, MPAs and NGOs.xxviii The
fisheries sector of Belize is at a crossroads; Belize has the proper institutional resources needed to
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sustain the health of its corals reefs, however the pathological dependence that the fishing sector has
on lobster and conch coupled with a masking of environmental problems with economic short-term
solutions, such as the addition of fishing cooperatives and low cost fishing licenses, has opened up
the possibility of a downward trend and the ultimate extinction of the industry. The question of
whether the Belize fisheries will survive this current crisis depends on Belizes ability to restructure
the industry and find other, presently undiscovered fish populations to extract with the use of new
technologies such as fish aggregation devices.
Economic Conditions in Belize

As part of the United Nations class of Small Island Developing State (SIDS), Belize faces
many barriers to development that make certain types of fishing (e.g. small net, cyanide and
dynamite fishing) an attractive, if environmentally unsustainable, source of revenue for many of its
lower income citizens and illegal fishermen; indeed, Belize fisheries provide a more practical source
of income for many of the countrys most disadvantaged, who are also the ones most vulnerable to
the immediate effects of coral degradation. Fisheries in Belize are also able to indirectly provide jobs
for thousands of people in processing, marketing, boat building, net making and other support
services.xxix Thus, one can see the irreplaceable contribution to sustenance livelihoods outside the
realm of GDP contribution; the sources of nutrition and employment that corals provide often occurs
in places where there are no alternatives and this makes fisheries management much more difficult to
rationalize in the short term. Economic sustainability in Belize Fisheries has often masked declines
in catches of Conch and Lobster: fishing high market prices for lobster allowed conch fishers to
switch to lobster, and also masked the stabilizing lobster yields in the 1980s.xxx
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Despite the prominence of the fish industry, effective management of Belizean fisheries is
made a more attainable goal given the fact that agriculture, not commercial fishing, is Belizes main
source of revenue. With exports such as, sugarcane, bananas and citrus, agriculture remains the
leading industry in Belize; it accounted for ~22% of GDP, ~70% of export earnings and ~29% of the
total labor force in the 1990s, though lack of diversification in crops has been identified as a major
issue by the Belize Department of Agriculture. xxxi In a study comparing Jamaican and Belizean
fisheries through analysis of their respective economies, the author reports that recent efforts in
garment and light manufacturing, tourism, aquaculture and agriculture will increase employment
opportunities; if fishers opt for part-time status or to enter other occupations full-time, some pressure
may be lifted from the fishery.xxxii Further, Belize has one of the stronger economies in the
Caribbean region. It has a GDP per capita of $3780, an HDI of 0.751 (making it 95th out of 177
countries), an unemployment rate of 15.0% and is classified as a high-middle income country by the
World Bank, thus its environment doesnt face the same pressures as in a country such as Jamaica,
whose higher unemployment will lead to greater efforts by the poor to exploit open access
resources like forests and fisheries, leading to a race for the last fish mentality. xxxiii Additionally,
rising education levels in Belize are making the fishing business less of a family tradition as newer
generations gain secondary and tertiary education and set their sights on other, higher-level
occupations.xxxiv Rising education levels counteract the dependency that Belizeans have had on
fishing as a form of occupation since reaching independence from British colonialism.
Fishing Cooperatives within Belize

Belizes cooperatives were created out of necessity in order for Belizean fisheries to sell their
product at a fair price. Before the creation of the two main fishing cooperatives (Northern Fishermen
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Cooperative Ltd. and National Fishermen Producers Cooperative Ltd.) buyers would sell lobster at
much higher prices ($2.40/lb) than they paid ($0.40/lb), leading to a net economic loss for the local
fishermen. Once cooperatives were established, fishermen were given direct access to the foreign
market and fishers incomes jumped by over 1000% in less than 5 years. xxxv Thus, the cooperatives in
Belize represent an economic success that is atypical for the region. Consequently, the commercial
fishing industry in Belize is substantial and growing rapidly, but with declining numbers in fish.
Although the commercial fishing industry is driven by high prices and high demand from
other countries, leading to overexploitation, the cooperative nature of the industry (which evolved
from foreign marketing companies) means fishermen have more practical knowledge of the threats
facing the coral reefs. A study conducted on fisheries in Belize and Jamaica suggests that fishers in
Belize are in-fact aware of declines in abundance, as well as of possible causes of and solutions to
these declines. In the same study, Belizean fishers were asked how the number of catches could be
improved. The fishers called for the policing of fishing areas, the detention of thieves, and an end to
pollution of the marine environment. There were a few fatalists in the sample, as well as those who
had no idea what should be done. Clearly some Belizean fishers are quite environmentally
aware.xxxvi Table 1 shows that fishermen in cooperatives tend to read more fisheries related material
than their independent counterparts and are as a result probably more environmentally aware. The
data also points to the better living standards of cooperative fishermen, who tend to be wealthier and
go on vacation more often. As their incomes rise, fishermen in cooperatives often switch over to the
tourism sector because they have the gear subsidized by the cooperatives to do so. However, the
tourism industry has its own drawbacks to the health or coral reefs, which include disturbance of
fishing aggregations by divers, sewage runoff from the increased number of hotels and tourist sites
and a greater strain on coastal marine resources due to the added population of tourists.
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PROFILE
COOPERATIVE
INDEPENDENT
AVERAGE AGE
38.5 YEARS
35.2 YEARS
NUMBER OF CHILDREN
2.73
2.10
CHILDREN UNDER 18
1.42
1.18
TRAVEL OUTSIDE OF BELIZE IN 47.0%
19.4%
PAST 5 YEARS
ANY READING ABOUT FISHING 45.2%
25.9%
Table 1. SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE BELIZEAN FISHERMAN, BY CO-OPERATIVE STATUS
However, the economic stability of cooperatives seems to be driven by the ever-increasing

production needed to sustain profit margins in the face of higher capital costs; cooperatives were
created for economic stability, not the management or protection of coral reefs, but these two goals
are mutually inclusive. The process by which cooperatives in Belize attempt to grow may be
summarized as follows: as fish stocks decline, fishermen switch to newer technologies and illegal
fishing methods, which keeps production rising despite decreases in fish abundance. However,
newer technologies require more funds to operate and the only solution is to continue the trend of
overexploitation, often resulting in sequential exploitation, where smaller fish start to be caught once
the larger fish stocks are depleted. In fact, the National Cooperative, the most robust and healthy of
all five cooperatives, reports that in order to operate successfully they need at minimum 200,000
pounds of Lobster, which accounts for about half of all the exported lobster from Belize in 2006 - a
difficult target to reach. xxxvii In recent years, the cooperatives created incentives to continue fishing
despite declining catches. These incentives often include direct subsidies for fishing supplies such as
ice, and low-interest loans and indirect subsidies, often creating perverse incentives to fishermen
including the abuse of loans and providing a landing site to nonmembers of cooperatives.xxxviii
Incentivizing more Belizeans to fish by offering ice for refrigeration, fuel and lobster traps has only
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increased the open-access issue facing Belizes fisheries because it reduces short-term risk to fishers
if stocks suddenly run low.
Fisheries Management in Belize

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is responsible for managing the fisheries in Belize;
thus, fisheries management is somewhat centralized. One of the problems with centralized
management of fisheries is that it requires abundant and often unobtainable resources to enforce
policies meant to prevent overexploitation. For example, the high costs of reserveshave inhibited
effective management, and five reserves were reported to be paper parks due to lack of
enforcement of regulations. xxxix Historically, fisheries management in Belize has been a top-down
affair with regulations being imposed on those who benefit from extraction of the coral reefs
resources, thus fishermen are seen only as part of the problem and not a potential solution. However,
it is true that overfishing is a major threat to reef healthxl. Prior to exploitation, conch and lobster
were extremely abundant along the coastal waters of Belize. In terms of overall catch, reported
landings peaked just below 2000t in the early 1970s (driven by conch) and again in the early 1990s
(driven by Shrimp), and, with the exception of a brief peak in shrimp catches in the early 1990s have
shown a distinct decline since the mid 1980s.xli The decline in landings, spread out over a period of
several decades, has been gradual; the technological expansion of the fishing industry with the
introduction of SCUBA gear and boat engines has continued to mask the actual decline in the
number of reef fish. Further, the national lobster yield continues to decline despite a boom in
production in the south, suggesting that these grounds will not solve scarcity, thus fishing in southern
Belize will just continue the trend of overexploitation seen in the north, where fish cooperatives
make up most of the market. Such masking of environmental feedback causes high levels of
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overexploitation and is difficult to manage. Also, with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of
170,000 km2 or over 7 times its land area Belize has purposefully taken advantage of the
biodiversity of the reefs: there is a deliberate policy to diversify the industry, targeting new species
for which little or no biological information exist,xlii which is harmful because reef diversity is
linked to resilience from environmental and anthropogenic stressors such as land-based pollution and
hurricanes, which are prominent in the region. Therefore, much of the problem lies in Belizes
inability to adapt to its coastal ecosystem and its attempt to use the same, unsuitable methods of
resource extraction in its ever-changing economy.
Marine Protected Areas make up a portion of the legislation passed by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries for protecting coral reefs with 12 in use around Belize. Marine Protected
Areas are often considered an effective policy in the protection of coral reefs because of the role
healthy coral reefs ecosystems play in maintaining degraded reefs. Healthy reefs can serve as a
supply of coral larvae to other locations, increasing the recovery chances of stressed or degraded
reefs lying downstream.xliii MPAs however, leave out protection from land-based disturbances such
as pollution from fertilizers and sedimentation. In Belize, 29% of sedimentation and pollution from
inland sources is classified as highly threatening to coral reefs.xliv
Another potential problem related to fisheries management in Belize arises from the conflicts
between Belizean fishermen and fishermen from neighboring countries including Honduras and
Guatemala. The Fisheries Department reports that, 13% of fishing offences were committed by
Hondurans and 12% by Guatemalans. These included offences such as fishing for undersized
conch, undersized lobster, no fishing license, no boat license, fishing during closed season, fishing in
a restricted area and fishing with restricted gear.xlv Belizean fishermen perceive this as part of the
reason fish stocks are declining in the Sapodilla Cayes Marine Reserve.
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Its extremely difficult to measure the cost of damaging a reef system because of the
invaluable benefits gained from health reef ecosystems. Unfortunately, a theme in Belizes fisheries
management has typically been the governments inability to place blame on one group; when so
many factors influence the health of reefs it becomes difficult to attribute the decline in coral habitats
to one individuals, or a group of individuals, actions. Also, because there are many threats to reef
ecosystems, which cannot be mitigated by the Belizean government, such as offshore oil exploration
in Mexican-Belize waters and the increase in coral bleaching due to global warming, people often
find it difficult to rationalize costly regulations that arent effective against these external effects.
Therefore, it should be added that many of the activities damaging to coral reefs including
overfishing, dredging, or sewage discharge near reefs occur because an individual or group seizes
an immediate benefit, without knowing or caring about long term consequences.xlvi And because a
lack of organizational power exists in the Belizean government to make sure all voices - whether
user or non-user - are heard, one group can get away with overexploitation, while other groups suffer
the consequences. One effective management tactic would be to treat the coral reef crisis as a rural
development problem, focusing on all three pillars of sustainability at once, possibly through the use
of NGOs, which are more community-based and inclusive, yet still have the power to bring about
new legislative and social change. Environmental and social sustainability almost always rely on
environmental sustainability, therefore it is important that the Belizean Government allow more
inclusive policies that pool environmental, social and economic expertise into the same projects.
3. Cuba
Economic Background of Cuba:
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A combination of events allowed Cuba to grow from its little colonial island roots to become
a highly successful nation whose currency was on par with the US dollar. Along the way during
colonial rule by Spain, it became one of the major sugar suppliers in the world. Sugar, traditionally
one of the nations most important crops, really took root after the crash of the sugar industry in
colonial Dominican Republic. From 1902 until the 1959 revolution, Cuba had enjoyed a relatively
high rate of economic growth. From the beginning of Cubas time as a republic, the United States
wanted to form a close tie with Cuba. After the Cubans victory over their Spanish colonizers, with
substantial amounts of support and even the involvement of the US culminating in the SpanishAmerican War, in 1898, the US was left to handle the affairs of the Cuban government, and so began
the occupation. During this time, American investments and capital dominated the Cuban economy.
During the occupation, sugarcane and tobacco remained the dominant crops within the nation.
Sugarcane would remain the centerpiece of the Cuban economy for many years to follow, as most of
the cropland in the nation was devoted to it. xlvii Cuba was the main supplier of sugarcane to the US
during this time since they were able to purchase it from Cuba at subsidized rates. Cuba would
supply a third of the US sugar supply until 1960.xlviii During this period of time, the peso would
come to be equal in value to the US dollar. This would be true up until 1959.
Fulgencio Batista, the US-backed Cuban dictator, led the nation to greater heights, in terms
of prosperity, during his reign from 1934 to 1944 and then his second reign from 1952 to 1959.
Despite the economic advances due to agricultural output, his reign was plagued by issues like
corruption among officials, extreme inequality through the rural and urban divide, and violence
among political factions.xlix After his second coup in 1952, there was widespread opposition to
Batista across the nation. It was Fidel Castro, a lawyer who sought to have Batista ousted, who
organized the successful revolution against Batista. The first incantation occurred in 1953, but was
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unsuccessful. It wouldnt be until 1958 where Batista would cede his rule. Castros revolutionary
government would then take power in 1959, which would lead to major changes in Cuba.
The US imposed sanctions on the newly Communist Cuba, which would have big impacts on
the nations sugarcane industry. It was under Castros rule that Cuba would expand their fishing
industry to a commercial effort. In figure 1, the explosive growth of Cubas fishing industry is
evidenced. Prior to this, Cubas fishing fleet contained a number of small boats and the market was
mostly domestic, also known as artisanal fishing.l Castro, now supported by the Soviets, could
expand into different industries than previously. With the help of the Soviets, Cuba acquired largescale fishing rigs to boost their catch for sale on the global market. Up until the 1990s, the fishing
industry would remain a vital industry to the Cuban economy.li With the collapse of the Soviet
Union, subsidized oil was no longer available to the Cubans and the costs of operating their fishing
fleet became too high.lii Many ships were unable to be used for their purposes and the Cuban fleet
shifted its focus on low-cost fish to high-cost fish near the coastline.liii
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Current Situation in Cuba:

The Cuban economy has undergone significant changes since 1989. The economic focuses of
the nation are much different today than what they were prior to the fall of the Soviet Bloc and the
tightening of the trade embargo by the US. The 1990s, known as the Special Period, were
characterized as years of intense struggle, but also as years of meaningful change, for certain
industries within the nation. In addition, the year 2003 is seen as the end of the worst of times for
Cuba as the economy started to do much better. The focus on agricultural products and goods has
shifted entirely to other sectors of the economy. The common belief was that the Cuban government
would be able to survive without the significant aid that they received from the Soviets, or without
22
any powerful allies. However, above all odds, the nation survived and went on to recover to some
degree from the serious blows that they were dealt. In 1993, Castro enacted four important reforms
to try and stimulate the economy, which included liberalizing foreign investment, breaking up
collective farms, the dollarization of the economy, and the legalization of self-employment, all which
have had large impacts on the nation during the Special Period and fueled economic growth in the
90s.
In the past two decade, Cuba has reached success in certain industries in place of the
agricultural sector. Tapping into their resources, the Cuban economy was able to recover to a degree.
Currently, some of the most important sectors of the Cuban economy include raw nickel, petroleum,
natural gas, and biotechnologies.livlvlvi Mesa-Lago (2005) and ECLAC notes that the rates of nickel
and petroleum had exceeded their levels in 1989 and continue to grow at a steady rate.lvii Also
notably, the production of cigars had remained neutral and has started to increase again.lviii The
service economy within Cuba has grown substantially over the past two decades. Now, scholars have
definitively stated that the most crucial sector within the Cuban economy is tourism, which
generated a gross income of 2 billion USD in 2003 and 2.2 billion USD in 2006.lix
During the beginning of the Special Period, Castro and the government understood that
changes to the agricultural system needed to happen to be able for the nation to provide food for its
population. Some of the most significant reforms that the country has ever enacted were to fix the
ailing agricultural system. Most of the nations collectivized farms, a common practice among
Communist powers, were grossly inefficient, so a change was needed. The collective farms were
broken up and then large numbers of farmers were organized into different types of farms. Some
types include state-run cooperatives, independent cooperatives, and rural farms. With the legalization
of self-employment, other farmers elected to run their own farms instead of operate as a state-run
23
enterprise. The relatively new phenomena (in Cuba at least) of urban agriculture was gaining
popularity, likely out of necessity. ECLAC says that 326,000 people were listed as urban farmers.lx
Another sizeable component to the agricultural sector were peasant farmers, known as campesinos.
Some data suggests that it was campesinos who recovered the quickest and became the most
effective following the reorganization of the agricultural system. Rosset et al. attribute this to the fact
that peasant farmers had a higher interest in agroecological beneficial cultivating practices.lxi In
contrast, state-run enterprises took longer to rebound. Following the reorganization, many farmers
had gained more autonomy than before, despite still having to meet some form of a quota. The most
radical change was that the government would allow farmers to sell extra produce at a farmers
market, which would theoretically incentivize farmers to produce more food than before while
making more money at the same time.lxii
As of 1996, 67% of the agricultural land was being utilized by non-state farmers.lxiii Trumbles
also found that during this time, 65% of the farmland that was dedicated to sugar plantations was
redistributed to other crops, which resulted in the closure of 45% of the nations sugar mills by 2000.
Sugar, once the nation's most profitable crop, was now falling in value due to the saturation of the
global sugar market and the inefficiencies within Cubas sugar industry. In addition, extreme weather
events struck the island during the Special Period, harming the output of the industry. The amount of
people working in the agricultural sector began to rise starting in 1993, which is often considered the
worst year of the Special Period. The creation of farmer markets was seen to be a very successful
maneuver by many because an estimated 25% of the nation's food supply came from them.lxiv Small
rations provided to people left more to be desired, which is why the people were highly supportive of
the farmers markets. ECLAC states that the amount of foodstuffs received in the government rations
only satisfied 51% of the nations caloric intake.lxv
24
Despite the major changes in the agricultural system, there was still hunger present within the
nation. As agricultural output dwindles further, Cuba relies increasingly on food imports. Some
sources cite that currently, up to 80% of food within the country came from imports. ECLAC
statistics show that imports rose from 12% to 19% across the 1989 to 2003 time span.lxvi The rate of
agricultural output continues to decline as it dropped 11.6% in 2005 and 6% in 2006.lxvii This could
signal that the diminishing rates are slowing down and could possibly reverse in coming years.
Statistics found that during the 1990s, the consumption of fruits and vegetables by the Cuban people
spiked while the consumption of animal products dropped significantly due to large expenses
associated with producing animal products.lxviii The loss of aid and energy subsidies made producing
animal products at larger scales impossible.
25
Source: Daz-Briquets (2012).

In addition to the drop in production of animal products, the fishing industry in Cuba suffered
during the Special Period. State statistics on yearly catch show a dwindling catch rate as the 1990s
progressed. Mesa-Lagos (2007) data shows that the catch was at its maximum in 1986 at 244,000
26
tons and then dropped to 192,000 in 1989.lxix From there, it only dropped further. The catch in 1993
was 94,000 tons, in 2003 the catch was 67,000 tons, and in 2006 the catch was 54,796.lxx See table 2
for more catch rates during Cubas prime period, the Special Period, and the current day. Data from
ECLAC shows that the catch dropped by 45% from 1997 to 2002 alone. As of 2006, the annual catch
is 71% below the catch of 1989, which is a staggering drop in production.lxxi As of 2010, the annual
catch is 86% below the catch of 1986.lxxii The drop in production also reflects the decreased
importance of fishing to the Cuban economy. Mesa-Lago (2007) points out that Cuban fishing fleet
is plagued by high debt, lack of solvency both in pesos and dollars, poor credit, corruption, high
fuel prices, damage inflicted by hurricanes, and the electricity crisis. Without the substantial aid of
the Soviet Union, the fishing fleet was too costly to use for the Cuban government.
However, despite the drop-off in the catch, according to data, the fishing industry may still
provide a significant amount of GDP. Dyck and Sumaila looked at data from 2003 for many nations
around the world, including nations in the Caribbean like Cuba, and found that the amount of
production had a sizeable impact on the economy as well as annual household income. According to
them, the landed value, or the total output generated by the fishing industry, equaled 94.72 million
USD.lxxiii Dyck and Sumaila found that this generated an economic impact, or the economic activity
that occurs outside of the fishing industry across all sectors, of 115.09 million USD. Meanwhile, the
income effect of this equaled 26.96 million USD across the nation. These impacts are definitely
worth nothing even if they are not the largest aspects of the economy.
Different types of fishing have different impacts on the populations of the coastal fisheries
as well as the reefs. Like in the Bahamian Islands, fishers in Cuba use similar methods. Starting in
the 1980s, the Cuban government established a number of fishery management laws which resulted
in the restriction of catching a certain amount of a particular species or even outright banning certain
27
methods, such as setting nets during the reproductive season, spear fishing, and subsistence
fishing.lxxiv The impacts of these policies have been very beneficial to the populations. For a total list
of management policies and restrictions, see Table 2.
Table 2.
Some fishery regulations
established or planned by the
Cuban Ministry of Fisheries
relevant to studied fish stocks
and/or their spawning
aggregations. Source: Claro et al.
Resolution/year
Regulation
Species affected by the

regulation
1980s
Many miscellaneous regulations addressed particular species or regions and were often
introduced for short periods of time and by particular Fishing Associations<comma> e.g.
seasonal spawning closures, gear bans, fishing effort control, etc.
Established minimum legal sizes for commercial fishes. For lane snapper-120 g = 18 cm
FL, for grey snapper-170 g = 22 cm, for cubera snapper-460 g = 31 cm, for mutton
snapper-230 g = 24 cm, for yellowtail snappe-140 g = 20 cm and for Nassau grouper-570
g = 32 cm.
Established bag limits for recreational fishing:
Multiple species
No. 561/1996
No. 519/1996
92 finfish and invertebrate species
All six studied species, as well as

other species
- 15 kg/trip in areas of high economic importance for

commercial fishing
- 30 kg/trip in areas of low economic importance
No. 74/1997
No. 31/1999
Established regulations to increase selectivity of several fishing gears: minimum size

mesh of 30 mm for some parts of traps and trawls, obligatory use of selective fishing
devices to avoid the catch of juveniles and small fishes; banned the use of solid gears that
destroy corals during trawling; set of rules for the use of set nets (net length, height and
width, mesh size, cannot close the channels, etc.); limited licenses for the use of set nets
during spawning aggregations.
Banned commercial fishing in 24 tourist diving points near Cienfuegos Bay.
No. 83/1999
Limited the fishery of lane snapper during spawning migrations, from April 22 to June 4:
only nine set nets are licensed, located in specific sites. Established the obligatory use of
by catch reduction devices attached to set nets, to avoid the capture of lane snapper less
than 18 cm FL The capture of fishes could only be done inside this selection device, not
inside the set nets. The possession of any fishing trawls on board of any fishing boat was
banned during this period.
No. 45/2000, 165/2001, Similar regulation to No. 83/1999 was repeated each year to control the fishery
141/2002, 60/2003
of lane snapper during spawning migrations in the Gulf of Bataban. For each
year a limited period of fishing and limited number of set nets (fluctuating from
4 to 9) was established<comma> according to fish population assessments.
58/2004
Total prohibition on all kinds of set nets over the whole Cuban shelf during the period
from April 1, to August 31 (spawning season of most snappers).
96/2004
Banned all kinds of fishing in a polygon of about 160 km2 close to the spawning
aggregation site of lane snapper in the eastern part of the Gulf of Batabano<comma>
during the following 10 days periods: April 28 to May 7, May 28 to June 6 and from June
26 to July 5 (from waxing crescent quarter to full moon each month). Outside the polygon
the fishery was permitted with trawls, traps and seine nets, for a limited number of boats.
Similar regulations were repeated for 2005 and 2006, and it was announced that this
regulation would be permanent.
354/2001
A total prohibition on any kind of competition event using spear-guns. Limits the
authorization of recreational spear-gun fishing to Saturdays, Sundays and National
Holidays, except in July-August (peak months of vacations). This kind of fishing is
allowed only in authorized areas and quantities defined in the resolution 519/96 (above).
Since 2002 the total number of recreational licences was limited to 3500 for the
whole country. The price of annual licences was doubled.
No. 459/96
Marine Reserve Caleta de Avalo.
No. 560/96
Marine Reserve Pta. Francs.
No. 215/98
Marine Reserve Cabo Cruz. Coral reef Barrier
No. 167/01
Marine Reserve Cayo La Lea Jaimanita, Pennsula Guanahacabibes
All six studied species as well as

other species
All six studied species as well as

other species
Lane snapper spawning
aggregations in southwest Cuba.
All snappers and other spawning

aggregations
Lane snapper in the Gulf of
Batabano
Mutton, cubera, dog and grey

snappers, Nassau grouper, and many
other medium and large species.
Mutton snapper, cubera snapper,

Nassau grouper and some other
species
28
247/2003
Marine Reserve Norte de Matanzas

These MPAs include spawning aggregation sites or migration routes for several
species. At least nine other spawning aggregation sites are included in the new
MPA proposal (submitted to the goverment and pending approval)
Specific fisheries in Cuba along the coast, including fisheries associated with coral reefs,
have been the targets of extensive fishing since the Revolution. Coastal fisheries are the most
attainable for the fishing industry following the loss of aid in 1989. Claro et al. have data for six
different species fisheries up until 2005. The information they find provides a glimpse into the
industry. First, the Nassau grouper has seen catches amounting to well below 100 million tons since
the beginning of the special period. It is believed that the spikes in the catches for this species are
due to the seasonality of their reproduction.lxxv It is also believed that this species has been relatively
unfished is because of the difficulty in accessing the sites where this species spawns due to its
distance from the coast. Next up are Mutton snapper, which are still and have been considered
important fishery targets. In 2004, the use of line nets was banned over the entire coastal shelf,
which resulted in a slight drop in catch for this species. The Lane snapper, which was considered the
most important fish, has been severely overfished in the past, but has recovered to an extent. The
catching of this species has been severely limited by the government but was allowed again
following the slight recovery in 1995. Cubera and grey snapper were combined to the lack of
distinguishing between the two in data. In the 90s, the catch of this species dropped off due to
extensive fishing occurred without regulation, but rose again in the 2000s when the species
recovered to a degree. The yellowtail snapper, the last species to be observed, has been extensively
fished for decades. The catches of this species dropped off due to high mortality rates of juveniles
following the late 1980s and into the 90s, but recovered. The catch spiked in the late 1990s and then
dropped down to normal levels. In addition to these species, the Spiny lobster, which was the most
profitable fishery during the 1990s, were also extensively overfished.lxxvi Puga et al. show that even
29
though quotas for the amount of spiny lobster that can be caught, the catches are still declining.lxxvii
Another important fishery is that of the different Cuban shrimp species, which have traditionally also
been overfished but has recovered to an extent in recent years.lxxviii
Despite some more sustainable fishery management by the government and the banning of
subsistence fishing, some fisheries are still declining. The case is exemplified with the Spiny lobster.
After much lower quotas and better management, the population is still declining. Both Puga et al.
and Alcolado et al. believe that the recent strong hurricane activity over the past decade has had a
severe impact on reefs, as well as overfishing efforts.lxxixlxxx The increased frequency of hurricanes
hitting the island has tremendously impacted the reefs in recent decades.
The situation with coral reefs off the Cuban coast is unique for a few reasons. Despite the
decline in the annual catch of the Cuban fleet, the reefs are dying at more rapid rates. Increased
management of the Cuban fisheries has aided with replenishing fishery populations, but reefs overall
are still being negatively impacted. It is hard to precisely pinpoint what the direct cause of this is, but
it is certain that progress has been made and is continuing to be made in the protection of the
fisheries of the Caribbean. Comprehensive, feasible policy options must be created to help mitigate
the negative impacts on the reefs, which are of immense value to both the fisheries of Cuba and the
tourism sector as well.
30
4. Singapore, Grenada, and Western Samoa

The Fisheries of Singapore, Grenada, and Western Samoa
The small developing island nations of Singapore, Grenada and Western Samoa have
depended on fishing and fisheries since they were originally settled. The endeavors of these early
fishermen and women were assisted by the presence of large, vibrant coral reefs surrounding the
islands. These islands also have a history of settlement by colonial powers, ranging from the United
States to Great Britain. The presence of these colonial powers gives a unique insight to the early
levels of fishing and the methodology of the fishing taking place, with records dating back
sometimes as much as hundreds of years back. The combination of the long term settlement of these
islands and the sometimes methodical note taking of later colonial settlers allows for a more
complete picture of the evolution of modern fishing practices in the respective regions and a broader
notion of the effects that these practices have had on the surrounding marine environment. The aim
of this portion of the paper will be to outline the historical and current levels of fishing and fishery
activity, determine historical amounts of coral reefs present in and around the islands and the current
pervasiveness of reef populations and finally examine what, if any, reef and marine environmental
preservation programs have been put into place in each respective nation.
Grenada has a well-documented fishing history spanning back to the 1940's and into the
modern age. While much of the documentation does not hold accurate accounts of the total amount
of fishing and specific numbers on the fishing boats and the fishermen are few and far between, there
are surprisingly detailed accounts of the methods that the Grenadians used.lxxxi The fishing that took
place during and before the 1940's was primarily subsistence level and confined almost exclusively
to the inland areas.lxxxii Because of the lack of any readily available motors for fishing ships, the
31
fishing that took place was mostly for large game fish. There was a revolution in the fishing industry
following World War II when gas powered motors became widely available to people on the island.
In the 1950's the government began implementing a series of loans aimed at encouraging the spread
of motorized boats, and at the same time Grenada established the Fisheries Department.lxxxiii During
this time there is a meteoric rise of new kinds of fishing, which are now known to be more harmful
to the delicate ecosystems and coral systems that surround the island, trolling and pot fisheries.
While these advances made fishing easier and increased the available fishing area, the gross number
of fish caught decreased all through the 1970's and 80s.lxxxiv The 1980's provided a number of
setbacks to the fishing industry, political instability and a decline in government assistance playing a
large role in the declining industry. The 1990's brought a new wave of government investments and a
renewed increase in both modernization of the fishing vessels and an increase in the number and
species of fish caught. During this time, there was a growing problem of a worrying depletion of the
local fishing ecosystems and a new push by the government for regulation of not only the prices of
fish, but also restricting the types of and the number of fish caught.lxxxv The marine environment in
Grenada has undergone severe traumas from a number of factors. There are a number of localized
and regional effects that have caused the local coral reefs to undergo several negative changes
including a troubling rise in coral bleaching and reef death.lxxxvi These causes include a wide range of
industrial pollutants, increasing sedimentary runoff due to increasing agriculture and development on
and around the island and even a global and regional increase in water temperatures. Besides the
environmental damages that result from human pollution and overfishing, Grenada has been
historically vulnerable to hurricanes, the last major one occurring in 2004. A unique problem that has
been affecting the coral reefs surrounding Grenada is the blooming of macro algae that have been
growing on the dead and dying coral. It's not all bad news for the coral reefs surrounding Grenada
32
however, as the government has engaged in a number of environmental protection and monitoring
programs. As recently as 2012, the government has been entering into land management programs
aimed specifically at the preservation of coral and environmentally sensitive areas.lxxxvii While these
programs are indeed promising, the small nation of Grenada has a long way to go in terms of fishing
management and land preservation before it will see the damage done to these sensitive areas halted
or reversed.
American Samoa has a similarly long history, with the tales of fisheries spanning back
thousands of years. Upon its initial settling, the people of Samoa have fished the lagoons and
shallow coral areas surrounding the island. When they began, the local fishermen used little more
than spears and handmade canoes to hunt the local fish. These practices became highly ritualized and
the distribution of fish among the family of the fishermen and the local chiefs was a hugely
important part of the life of the people. These methods were revolutionized for the most part in the
1950's when boat engines and the use of steel hooks began to change the reason for fishing away
from simple subsistence.lxxxviii More important changes followed when in the 1970's the government
began to orchestrate the creation of large scale fisheries through government subsidies and
distribution of gasoline and diesel engines. While this program caused a temporary boom in fishing,
a lack of continuing government support lead the boom in the number of boats to fizzle out in only a
few years. Following the near collapse of the commercial fishing industry and with assistance from
the United Nations, Samoan fishers rebuilt their fleet with more sensible engines. This rebuilding
was done in concert with a new government program focusing on the export of specific kinds of
snapper.lxxxix Since then, Samoa has maintained a relatively sizable fleet and increased its export
fishing to include several other species. As with Grenada, humans are not the only major threat to the
coral systems present around the island. Regional increases in water temperature caused a mass
33
bleaching of the coral reefs around the island shortly before 1990 and a series of three devastating
hurricanes left severe damage across almost all of the coast and coral areas. Besides this natural
phenomenon, a huge influx of starfish in the late 70s left the reefs reeling from overfeeding.xc In
spite of these hardships, since 1995 there has been an uptick in the growth of coral that has
continued through the 2000's. This is due, in part, to government regulations regarding the removal
of coral from the shallow ocean beds.xci These severe naturally occurring conditions are not the
whole problem however, as heavy metal poisoning and waste runoff from the growing human
population begins to taint both the water and the fish in the surrounding coral environments. Further,
the presence of the canning facilities leads to frequent algae blooms, causing oxygen depletion and
death in the local fish populations.xcii Samoa has taken an extremely proactive approach to the
problems they face with degrading coral environments and a lack of sustainable resources on their
island. It has established four separate marine conservation zones and has effective monitoring
programs in place to ensure that they are not encroached upon.xciii Samoa goes even further,
establishing these areas specifically as marine mammal sanctuaries and attempting to remedy
existing marine ecological damage with a series of restrictions aimed at local fishing. Beyond even
these admirable efforts, the Samoan government is constantly critically evaluating the growth of its
island infrastructure and adjusting its rules and regulations to encompass new threats to its fragile
ecosystem.xciv However, even with these forward thinking regulations, the government is often at
odds with the traditional economy of the Samoan people. The traditional view of the island is that
the goods and local environment are seen as communal goods, and with the rising population of
Samoa, the environment is increasingly taxed by a sea of individuals taking what they need on a
subsistence level.xcv Even with all the problems for Samoan coral reefs, natural and otherwise, with a
34
continuing concerted effort by the Samoan government it would seem that the reefs will continue to
recover and thrive.
Singapore stands out among these countries as being more developed and having a higher
movement of transport and non-fishing ships. As opposed to the earlier countries, Singapore was a
mainly fishing city but has since become a burgeoning center of technology and international trade.
This growing international trade brings with it new and dangerous threats for the coral ecosystems
that exist around Singapore. The large scale industry undertaken in Singapore has led to several
negative outcomes for the local coral environments. The increasing presence of large shipping
transports and overall number of sea vessels that pass through the relatively small channel and the
rising water levels have led to a staggering amount of shoreline retreat and a degradation of the
shallow coastal environment that is essential for certain species of coral.xcvi Besides the erosion of
coral bearing zones, the massive traffic through Singapore also brings large amounts of sediment
into the zones where the coral develops, often retarding the formation of new coral zones. Though
the growth of technologically advanced enterprises has increased the shipping done throughout the
sea surrounding Singapore, there is still a large presence of subsistence and commercial fishing
vessels has not decreased much. These ships still pull thousands of tons of fish from the surrounding
waters and, in doing so, cause almost irreparable damage to the ecosystem, depleting the species and
endangering the viability of many of the coral reefs. More seriously, the burgeoning population in
Singapore and the surrounding nations has led to an increasing strain on the waters where the coral
develops; flushing extreme amounts of waste runoff which causes algae blooms and disrupts the
ecosystems of the coral reefs. Pollutants including heavy metals and agricultural pesticides have also
been rapidly increasing in the last several years, causing a slowdown of the natural replenishing of
the reefs.xcvii As the population of Singapore increases, their need for developed land increases.
35
Because of the need for more land, the mangroves which surround the country's borders have been
dismantled and, with them, fertile lands for the delicate growing coral reefs. Like the other countries
that have been evaluated, Singapore's coral reefs have undergone severe damage from both human
and environmental sources. But, unlike the other countries that have been evaluated, Singapore has
no large scale operations for the protection of these rapidly depleting reefs and has little to no
regulation regarding fishing, waste dumping or environmental impacts of structural developments.
Sadly, if there is no further action taken by Singapore to preserve and rebuild the exhausted coral
reefs around it, then it is more than likely that they will be irreversibly damaged.
36
Data Tables:
Grenada
Year
Total
Fishing Effort
fishing
yield (in
tonnes)
1980
144
1981
134
1982
133
1983
297
1984
306
1985
501
1986
688
1987
571
1988
384
1989
768
1990
403
1991
479
1992
450
1993
339
1994
141
1995
112
1996
195
1997
113
1998
110
1999
176
Money Spent
in Fishing
Industry
(US dollars)
GDP from
fishing
(US dollars)
237
Reef Health
209 km^2
28% algae
84 km^2
10% algae
2.01%
2002
2008
Reef Size
1240 fishers
1845031
2314481
37
Western Samoa
Year
Total
fishing
yield (in
tonnes)
Fishing
effort
Money
spent in
fishing
industry
GDP from Reef size

fishing
(US dollars)
1999
12535
8600
fishers
15300000
2001
3632
93 vessels
8566955
2002
6984
78 vessels
13809792
2003
4968
82 vessels
10343362
2004
4043
61 vessels
8865278
2005
3947
54 vessels
8546301
2006
5312
52 vessels
11474008
2007
6516
58 vessels
14226751
2008
4391
57 vessels
9672757
2009
4841
51 vessels
10648700
2010
4852
49 vessels
10624857
2011
3354
40 vessels
8737679
Reef health Preservatio

n Efforts
1269
km^2
490 km^2 Live coral39%
38
Singapore
Year
Total
fishing
yield (in
tonnes)
1965
10970
1966
18456
1967
18207
1968
17314
1969
18864
1970
18315
1971
15210
1972
15662
1973
18660
1974
19236
Fishing
effort
Money
spent in
fishing
industry
GDP from
fishing
Reef size
35 km^2
1995
506000000
2000
452000000 100 km^2
2005
402000000
2010
5590
2011
8025
2012
5688
2013
5688
Reef health Preservatio

n Efforts
371000000
13 km^2
225 coral
species
39
5. Policy Recommendations
If one thing about development is true, it is that there is not a one-size-fits-all development
model. All developing nations are inherently different, whether it be politically, socially,
economically, geographically, or so forth. Applying a pre-made, formulaic model to any nation is a
disservice to not only that nation, but to the field of sustainable development as a whole. Due to
the inherent differences between nations, we recognize that we must approach development
solutions in a specific, individualized way to meet the unique needs and conditions of a particular
nation. In addition, like with any policy criteria, we must keep in mind four factors that will
determine whether our policy is a success. We seek to recommend a policy that is efficient,
effective, equitable, and politically feasible. Without this style of approach, it is most likely that
any attempt will not succeed. This forms the basis for our research into the historical and economic
conditions of the SIDS that we seek to create development recommendations for in regards to their
fisheries. The coral reefs around the world are being depleted at ever increasing rates, so it is dire
that any course of action will succeed in the long run to preserve the reefs and avert the total
collapse of these diverse, critically important habitats for other species. In addition to their
importance to other species, the ecosystem services that they provide to humans are of the utmost
importance.
The Bahamas:
40
The future of the Bahamian Islands

From a sustainable development standpoint, it is essential that the peoples of the Bahamian
Islands secure their future by first securing their economic interests. With the fishing industry
comprising a significant amount of the islands GDP, it is essential that sustainable fishing
practices and regulations are incorporated and upheld in this sector of the economy. Perhaps one of
the biggest challenges the Bahamians will face in the future is protecting their coral reefs. This feat
is particularly difficult because the environmental value and overall value of the Bahamian coral
reefs is difficult to calculate. Because there is no money value associated with the reefs, as is with
many other environmental resources and services, people are slow to protect and preserve them. In
addition, there exists a lag effect between the degradation of coral reefs and unsustainable fishing
practices [1].xcviii In turn, there exists a lag effect between coral reef destruction and a decline in fish
catch [1].xcix The lag effect also contributes to inaction and inability to distinguish the importance
of preserving both resources in order to maintain a healthy balance.
It must be recognized that in order for a country to adopt sustainable practices that are both
effective and efficient in that given country, one must consider the specific conditions and
characteristics of that country specifically. In sustainable development, there is never one
prescribed solution to any issue or set of issues that a region faces. Although the past and previous
solutions in other countries provide tremendous information regarding possible solutions, usually
hybrid solutions amalgamating multiple ideas provides the best solution for the country at hand.
There are other islands and countries that have adopted a sustainable and healthy balance between
fishing and coral preservation that did not always exist in the region. These countries and islandsin particular, Cuba- serve as great case studies and a great start to finding solutions to appease the
environmental stresses in the Bahamas [11].c
41
One of the most regarded issues within the Bahamian sector of fishing in relation to
overfishing is poaching [2].ci However, due to lack of data and overall lack of evidential fact, there
is no way of knowing exactly how much poaching exists in the Bahamian Islands [2].cii In 2012,
the Bahamian Progressive Liberal Party and the Free National Party both promised the increase of
marine forces, aircraft, and ships to mitigate poaching in the islands [4].ciii However, these
investments were never realized due to lack of funding, which remains a prominent issue in all
areas of sustainability in the Bahamas [4].civ Poaching is an issue that must be addressed, both from
an economic and a social standpoint. Not only does the issue pose problems for the health of the
coral and fishing populations, but it has also been directly hazardous for the Bahamians as well. In
2011, the Bahamian Minister of Financial Services Ryan Pinder told Parliament that Bahamians
were threatened by the presence of poachers; in particular, Dominican poachers, which were
shooting Bahamian fishers [4].cv Ryan Pinder also addressed the issue from an economic
perspective, proclaiming when the poachers fish our waters, they do so without discrimination.
They take juvenile fish, conch and crawfish, decimating the future of our industry. Something has
to be done.cvi [4]
In addition, Ross Albury of the Spanish Wells boat Sea Gem addressed the inefficiency of
the Defense force, saying, Anytime we are out there we see poachers and chase them, but the
Defense Force can't find them There is no good reason for it. The whole Defense Force should
be patrolling the southern edge. Poachers, drugs and illegal aliens all come from the south." [4].cvii
Therefore, the Bahamian Islands could benefit immensely from improved patrolling. If Defense
Force cannot be increased due to lack of funding, then the Defense Force should be improved
within and patrol areas and ports that are particularly vulnerable to poaching.
Professor Ronald V. Clarke of the University of Rutgers School of Criminal-Justice
42
proposes a series of steps to combat fishery poaching. The first recommendation is to screen the
exits or, in other words, to closely monitor ports or fishing areas to establish those most
susceptible and exploited by poaching [5].cviii In addition, long-liners are identified as the most
prevalent vessels used by poachers [5].cix Therefore, they should be closely monitored through
licensing regulations both on a global and domestic scale [5].cx
Socially, the issue of poaching presents upset and overall feelings of injustice in regards to
regulations for Bahamian fisherman. This is largely due to the fact that while Bahamians are
policed and fishing is banned during closed seasons, Dominican poachers continue to fish and
exploit resources [4].cxi It is reported that about 90,000 pounds of lobster tails were illegally
imported into the United States from the Dominican Republic in 2010 despite the fact that spiny
lobsters are not available on a commercial scale in Dominican waters [4].cxii The estimated amount
of lobsters taken illegally out of the island waters is about 35% and it has been said that the
greatest number of lobsters removed from the waters is that from illegal foreign fishing [4].cxiii A
Bahamian fisherman proclaimed, The Defense Force cannot stop these boats, either because they
are too lazy or because somebody is getting paid off. Its that simple.[4]cxiv It is evident that there
is a significant amount of corruption within the fishery management regime, which must be
mitigated to make any significant changes. A Spanish Wells fisherman said the main reason
Dominican poaching continues to be problematic is because they are not scared of patrollers,
largely due to the fact that they cannot legally use force.
In India, one of the most effective techniques in combating poaching was data collection
and identifying poaching patterns such as temporal trends, spatial attributes, and the general
behavior of criminals [6].cxv Unfortunately, one of the most problematic aspects in all of Bahamian
regulation is lack of data. Increased efforts to collect data, by conducting research monitoring
43
heavily fished areas even just over a years time could improve their ability to combat poaching. In
addition, an increased number of arrests of illegal foreign fishers by the Defense Force and
increased publication of such arrests would discourage poaching activity in the area. While
sufficient funding may not be available to improve the Defense Force at a large scale, risk
assessments could be conducted to establish which areas within the Bahamas are at the most risk
for overfishing and poaching. In effect, the Bahamian government could then use available funds
to improve forces in these regions specifically; whether it is through improved training, increasing
forces, or performance-based incentives.
In order to establish domestic policies and protect the health of fisheries, as well as the
coral reef itself, it is important to consider the relationship between activities and ecological effects
in a coral reef ecosystem. The overall cause and effect cycles within the ecosystem can be viewed
in the perspective of a positive and negative feedback loop. The negative feedback begins with
insufficient grazing intensity due to depletion of bottom grazers and herbivorous fish, low coral
cover, or high algal productivity [7].cxvi In effect, algal cover increases rapidly and coral cannot
compete for sunlight or space, which ultimately enhances and increases algal growth [7].cxvii This
eventually leads to high coral mortality, which forms a bottleneck effect in the coral population
since natural losses of adult corals are not replaced by new corals [7].cxviii This ultimately results is
coral reduction and more space and intensity of coral growth and continuously enhances the entire
cycle by further reducing grazing intensity [7].cxix The ultimate loss of coral reduces the resilience
of the reef ecosystem and the entire community becomes vulnerable. Therefore, the effects of
fishing and overfishing become more severe and dangerous, since fish populations are less likely
to recover.
This concept is important to address because it is clear that fishing policies are not adequate
44
without coral protection policies as well. Due to the fact that the entire process is represented as a
negative feedback loop, the ecosystem can ultimately be harmed with any aspect of the cycle as a
starting point. Therefore, if overfishing is solved, but coral is still being degraded through tourism
activities such as pollution, the fishing population will still be harmed and economic interests will
not be secured.
An interesting approach to improving coral health is that of coral nurseries. The Nature
Conservancy has established Bahamian coral nurseries with the initial goal to produce 12,000 coral
colonies [8].cxx The Conservancy exceeded expectations, producing 30,000 of the fast-growing
branching corals [8].cxxi An idea that has been discussed and would be beneficial to the Bahamian
Islands moving forward is ecotourism, focusing on coral reef rehabilitation and protection. This
has been a fairly successful tactic used in Belize [9].cxxii The Conservancy has considered inviting
tourists to get involved in maintaining the nurseries, giving them both an interesting and up-close
perspective on the beauty of the Bahamian ecosystem as well as valuable insight, and therefore
respect, for the importance of sustainability [8].cxxiii One of the pressing issues in regards to
Bahamian tourism is an overall lack of respect for the environment [10].cxxiv One of the main
reasons tourists likely do not value the Bahamian ecosystem is the lack of a sense of place
attachment [3].cxxv When an individual feels at home, or feels a particular attachment to a place,
they are more likely to want to protect it [3].cxxvi They feel a sense of moral obligation and
responsibility to uphold the environmental health [3].cxxvii This concept also comes into play with
the issue of poacher exploitation of spiny lobster fish. Developing sustainable tourism
organizations could result in improved tourist attitudes, economic profit, and potentially more
employment opportunities that could displace current employers of the fishing industry.
Another action that must be taken to encourage sustainable fishing practices is overall
45
enforcement of current policies and regulations. Currently, the Bahamian Islands have a set of
rules and regulations that fishers must abide by in the islands [12].cxxviii These regulations restrict
specific fishing equipment that can lead to overfishing, as well as the quantity of catch or type of
catch allowed [12].cxxix However, regulations are rarely followed up on or enforced in the Bahamas
and illegal activity especially from Dominican fishers, such as coral bleaching, remains rampant
[13].cxxx Investment in the law enforcement infrastructure seems to serve as a common necessity
due to overall inaction. After taking a closer look at the fishing industry in the Bahamas, it is clear
that two of the biggest challenges that the islands face is lack of enforcement and illegal foreign
activity. By improving legal training and overall education, these issues could be dually addressed.
Therefore, although the Bahamian government claims to not have the funding to increase Defense
Forces, perhaps the funding exists to improve within the forces. In addition, acceptance of foreign
aid could be advantageous in this situation, as it secures the economic and environmental future
interests in the islands.
A significant and pressing issue in Bahamian development, especially in regards to
fisheries, is the lack of sufficient data. Little to no data exists on the fish populations in the
Bahamian reefs. Because of this, it is difficult for regulators to address the issue at hand and to
understand the significance and magnitude of declining fish populations and unsustainable fishing
practices. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the waters and collect data on fish and coral
population through government-funded research programs or international voluntary
environmental preservation groups such as the Nature Conservancy.
Moving forward, it is essential that the Bahamians take action to secure both the health and
stability of coral reefs and of the fishing populations from a sustainable standpoint. First and
foremost, the issue of heavy poaching presence must be mitigated with improved Defense Forces
46
and law enforced punishment. Not only is this important from an economic perspective, but also in
consideration to social stability and rising tensions between Bahamian fisherman and Dominican
fisherman, as well as Bahamian fisherman and policymakers [14].cxxxi Another problem that must
be addressed is the lack of data. This may be done by improving data collection techniques and
frequency of data collection of poaching activity, coral reef population, and fish populations.
Efforts both in the tourism and fishing sector must be taken to preserve the coral, which can start
with caps and incentives on activities-such as pollution and overfishing- associated with coral reef
degradation. In addition, the widespread adoption of coral nurseries and sustainable tourism could
improve coral health, while also contributing to the economy and increasing employment
opportunities. Lastly, it is essential that policies put in place are upheld and enforced strictly in
order to decrease illegal activities in the Bahamian waters, both domestically and internationally.
Belize:
Belizes Coral Reefs
The degrading health of coral reef structures in the Caribbean is part of a much larger crisis
taking place throughout the worlds oceans and many global efforts have arisen to combat coral
reef destruction. More specifically, the continual overexploitation of fisheries, which poses many
direct threats to the corals, has narrowed the ecosystem services that corals in Belize and other
Small Island Developing States can provide, which has resulted in mounting poverty and in some
severe instances, a lack of food security. The total value of goods and services lost from coral reef
degradation in the Caribbean is estimated to reach US$350 million and US$870 million by 2015
and 2050 respectively.cxxxii
47
In order to prevent such losses, traditional management options have been employed and
often include restrictions on types of gear, size limits, catch quotas, marine protected areas (MPAs)
and off-seasonscxxxiii . However, such management options when used as standalone measures -have repeatedly proved unsuitable to the highly diverse multispecies fisheries present in Belize
because of the lack of technical resources and data available to assess, for example, the mortality
of certain reef fish populations.cxxxiv Further, Belize is home to a network of coastal and marine
habitats, comprising reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds, estuarine lagoons and embayment, inner and
outer cays, and open ocean. This convergence of numerous habitats provides high biological
diversity given that many species require several of these different types of ecosystems during their
ontogenetic development. Thus, it is important to protect all of the above habitats from damage so
that fish landings can be sustained. Additionally, unlike large commercial pelagic fleets, artisanal
fishers in Belize are directly dependent on local fish stocks and cannot relocate to other
undamaged habitats. With all of this in mind, it would be most beneficial to develop community
based and market-based solutions to the problem of fisheries management in Belize and other
Small Island Developing States that supplant top-down methods of management used in the past,
which have proven ineffective and inequitable.
The Cooperative Model of Fisheries Management

Many Caribbean community (CARICOM) states are notable for their small size and
volatile, developing economies; they often have limited human capital and institutional and
financial resources to devote to centralized fisheries management and enforcement.cxxxv Despite a
large framework of legislation in Belize, including 94 Acts pertaining to marine resource
conservation, administered by 18 Permitting Agencies and 10 Ministries cxxxvi traditional efforts in
48
resource management have often failed because of the top-down approach that governments use to
avoid relinquishment of political power to NGOs and fisher - folk organizations. Inadequate
participation of the resource users in planning and management has led to insufficient knowledge
of the fish stocks and the social and economic conditions of the fishers, which is a hindrance to
sustainable development because in such a scenario improving environmental sustainability would
only degrade economic and social stability. Thus, fishermen are often excluded from the legislative
processes and scientific researches involved in fisheries regulation and are instead fed directives
that often do not result in sustainable resource use or a change in fishermens behavior. Further,
compliance to management is often effected by how involved fishers are/were in the establishment
of rules and laws, how appropriate they consider the rules, their trust in and expectations of
management and leadership, and how economically dependent they are on fishing in protected
areas.cxxxvii
Two components need to be considered in the development of community-based fisheries
management plans if MPAs, MFRs and other protection tools are to be properly utilized: first, a
set of organizations and institutions needs to be established so that there can be proper
collaboration between a variety of stakeholders, including different government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, research organizations, private enterprises, educational institutions
and civil society in general; secondly, state involvement needs to be legitimized through the
inclusion and empowerment of fishers and other resource users, which will drive down costs of
management because resource-users have, without exception, a significant amount of ecologicalknowledge, which can supplant costly research and data gathering methods. For example, fishers
reportedthat dusky anchovies were most abundant close to the shore between the months of July
and September, and that yellowtail snappers fed on them. cxxxviiiThe fishers ability to relate
49
geographical and biological factors to availability of certain species would obviously be useful for
implementing properly timed closed-seasons and select-species legislation. Additionally, resource
users may be used in place of government agencies and police forces to more efficiently monitor
the protected areas they fish around and are therefore accustomed to. cxxxix It is also beneficial for
the fishers to suggest improvements to fisheries management procedures (see table 1) as each has
seen the success and failure of many policies and governance practices within their region.
Fishermen also know the strengths and weaknesses of their organizations so they can direct policy
formation in the appropriate direction and will be less inclined to break undemocratic laws when
their voices may collectively bring about change.
Table 3
Fishers suggestions for improved fisheries management. Recommendations have been divided into sections for
clarity.
8.1 Species closures
1. Total protection for the manatee both increased and harmonized fines for infractions
2. Total protection for sea turtles within the Gulf of Honduras with harmonized increased fines for infractions
3. Promote sport fishing throughout the Gulf of Honduras by creating ban on sales of permit, tarpon, and bonefish (emulating an existing law for bonefish in
Belize)
4. Increase protection for manja, small pelagic schooling fry that are crucial for the health of the pelagic fisheries food chain
5. Develop a harmonized management plan for the protection of Goliath grouper and snook. Goliath groupers are presently listed by IUCN as an endangered species
8.2 Zoning
1. Secure artisanal access only, in some coastal fishing areas
2. Promote the declaration and management of a tri-national system of marine protected areas
3. No fishing in the mouths of rivers (minimum 300 m distance) as is presently law in Honduras
4. Close reef fish spawning aggregation sites as needed
8.3 Gear types

1. Prohibit the use of gill nets in rivers and river mouths, reefs, and within coastal lagoons, and if possible, discontinue their use throughout the region
2. Prohibit the use of trawlers in coastal areas (3 miles) where they disrupt the early life stages of other commercially viable species
3. Regulate the sale and importation of illegal fishing gear, e.g., small mesh nets, at the level of wholesalers and retailers of this equipment
8.4 Seasons
1. Moratorium on harvest of queen conch for 5 years
2. Harmonize the closed season for lobster, and other species, to ensure that the reproductive period is included in the closed season
3. Promote a closed season for snook in October/November, the time when these fish are caught most heavily and appear to be breeding
4. Promote a regional closed season for Nassau grouper in December and January when these fish aggregate for spawning. Nassau groupers are presently listed by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as an endangered species
8.5 Information/Outreach/Involvement:
50
1. Increase the flow of information to fishermen about marine biology, existing laws, and their rationale, such that fishermen will become more involved in developing
and supporting new legislation
2. Promote marine environmental education in schools, especially at the primary level
3. Work with fishermen to develop sustainable economic alternatives that do not harm the environment and value-added fisheries products
4. Promote hand line fishing, which fishermen agree is the most sustainable gear used in the region
5. Promote co-management of marine reserves involving fisheries authorities, NGOs and local fishermen
8.6 Research and monitoring:

1. Conduct an analysis of the social and economic relationships between industrial fisheries, artisanal fisheries, and industrial aquaculture
2. Further identify, characterize, and evaluate reef fish spawning aggregation sites and nursery sites
3. Improve system to quantify artisanal landings within each country of the Gulf of Honduras
4. Promote studies that link upland agricultural and urban development and runoff to the health of estuarine and coastal water quality and to commercial fishpopulations
8.7 Marketing and processing:
1. Promote and support organization and market links for artisanal fishermen
2. Develop additional markets for fresh seafood and value-added fisheries products
3. Promote improved post-harvest processing and handling including better access to ice for fishermen and buyers
4. Promote legal import/export markets for seafood within the Gulf of Honduras. For example: lobster fetches higher prices in Belize, and could be sold through the
Belize Cooperative System. Guatemala has a high demand for salt fish (seco salado) and conch and these could be supported by legal export from Belize.
Guatemala has impressive shrimp harvests and could sell jumbo shrimp to the restaurant market in northern Belize, where demand from tourism is high
8.8 Fisheries enhancement:

1. Promote research, development and use of lobster casitas
2. Promote development and use of conch egg farms
3. Promote the sighting and use of artificial reefs to increase habitat for finfish
4. Promote turtle nest management and protection
5. Promote the declaration and management marine reserves
Source: W.D. Heyman and P. Granados-Dieseldorff.
The organizational powers of fishing cooperatives should be utilized to provide a

community-based approach to fisheries management, which may augment the ecosystem-based
approach of developing MPAs as refugia for fish populations by providing more qualitative data to
design fisheries reserves. Because the fisheries sector of Belize, most notably the Lobster, Conch
and Fin-fish industry, is dominated by fishing cooperatives; there are an estimated 3,000-4,000
fishers operating with a fleet of approximately 900 licensed vessels in the coastal waters of Belize,
of which approximately ~60% belong to cooperatives,cxl co-management through the strengthening
of cooperative organizations is feasible and is the main component of the proposal.
One important aspect of local fishing cooperatives in Belize, though they are most often
small-scale and differ significantly in their operation from commercial pelagic fishing fleets, is
their dominant socioeconomic force, which stems from their control over the entire product cycle.
The processing, packaging, distribution and production of lobster and conch is solely a cooperative
affair; foreign export companies have been removed, very deliberately, from the equation so that
local fishermen can obtain fair prices for their produce.cxli This has been the economic success of
51
the cooperatives; however, a key problem in their management is that they are locked into
pathological resource use. cxliiIn other words, fishing cooperatives rely on large export volumes to
remain profitable, and create harmful incentives to recruit new fishermen by offering subsidies on
ice for refrigeration, fuel and fishing gear [lobster and conch fisheries], which causes
overexploitation. Mismanagement and lack of leadership are frequently cited by interviewed
cooperative members as the reason most cooperatives fail or resort to this kind of sequential
exploitation to sustain yieldscxliii; thus, it will be important to provide technical assistance from
facilitative NGOs to prevent such occurrences. Belize has already used NGOs to enhance the
politcal power of its cooperatives, so this approach would be extremely easy to implement in
comparison to other Caribbean states. For instance, the Belize Fishing Cooperatives Association
(BFCA) was formed to unite affiliated cooperatives by removing unnecessary competition;
defending territorial rights; and negotiating and lobbying with the government for concessions and
influencing decisions. cxlivThe BFCA also created a program to educate its members of the benefits
of fisheries management and conservation policies. Thus, although the strength of fishing
cooperatives is (arguably) based on short-term economic gain, their organized efforts to prevent
intrusion into the market by foreign companies and illegal fishermen will facilitate the
participation of locals in conservation efforts because Belizean fishermen are already adept
though in a limited sense -- at defending the coral reefs as a communal resource to which only
they, the cooperatives, have the right. Indeed, fishing cooperatives in Belize already contain some
elements of co-management, including collaborative patrolling (to ensure compliance with
regulations and to keep out intruding outsiders), and inclusive decision-making in the formulation
and implementation of regulatory measures.cxlv
52
Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Making MPAs Ecologically Successful:

Planning for Land-based Pollution
Overexploitation of fisheries and harmful fishing practices are not the only anthropogenic
disturbances harming Belizes coral reefs. Land based pollution and siltation are serious threats in
Belize because despite its small population (approximately 300,000)cxlvi, domestic sewage pollution
from treatment facilities, septic tanks and direct outfall, particularly around the mouth of the Belize
River, Belize City, Dangriga and developed cayes is prominent as most of the country lacks a
central sewage system and current sewage treatment is minimally effective. Land-based pollution
is invariably the most difficult threat to identify and remove because of the frequent separation of
cause and effect -- both temporally and spatially -- with the main sources of pollution often lying
many miles inland and away from the reefs being harmed. As an example, seagrass beds, an
important habitat link between the mangrove and coral reef ecosystem and an important breeding
and feeding ground for many marine species including lobster and conch are being impacted by
dredging operations, siltation due to land excavation and agricultural runoff.cxlvii Also, there is a
high degree of natural uncertainty present in predicting (and thus planning for) the severity of
pollution and its effects on surrounding ecosystems because mangroves, sea grasses and coral reefs
in Belize are particularly susceptible to sudden changes in hydrological conditions and sediment
concentrations.cxlviii Additionally, important commercial fish species that spend their beginning
stages of life in mangroves are extremely vulnerable to this sedimentation. cxlixTo combat this
uncertainty, marine fisheries reserves (MFRs) may be placed in zones naturally buffered from
land-based pollution so that resource protection is guaranteed if, for example, there is a surge in
runoff due to increased rainfall. Further, in Belize, only 2% of mangrove cays and 25% of
mangroves along the mainland coast are protected,cl thus an adequate policy measure would be to
53
increase protected areas on land that coincide with the location of commercially important
fisheries, if such measures are deemed sustainable by relevant stakeholders.
To realize protection efforts so that the pristine nature of coral reefs around Belize may
remain intact it will be necessary not only to develop committees that can facilitate working
relationships between all of the agencies involved for the purposes of research, education,
monitoring and management, but also to develop an act of legislation that will establish the
functions of each organization under its control so that there is no overlap and so that conflicts
between organizations can be avoided. One such act, known as the Coastal Zone Management Act,
is already underway in Belize and will also address the need for financial support by empowering
the Minister to introduce user-fees. Also, planning for the terrestrial component of the coastal zone
is carried out through the Land Utilisation Act, overseen by the Land Utilisation Authority (LUA)
and the Housing and Town Planning Act, administered by the Central Housing and Planning
Authority (CHPA)cli. Sustainable development plans ensure that industry, agriculture and domestic
areas are located away from waterways that have an impact on coastal waters, and that there are
appropriate waste control and treatment facilities to protect from pollution and prevent the need for
costly pollution mitigation efforts in the future.clii
Eco-tourism Development
In Belize, it is estimated that 89% of Coastal Development poses a low threat level to
nearby corals, while 11% poses at least a medium threat. cliiiTypes of coastal development
particularly damaging to coral reefs include the building of hotels, the operation of cruise ships and
smaller vessels, the establishment of restaurants and much more. Not surprisingly, all of these
activities are products of the tourism sector. However, despite its potential for increasing sewage
54
runoff, the growing tourism industry in Belize has spurred many protection measures for the
Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. Firstly, it has been shown in Belize that MPAs largely
contribute the growth of local tourism. For example, the cayes and the reef are major attractions:
78% of hotel rooms are located along the coast and 77% of tourists go snorkeling and scuba
diving.cliv One the other hand, eco-tourism has successfully increased awareness of the natural
benefits derived from healthy coral reefs, thus spurring more environmentally friendly behavior on
the part of local fishermen. Involving the tourist industry in management makes sense because
marine-resources and tourism can both benefit as a result of MPA establishment. Indeed, the tourist
industry is already becoming involved in a number of ways, and the regulations and structure of
local tour guide associations, which can act in a self-policing, self-managing capacity, provide
basis for improved management of tourists on reefs. clv For example, local Placencia tour guides
initiated a voluntary no-take zone around Laughing Bird Caye, which fishermen agreed too and
now follow with no legal implementation even enacted.clvi
However, if eco-tourism is to be used as a management tool, it has to be done so that there
is an overall benefit to protection efforts, whether such benefits are political or financial. Thus,
eco-tourism can be defined by the achievement of three objectives: generation of financial support
for protected area management, generation of local economic benefits and generation of local
support for conservation.clvii Although eco-tourism does generate political support for reef
protection via pressure on the government from visitors and through other mechanisms as
discussed above, it is also important to consider the microeconomics of eco-tourism in Belize and
whether the financial costs, such as payment of staff and park maintenance outweigh the returns
from entrance fees, donations and other tourism-related revenues accrued to marine protection (i.e
the first goal of eco-tourism). In a study conducted at Cocksomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and the
55
Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize it was found that the use of entrance fees to provide extra
revenue would allow marine reserves to provide net financial support for protected areas.
However, there is often industry opposition to such fees based on the concern by park staff that the
number of visitors and opportunities for business will be reduced if prices are increased: a basic
microeconomic principle that seems valid. However, the fact that a low entrance fee of US$1.50
makes up just 1% of the US$1,006 estimated average tourist expenditure per visit in Belize means
that fee increases would have little effect on demand.clviii Second, demand for eco-tourism trips is
considered to be less price-elastic in general than demand for traditional Caribbean tourism trips
because of the uniqueness and alternative nature of eco-tourism sites such as those found in
Belize.clix Additionally, it should be considered equitable for the people of Belize and visitors alike
if fees are used as a way to pay for protected areas because increased revenues will not only
provide increased protection, but also an enhancement of the tourists experience via park
improvements.
Overall, the general methodology needed to produce a synchronization between regulations
on land and offshore would be through the development of an umbrella of community-based
organizations (mostly non-governmental organizations) and through further decentralization of
management, which will provide full management of the many types of coastal ecosystems found
around Belize, while creating the communication needed for compliance of species specific
regulations. Additionally, development of the eco-tourism industry is a priority, because revenues
from eco-tourism have been shown to produce a net financial gain in protected area funding. In
general, because agriculture, fishing and tourism are together the three largest sectors of Belizes
economy, coastlines should be considered the focal point of ecosystems management plans with
56
considerations to the many stakeholders and environmental and socioeconomic factors involved on
land and at sea.
Market Based Approaches Economic Alternatives to Artisanal Fishing

Pressure may be lifted off of commercially important fisheries if fishermen can find
alternative occupations to boost their incomes between seasons so that there is less incentive to
overfish during periods when the most lucrative (and most vulnerable) catches such as lobster and
the extremely high-valued conch become available. Conch, for example, can fetch up to
BZ$4.00/lb making it twice as valuable as other fin-fish.clx However, it is widely agreed upon that
total annual conch earnings have fallen significantly since the era of peak-fish (see Figure 2clxi)
despite the existence of a closed season between July 1st and September 30th in the GOH. Landings
are still reported during this closed season due to the illegal harvest and export of conch to
Guatemala and Honduras, which lack restrictions on fishing conch. Thus, a more effective way to
prevent overexploitation of conch would be to decrease the incentives to illegally fish by
employing demand side measures to decrease demand by placing tariffs or import taxes on the
threatened fish, by sponsoring government buyback programs of fishing vessels to prevent
overcapitalization and by subsidizing sport fishing gear.clxii However, because conch is a locally
favored food and a high-value export commodity, it may be difficult to decrease demand initially;
it would be more feasible to increase the demand of other complementary fishing products.
Fishermen are most interested in the economic alternative of sports fishing to boost family
incomes while utilizing their fishery resources in a sustainable manner because catch and release
fly fishing for permit, snook, bonefish and tarpon has the potential to earn a guide up to BZ$200 at
day and ensures that each fish can bring in a larger some of money because it can be caught
57
multiple times. clxiiiFishermen can also supply fresh fish to the many new restaurants around Belize
being created as a result of the tourism boom, which may earn them much higher prices for their
catch (a method very applicable to conch). Thus, establishing a partnership between restaurants
and Belizean artisanal fishermen will be essential in boosting fishers incomes and taking pressure
off of vulnerable or declining species populations.
Figure 2, source: Gillet.
Cuba:
Further Research
In the case of Cuba, there are many factors to consider when making a policy
recommendation for their fisheries. Cuba is very unique compared to the rest of the SIDS that we
have examined. The collapse of their major support system and the subsequent economic downturn
58
in the 1990s led to major changes in the economic focus and social conditions within the nation.
These changes have had lasting impacts on the nations fisheries and their fishing industry overall.
The current catch is only a fraction of what the catch used to be, which is a positive. Another
positive is the governments attempts to adopt environmentally sustainable agricultural policies.
Daz-Briquets argues that these changes are not entirely the result of an increased concern for the
environment, but also the economic downturn.clxiv Without the aid of the Soviet Union, it was
impossible for Cuba to keep up with the methods that they were utilizing before. Another
suggestion is that the outgrowth of the tourist economy within Cuba is the major leading cause of
reef degradation. There are a multitude of factors that need to be adequately addressed.
The implementation of the fishery management practices highlighted by Claro et al. has
been generally heralded as very positive, and for good reason.clxv Without the enactment of these
policies, it can be hypothesized that the Cuban fisheries would be in much worse shape than they
currently are. Daz-Briquets agree that the presence of these policies is very positive, but there are
issues with them as well.clxvi The issues arise with enforcement. It is very hard to enforce all of the
nations fisheries, especially when there are still shortages of materials for boats and other
vessels.clxvii Another reason why enforcement is difficult or often lax is the conflicting purposes of
economic and environmental coalitions within the government.clxviii In addition, the specific bans on
types of fishing or the fishing of certain species has cultivated a black market around them so that
wealthy Cubans can obtain species that are considered delicacies. Daz-Briquets and Claro et al.
suggests that the existence of the tourist economy has led to the expansion of the black market
since wealthy tourists have the ability to pay high prices for the luxury goods, such as shrimp,
which have strict limitations on the catch rate.clxix clxx While the management practices are a step in
the right direction, there is a great deal more that can be done to strengthen them.
59
Something that has been thought to increase the sustainability of the Cuban fisheries is the
revival of Cuban fishing cooperatives. These cooperatives are allowed to fish in a specified fishery
according to the current management practices.clxxi Because the cooperatives are allowed to fish in
particular zones, they become invested in them.clxxii According to the sixth and seventh principles
from the broad principles of fishery management put forth by Cochrane (see Table 3), the specified
fisheries are their main lifeline to supporting themselves and their communities so it is necessary
for them to ensure the survival of the fishery and the sense of long-term ownership in place of
short-term establishes that connection.clxxiii With the collapse of these coastal ecosystems, they
would lose the provisioning services it provides so it is in their interest to preserve them. This is a
very important consideration for future policy. Enabling fishers to think about the future of their
livelihoods is an important aspect of development, so raising them out of direct threat of being
impoverished is necessary.
With the positives of the fishing cooperatives and the management practices, and despite
the flaws of the enforcement system, some models show that the current rate of fishing of the most
prominent fisheries is at a sustainable level.clxxiv Compared to the high rates of the 1980s, most
catch rates will appear sustainable, but trials of the Schaefer model for various fish species show
that the rates are at good levels in Cuban fisheries.clxxv Baisre et al. hypothesize with great certainty
that the effects of the management practices of the 1990s, as well as the economic downturn, are
primarily responsible for this effect.clxxvi Still, despite the declines, reefs are still declining and there
must be an attempt to avert any further degradation.
60
Table 3, Source: Cochrane (2001).
Implementation of Species-Specific Conservation Efforts

An addendum to the current management regime that could be substantially beneficial to
the coastal fisheries and to the reef habitats would be taking a species-specific approach. Through
setting specific limits and monitoring the patterns of spawning, which change often for some
species, for each different important species, Claro et al. state that managing the fisheries would be
much more efficient and effective.clxxvii This approach could be considered equitable because it
allocates a fair amount of research and inputs to each specific species in order to find the optimal
levels of catch for the ecosystem and for economic needs. Depending on the specific spawning
patterns and the recorded populations for a species, the number of allowed catch can increase or
decrease. Of course, this approach can positively or negatively affect the fishers who depend on
the fisheries. It is our belief that this will do more harm than good in the long-term, but for
exceptionally high restrictions on a species, it would be optimal to grant fishers a form of
supplemental income through other work.
61
Complete Elimination of Bottom Trawling in Coastal Fisheries

Since the introduction of trawling in the Cuban fishing fleet, the catch rates have generally
increased significantly as evidenced by figure x.clxxviii It allows fishers to catch great numbers of fish
by dragging a lengthy net over the bottom of an ocean shelf. However, this practice has many
consequences to the coastal ecosystems where it is practiced. Fishing practices that involve large
nets are often cited as leading causes of overfishing and fishery exploitation in the second half of
the 20th century, which occurred in Cuba in the 1980s.clxxix This practice has been periodically
banned and unbanned on the Cuban shelf. It occurs today, but in much smaller instances than in the
past. In addition to the overuse of trawlers leading to overfishing, trawling itself disrupts the
coastal ecosystems. An issue with trawling is that the net captures everything in the path of the net,
including non-edible or non-profitable species. It also causes great harm to the reef ecosystems by
physically removing pieces of the reef, which has lasting effects according to Althaus et al.clxxx The
total elimination of this practice will stop direct damage to the corals, but will also stop any
possible unintended catch of other species or any future overfishing. This would provide an
equitable and efficient outcome in the long-term. It is also very politically feasible, as the Ministry
of the Fishing Industry (MIP) is working on such a policy currently.clxxxi
Strengthening Enforcement of the Management Practices

As stated earlier, enforcement of the restrictions on coastal fisheries along the Cuban
coastline is a difficult undertaking. The MIP would need the appropriate funds to devote more
vessels to enforcement of the fisheries. Without the adequate funding, the black market would
continue on as it is currently. The fishermen who use these fisheries are incentivized to obey the
restrictions to allow for future fishery usage. However, those who engage in illegal subsistence
62
fishing, which includes poaching and the like, are not properly incentivized to use the fisheries at
sustainable levels. If these subsistence fishers were given jobs as fishermen or even as patrollers
where their livelihoods would depend on the existence of the fishery, then perhaps the abundance
of subsistence fishing would decline by significant amounts. Another suggestion could be to
implement a cross-border fishing management and enforcement committee comprised of other
SIDS who face overfishing and unsustainable fishery usage. It could be the goal of this committee
to oversee the management regimes and to operate a type of formal enforcement. The committee
would have to be signed on to and ratified by the governments of those who wish to participate,
much like with the climate change treaties of the past. Then, each nation would provide the funds
the committee as well as outside sources, possibly the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) or the Food and Agricultural Program of the United Nations (FAO-UN).
There are many different solutions for coastal fisheries which can decrease the impacts on
the coral reefs. Many solutions are within reach and are not politically unfeasible. It is imperative
to seize the opportunity to enact meaningful change to these fisheries in order to avert significant
negative impacts in the future.
Singapore, Grenada, and Western Samoa

Singapore's coral reefs are under pressure from a variety of sources, ranging from pollutant runoff
from heavy industries and manufacturing to radical, naturally occurring shifts in water temperatures
resulting in coral bleaching. As such, the preservation and mitigation efforts of Singapore must be as
multifaceted as the threats that affect the coral environment. Because of the need for a varied response to
the dangers presented to the Singapore reefs, there are a number of plans, projects and services that
Singapore needs to engage in to ensure that their coral reefs can be protected and thrive. In addition to the
63
multiple plans needed to bring about a healthy environment for the local coral ecosystems, Singapore faces
the unique challenge, at least for this group of countries, in that it does not exist in a vacuum of claimants
on the sea. clxxxii This lack of complete autonomy of the region on matters of sea pollution and fishing
regulations make the need for preservation programs and legislation more pressing and more difficult to
make effective. Promisingly, Singapore does not want for programs aimed at the protection of coral reefs
and the stimulation of growth of new coral and has a number of government funded projects and nongovernment organizations.clxxxiii Since 2004, the Singapore National Parks Board has had established
'biodiversity guidelines' and is actively involved with further coastal development, maintaining controls on
the levels of sediment and runoff from new building projects. clxxxiv At around the same time, coral nursery
projects were started by the Board and, for several years, have been collecting samples from local coral
ecosystems and maintaining a growing coral reef in a protected environment. clxxxv There is even the
beginnings of a coral monitoring program involving a number of government and non-government
agencies, most notably the Blue Water Volunteers. clxxxvi While each of these efforts is commendable, they are
not supported enough and do not extend to the necessary lengths to stem the tide of destruction that has
been wrought on the coral reefs in Singapore, with a sixty percent decrease in the healthy coral reefs since
its founding.clxxxvii While the monitoring that is currently undertaken by Singapore is commendable, it
focuses on relatively few of the coral reefs present in the surrounding marine environment of
Singapore.clxxxviii A new system which focuses less on volunteer divers and visual observation and more on
remote sensors spread along a majority of the reef environments would allow for better, real time tracking
of a number of important environmental factors including sediment movement, ambient water quality,
abundance of biodiversity and the relative number of fish. clxxxix The second measure that will ensure the
continued growth and a declining level of coral reef destruction, the government must implement a number
of environmental and fishing regulations varying from controls on waste runoff from manufacturing and
construction projects to species selection or rotation in fishing. cxc The data collected from these monitoring
projects and continued visually assisted monitoring programs should be used in concert with conservation
and regrowth efforts aimed at coral reefs around Singapore, allowing for these efforts to focus on the worst
64
of the issues and to ensure enforcement of the environmental and fishing restrictions. cxci Finally, with the
extreme limitations on coastal land and the growing population in Singapore, the need for continued
construction of new manufacturing and housing developments has to be contextualized within the bounds of
what the marine environment can sustain. This tradeoff means that, while some developments will be left by
the wayside, the continuing need for increasing development will mean that not all of the existing reefs will
be saved.cxcii So, while the situation within Singapore is certainly dire, and the path to effective conservation
and growth is treacherous and fraught with international blockages, a plan following these basic outlines
should be able to deliver and ensure a healthy and prosperous marine environment which can be enjoyed for
generations.
The American Samoa also suffers a number of challenges to the sustainability of its coral reefs,
although they are quite distinctly different from the problems that Singapore faces. The fishing industry in
Western Samoa is much more robust when compared to Singapore and, as a result, has had much more of a
negative impact on the biodiversity and general health of the coral reefs. The American Samoa has also
implemented a number of government based projects in order to reduce the negative impacts affecting their
coral reefs. These programs are much more conventional in their approach to stemming or reversing the tide
of damage, focusing mainly on locally reducing direct pollution from local businesses and public outreach
programs to locals about the dangers of pollution.cxciii The government of the American Samoa has also
instituted a number of policies that aim to reduce the large impacts associated with overfishing and
unsustainable fishing practices. The current regulations encourage commercial fishing vessels to cycle their
choice of fish and has strict limitations on the gross number of fish that are meant to be harvested, as well as
regulations involving the incursion of foreign fishing vessels into Western Samoa's sovereign waters. cxciv
While all these regulations are admirable in their progressive nature, they lack much of the force necessary
to actually protect the coral reefs. Government officials have made comments to United States research
teams complaining of a lack of enforcement measures or even an official court system to bring about
penalties for fishermen who illegally fish in protected areas or who use improper weighing or fishing
methods.cxcv So, the recommendation to American Samoa should focus on improving the methods and
65
programs that are already in place and expanding programs that cover areas that are not protected by the
current government guidelines. Specifically, there should be enforcement measures specifically created for
the pollution and fishing restrictions, allowing the government to levy fines or take control of fishing or
other businesses which act in an unsustainable way. This measure will allow the already significant amount
of proper regulations governing fishing and pollution to actually help protect the coral reefs around Western
Samoa. Further programs that should be proposed and brought about would include a program to measure
and implement changes to marine policy based on water quality changes and other factors involved in
changes associated with climate change.cxcvi This program, in concert with a program aimed at coral reef
seeding and rebuilding, would allow Western Samoa to not only mitigate the human related degradation of
the surrounding marine environment, but also help to ease the tensions caused by the changing global
environment. With these simple changes, the American Samoa can go from high minded ideas about
preservation and conservation to having an effective legal protective netting over their coral reefs and start
on the road to having a thriving and healthy coral reef system once more.
The problems surrounding Grenada are quite similar to those of Western Samoa, but its current
approach and its legislative and conservation needs are quite different. Grenada's reefs are threatened by
many of the same factors as the Western Samoa, overfishing, ground pollutants and and increasing
population which puts pressure on both of these issues. Unlike the American Samoa however, Grenada has
very little in the way of existing protections for these vulnerable marine environments. Besides
governmental regulations regarding fishing, limited protection zones for some reef environments and a
monitoring program to determine the effectiveness of the protection zones, Grenada's coral reefs are
basically unprotected.cxcvii Grenada has several programs in the works that have promise. An expanded ecotourism sector in Grenada will allow the government to find traction to expand the protected zones to cover
the majority of the coral reefs and, almost as importantly, block new housing and unsustainable
developments in vulnerable areas.cxcviii This tourism based protection, coupled with similar fishing
regulations as those implemented or to be implemented in Western Samoa, would allow Grenada to protect
a valuable resource and ensure its safety for generations to come.
66
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iv
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v
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xii
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xiii
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xv
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xvi
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xvii
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xviii
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xix
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University of Georgia Press, (1992) Print.
xx
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xxi
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xxii
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xxiii
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xxiv
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xxvi
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xxvii
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Caribbean, Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004. 52-59.
xxviii
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xxix
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xxxi
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Approach," In Paper presented at the Third Annual Conference of the International Association for the Study of
Commom Property (IASCP) Sept, pp. 18-20, 1992.
xxxii
Ibid, 19.
xxxiii
Ibid, 19.
xxxiv
Ibid, 19.
xxxv
xxxvi
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Commom Property (IASCP) Sept, pp. 18-20, 1992.
xxxvii
Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), "FAO Fishery Country Profile Belize,"
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2014).
xxxviii
xxxix
Ibid.
xl
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Study of Commom Property (IASCP) Sept, pp. 18-20, 1992.
xli
xlii
Ibid.
xliii
LM Burke and J Maidens, "Economic Implications of Coral Reef Degradation," In Reefs at risk in the
Caribbean, Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004. 52-59.
xliv
Ibid.
xlv
A Perez, "Fisheries management at the tri-national border between Belize, Guatemala and
Honduras," Marine Policy 33 (2009): 195-200.
xlvi
Burke, Lauretta Marie, and Jonathan Maidens. "Economic Implications of Coral Reef Degradation."
In Reefs at risk in the Caribbean. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004. 52-59.
xlvii
J Alvarez, Cuban Agriculture Before 1959: The Political and Economic Situations, Electronic Data
Information Source of the University of Florida/IFAS (2004): 1-8, accessed March 29, 2014,
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FE/FE48000.pdf.
xlviii
Ibid.
xlix
J Dominguez, The Batista Regime in Cuba, in Sultanistic Regimes, ed. AE Chehabi and JJ Linz
(Baltimore: John Hopkins University press, 1998), 113-131.
l
S Daz-Briquets, Cuba Platform Fisheries: Collapse or Recoery?, Cuba in Transition 22 (2012): 129141, ASCE.
li
JA Baisre, J Abraham, and DM Kristfferson, Cuban Fisheries Management Regime: Current State
and Future Prospects, (Final project, the United Nations University, 2006).
lii
Daz-Briquets, Cuba Platform Fisheries.
liii
Ibid.
liv
C Mesa-Lago, Social and economic problems in Cuba during the crisis and subsequent recovery, The
CEPAL Review 86 (2005): 177-199, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).
lv
C Trumbles, Economic Reforms and Social Contradictions in Cuba, Cuba in Transition 10 (2000):
305-320, Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE).
lvi
C Mesa-Lago, The Cuban Economy in 2006-2007, Cuba in Transition 17 (2007): 1-20, ASCE.
lvii
Mesa-Lago, Social and Economic problems.
lviii
Mesa-Lago, Cuban Economy.
lix
Mesa-Lago, Social and Economic problems.
lx
Ibid.
lxi
PM Rosset et al., The Campesino-to-Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: social
process methodology in the construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and food sovereignty, Journal of
Peasant Studies 38 (2011): 161-191.
lxii
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lxiii
Ibid.
lxiv
Ibid.
lxv
Mesa-Lago, Social and Economic Problems.
lxvi
Ibid.
lxvii
lxviii
Mesa-Lago, Social and Economic Problems.
lxix
lxx
Ibid.
lxxi
lxxii
lxxiii
AJ Dyck and UR Samaila, Economic impact of ocean fish populations in the global fishery, Journal
of Bioeconomics 12 (2010): 227-243.
lxxiv
R Claro et al., Historical analysis of Cuban commercial fishing effort and the effects of management
interventions on important reef fishes from 19602005, Fisheries Research 99 (2009): 7-16.
lxxv
Claro et al., Historical analysis.
lxxvi
IT Joyce, The Spiny-Lobster Fishery in Cuba, American Geographical Society 87 (1997): 484-503.
lxxvii
R Puga et al., Integrating Anthropogenic and Climatic Factors in the Assessment of the Caribbean
Spiny Lobster (Panulirus argus) in Cuba: Implications for Fishery Management, International Journal of
Marine Science 3 (2013), accessed April 1 2014, doi: 10.5376/ijms.2013.03.0006.
lxxviii
IT Joyce, Socialism and the Fishery: A case study of the Cuban shrimp fishery, The Canadian
Geographer 43 (1999): 53-69.
lxxix
Puga et al., Integrating Anthropogenic.
lxxx
PM Alcolado et al., Condition of remote reefs off southwest Cuba, Ciencia Marinas 36 (2010): 179197.
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Catches and
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<http://www.seaaroundus.org/report/catrends/5mohammedrennie.pdf>.
lxxxii Ibid.
lxxxi
lxxxiii Ibid.
lxxxiv Ibid.
lxxxv Ibid.
lxxxvi McGann, J. "Coral Reef Monitoring for the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and Tobago .". Ft
Lauderdale, Florida: 2008. 711-715. <http://www.nova.edu/ncri/11icrs/proceedings/files/m18-08.pdf>.
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<http://www.gov.gd/egov/news/2012/oct12/30_10_12/item_5/grenada_financing_scheme_environmental_protection.ht
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lxxxviii "American Samoa Archipelago: History of the Fisheries."Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.
Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council . 4 Apr 2014.
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lxxxix Ibid.
xc Craig, Peter. "STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOA STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN
AMERICAN SAMOA."NOAA's Coral Reef Information System. NOAA. 4 Apr 2014.
<http://www.coris.noaa.gov/portals/pdfs/status_coralreef_samoa.pdf>.
xci Ibid.
xcii Ibid.
xciii "Samoa's 4th National Report on Biological Diversity."Convention on Biological diversity. Convention on Biological
Diversity, n.d. Web. 4 Apr 2014. <http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ws/ws-nr-04-en.pdf>.
xciv Ibid.
xcv Ibid.
xcvi Wilkinson, C. (2008). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2008. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and
Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, Australia
xcvii Ibid.
xcviii
J Baldwin. Lecture, Boston University. 2014
xcix
Balwdin.Lecture.
c
L Richards. How Cuba is going Ecological. Capitalism, Nature, Socialism. 16.3 (2005)Web.
ci
L Smith. The Past, Present & Future of Bahamian Fisheries. Bahama Pundit.
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cii
Ibid.
ciii
L Smith. Poaching and the Defence Force. Bahama Pundit.
http://www.bahamapundit.com/2013/01/poaching-and-the-defence-force.html (2013) Web.
civ
Ibid.
cv
Ibid.
cvi
Ibid.
cvii
Ibid.
cviii
G Petrossian & R Clarke. Explaining and Controlling Illegal Commercial Fishing. Oxford Journals:
The British Journal of Criminology. (2013)Web.
cix
Ibid.
cx
Ibid.
cxi
Smith. Poaching and the Defence Force.
cxii
Ibid.
cxiii
Ibid.
cxiv
Ibid.
cxv
A Haines et al. Spatially Explicit Analysis of Poaching Activity as a Conservation
Management Tool. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 36 (2012):685-692.Web.

cxvi
P Mumby & R Steneck. Coral Reef Management and Conservation in Light of Rapidly
Evolving Ecological Paradigms. (2008)Web.

cxvii
Ibid.
cxviii
Ibid.
cxix
Ibid.
cxx
Stimulating Coral Restoration. The Nature Conservancy.

http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulatingcoral-restoration.xml (2014)Web.
cxxi
Ibid.
cxxii
A Diedrich. The impacts of tourism on coral reef conservation awareness and support in
coastal communities in Belize.Coral Reefs. (2007)Web.
cxxiii
Stimulating Coral Research.
cxxiv
M Craton & G Saunders, Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People, Vol 2,
Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, (1992) Print.
cxxv
Gifford, Robert. Environmental Psychology Matters. Annual Review Psychology. 65 (2013): 541-79.
Web.
cxxvi
Ibid.
cxxvii
Ibid.
cxxviii
Fishing Regulations. http://www.bahamas.co.uk/things-to-do/bahamas-fishing/fishingregulations. Web.

cxxix
Ibid.
cxxx
C Pinder. Fishing in the Bahamas. Tribune 242.
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cxxxi
K Broad & J Sanchirico. Local perspectives on marine reserve creation in the Bahamas.
Ocean & Coastal Management. 51.11 (2008) Web.
cxxxii
Burke, L Marie, and J Maidens. "Economic Implications of Coral Reef Degradation." In Reefs at risk
in the Caribbean. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004. 52-59.
cxxxiii
BK. Sovacool A Game of Cat and Fish: How to Restore the Balance
in Sustainable Fisheries Management, Ocean Development & International Law, 40 (2009): 97-125,
DOI:
10.1080/00908320802631486
cxxxiv
WD. Heyman and P Granados-Dieseldorff. Voices of fisherman The voice of the fishermen of the Gulf
of Honduras: Improving regional fisheries management through fisher participation. Fisheries Research 125
126 (2012) 129 148
cxxxv
DN Brown and RS Pomeroy. Co-Management of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Fisheries.
Marine Policy, Vol. 23, No. 6, pp. 549-570, 1999
cxxxvi
cxxxvii
L Evans, N Cherrett, and D Pemsl. Assessing the impact of fisheries co-management interventions in
developing countries: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Management Vol. 92, 2000
cxxxviii
Heyman and Granados-Dieseldorff. Voices of fisherman.
cxxxix
cxl
cxli
DN Brown and RS Pomeroy. Co-Management of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Fisheries.
Marine Policy, Vol. 23, No. 6, pp. 549-570, 1999
cxlii
P Espeut, "Managing the Fisheries of Jamaica and Belize: The Argument for a Cooperative Approach,"
In Paper presented at the Third Annual Conference of the International Association for the Study of Commom
Property (IASCP) Sept, pp. 18-20, 1992.
cxliii
cxliv
Brown and Pomeroy. Co-Management of Caribbean Community.
cxlv
Brown and Pomeroy. Co-Management of Caribbean.
cxlvi
The World Bank Group. World Bank Population Totals.
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL (May, 2014).
cxlvii
cxlviii
J. Gibson, M. McField, S. Wells. Coral reef management in Belize: an approach through Integrated
Coastal Zone Management. Ocean & Coastal Management 39 (1998) 229-244
cxlix
Gibson, McField, and Wells. Coral reef management in Belize: an approach through Integrated Coastal
Zone Management. Ocean & Coastal Management 39 (1998) 229-244
cl
cli
clii
Ibid, 239.
cliii
Burke, Marie, and Maidens. "Economic Implications of Coral Reef Degradation." In Reefs at risk in the
Caribbean. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004. 52-59.
cliv
clv
Ibid.
clvi
Ibid.
clvii
Ibid, 230.
clviii
Ibid, 245.
clix
Ibid.
clx
clxi
Gillet, The Fisheries of Belize, Fisheries Centre Research Reports 11 (2003): 141-147.
clxii
Sovacool. A Game of Cat and Fish.
clxiii
Heyman and Granados-Dieseldorff. Voices of fishermam.
clxiv
clxv

clxvi
clxvii
Ibid.
clxviii
Ibid.
clxix
clxx
clxxi
clxxii
clxxiii
KL Cochrane, Reconciling sustainability, economic efficiency and equity in fisheries: the one that got
away?, Fish and Fisheries 1 (2000): 3-21.
clxxiv
clxxv
Baisre, Abraham, and Kristfferson, Cuban Fisheries.
clxxvi
Ibid.
clxxvii
clxxviii
clxxix
clxxx
F Althaus et al., Impacts of bottom trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting,
Marine Ecology Progress Series 397 (2009): 279-294.
clxxxi

clxxxii Goh, Management and monitoring for coral reef conservation
in the Port of Singapore <http://www.nova.edu/ncri/11icrs/proceedings/files/m23-10.pdf>
clxxxiii Ibid.
clxxxiv Ibid.
clxxxv Goh, Linda, Coral Reef Conservation in Singapore
<http://earw.icriforum.org/4_ICRI_EARW_Poster_Singapore.pdf>
clxxxvi Ibid.
clxxxvii Goh, Management and monitoring for coral reef conservation

clxxxviii Ibid.
clxxxix Ibid.
cxc Goh, Management and monitoring for coral reef conservation
cxci Ibid.
cxcii Ibid.
cxciii Gershman, Dave, American Samoa's Reef Initiative University of Michigan.
<http://webservices.itcs.umich.edu/drupal/mebm/?q=node/7>
cxciv Ibid.
cxcv Ibid.
cxcvi Ibid.
cxcvii Milwaukee Zoo <http://www.milwaukeezoo.org/conservation/projects/grenadareef.php>
cxcviii Grenada Explorer, Grenada's Ecotourism Caribbean Island Travel Guide

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The Coastal Fisheries of Small Island Developing States:

Examining the sustainability of these fisheries in the past and present

Robert Borgoo, Alex Villa, Courtney MacDonald, and Aaron Rosenblum

Introduction and Statement of Purpose

Economy and Fisheries of the Bahamas

Economic Conditions in Belize

Fishing Cooperatives within Belize

However, the economic stability of cooperatives seems to be driven by the ever-increasing

Fisheries Management in Belize

Current Situation in Cuba:

Source: Daz-Briquets (2012).

Species affected by the

92 finfish and invertebrate species

All six studied species, as well as

- 15 kg/trip in areas of high economic importance for

Established regulations to increase selectivity of several fishing gears: minimum size

Marine Reserve Pta. Francs.

Marine Reserve Cabo Cruz. Coral reef Barrier

Marine Reserve Cayo La Lea Jaimanita, Pennsula Guanahacabibes

All six studied species as well as

All six studied species as well as

All snappers and other spawning

Mutton, cubera, dog and grey

Mutton snapper, cubera snapper,

Marine Reserve Norte de Matanzas

4. Singapore, Grenada, and Western Samoa

GDP from Reef size

Reef health Preservatio

490 km^2 Live coral39%

452000000 100 km^2

Reef health Preservatio

The future of the Bahamian Islands

The Cooperative Model of Fisheries Management

8.3 Gear types

8.6 Research and monitoring:

8.8 Fisheries enhancement:

Source: W.D. Heyman and P. Granados-Dieseldorff.

The organizational powers of fishing cooperatives should be utilized to provide a

Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Making MPAs Ecologically Successful:

Market Based Approaches Economic Alternatives to Artisanal Fishing

Figure 2, source: Gillet.

Table 3, Source: Cochrane (2001).

Implementation of Species-Specific Conservation Efforts

Complete Elimination of Bottom Trawling in Coastal Fisheries

Strengthening Enforcement of the Management Practices

Singapore, Grenada, and Western Samoa

Mohammed, Elizabeth. "Grenada and the Grenadines: Reconstructed Fisheries

Management Tool. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 36 (2012):685-692.Web.

Evolving Ecological Paradigms. (2008)Web.

Stimulating Coral Restoration. The Nature Conservancy.

Fishing Regulations. http://www.bahamas.co.uk/things-to-do/bahamas-fishing/fishingregulations. Web.

Claro et al., Historical analysis.

Claro et al., Historical analysis.

clxxxvii Goh, Management and monitoring for coral reef conservation

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