Adsorption: -

The accumulation of molecular species at the

surface rather than bulk of solid or liquid is called Adsorption.
Adsorbate: The molecular species or substance which accumulate at the surface.
Adsorbent: The surface of material on which Adsorption takes place.
Desorption: The process of removing of adsorbed substance from the surface on which it is
adsorbed.
Absorption: -

When the molecular species or substance enters

in the bulk phase in solid or liquid is called as Absorption.
Sorption: -

When both adsorption and absorption takes place

simultaneously is called as sorption process.
Mechanism of Adsorption

Inside the Adsorbent (in bulk) the force acting between the
particles are mutually balanced but on the surface, the
particles are not surrounded by atoms or molecules of their
kind on all sides and hence they posses attraction force so
particle stick on the surface of the Adsorbent.
The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface
area per unit mass of the adsorbent at a given temperature and
pressure.
Heat of adsorption: - With increase in heat Adsorption process decreases.
Adsorption equilibrium: - As the molecules of the adsorb ate are held on the surface of the
solid adsorbent.

Entropy decreases, i.e. S is negative

For the process of adsorption to occur, G must be negative

which is possible only when, S keeps on decreasing and T S
keeps on increasing till ultimately H becomes equal.
To T S so that G = 0, this state is called adsorption
equilibrium.
Types of adsorption
There are two types of adsorption

i.

Physical Adsorption or physisorption: - If accumulation of gas on the surface of

solid occurs on account of weak vanderwalls forces is called physical Adsorption.

ii.

Chemical Adsorption or chemosorption: - When gas molecules or atoms are held to

the surface (solid) by chemical bonds, the Adsorption is called Chemical Adsorption.
Characteristics of physical Adsorption or physisorption

1)

Lack of specificity: - A given surface of an Adsorbent does not show any preference for a
particular gas as the vanderwalls forces are universal.

2)

Nature of Adsorbate: - The amount of gas Adsorbed by a solid depends on the nature of
the gas.

3)

Reversible nature: - Physisorption is reversible because adsorbate may be removed by

decreasing pressure.

4)

Surface area of Adsorbent: - Physisorption increases with increase in surface area.

5)

Enthalpy of Adsorption: - Physical Adsorption is exothermic process but its enthalpy of

adsorption is low (20-40 KJ mol-1).
Characteristics of Chemical Adsorption or chemosorption

1)

High specificity: - It is high specific because it occurs if there is some possibility of

chemical bonding.

2)

Irreversibility: - As chemisorptions involve compound formation, so it is usually

irreversible process.

3)

Temperature: - Chemisorptions increases with increase in temperature after saturation

starts decreasing.

4)

Pressure: - it is also increases with increase in pressure.

5)

Surface area: - chemisorptions increases with increase in surface area.

6)

Enthalpy of Adsorption: - Enthalpy of chemisorptions is high (80-240 KJ mol-1) as it

involves chemical bond formation.
Adsorption isotherm: -

The variation in the amount of gas

Adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at constant
temperature can be expressed by means of a curve termed
asAdsorption isotherm.
Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm: -

Freundlich Adsorption
Isotherm is given by freundlich in 1909, gave an empirical
relationship between the quantity of gas adsorbed by unit
mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular
temperature.
The relationship can be expressed by following equation:Where x is the mass of gas adsorbed on the m mass of
adsorbent at pressure p, k & n are constant which depend on
the nature of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular
temperature.
Relationship given by curve:-

Freundlich Adsorption isotherm

The curve indicates that at a fixed pressure there is decrease in
physical adsorption with increase of temperature.
Taking logarithm of eq..(i)

The validity of freundlich isotherm can be verified by

plotting log x/m on Y- axis and log P on X axis it comes
to be a straight line.

The adsorption varies directly with pressure.

Adsorption from solution phase: solid can adsorb solutes from solution also.

Example:- litmus solution when shaken with charcoal

becomes colourless.
Factors affecting Adsorption from solution phase

a)

The extent of Adsorption decreases with increase of temp.

b)

The extent of adsorption increase with an increase of

surface area of the adsorbent.
c)
The extent of the adsorption depends upon the
concentration of the solute in the solution.
d) The extent of Adsorption depends upon the nature of the
adsorbent and the adsorbate.
Applications of Adsorption

1)
2)
3)

Production of high vacuum

Gas masks
Control of humidity

4)
5)
6)
7)

Removal of coloring matter from solution

Separation of inert gases
Froth floatation process
Chromatographic analysis
Catalysis:-

Berzelius suggested the term catalyst, substance

which alter (change) the rate of a chemical reaction and
themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged
after the reaction are known as catalyst and the phenomenon
is known as catalysis.
Promoter: substance that enhance (increase) the activity of catalyst.
Poisons: -

it decreases the activity of catalyst.

Homogeneous Catalysis: -

When the reactants and the catalyst

are in the same phase (i.e. liquid or gas).
Examples: -

Heterogeneous catalysis: The catalytic process in which the reactant and the catalyst are in
different phase is known as heterogeneous catalyst.

Example: -

Shape Selectivity catalysis by Zeolite: The catalytic reaction that depends upon the pore structure
of the catalyst and the size of the reactant and product molecules is called as Shape
Selectivity catalysis.
Zeolite is good shape selective catalysts because of their honey comb like structure. They
are micro porous aluminosilicates with three dimensional networks of silicates in which some
silicone atoms is replaced by aluminium atoms giving AL-O-Si framework.

An important Zeolite catalyst used in petroleum industry

is ZSM-S.
ZSM-S converts directly Alcohols into Gasoline (Petrol) by
dehydrating them to give a mixture of hydrocarbons.
Enzyme Catalyst: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compound which are produced by
living plants and animals work as a catalyst in many life process termed as Biochemical
Catalysts (enzyme) and the phenomenon is known as Biochemical Catalysis.

Example: -

Characteristics of Enzyme Catalysis:a)

Most highly efficient: - One molecule of enzyme may transform one million molecule of
reactant per minute.

b)

Highly specific nature: - Each enzyme is specific for a given reaction.

c)

Highly active under optimum temperature: - The rate of an enzyme reaction is maximum at
definite temperature called optimum temperature (298K-310K).

d)

Highly active under optimum PH :- Rate of enzyme reaction is maximum at optimum

PH (5-7)
e)
Increasing activity in presence of activators and coenzymes:- The enzymatic activity in presence of certain
substance called co-enzymes (vitamins) and activators are
generally Na+, CO2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, etc.
f)
Inhibitors and poisons decrease or stop the rate of enzyme
reaction.
Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis: -

There are number of cavities

present on the surface of colloidal particles of enzymes.
the molecules of the reactant (substrate ), which have

complementary shape ,fit into the theses cavities just like a

key fits into a lock .on the account of the presence of actives
groups .an Activated complex is formed which then
decompose as to yield the products .
Colloidal: A colloidal is a heterogeneous system in which one
substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) as very fine particles
in another substance called dispersion medium.
Colloidal particles are larger than simple molecules but
smaller enough to remains suspended .their range of diameter
is between 1and 1000nm (10-9 to 10-6m)
Classification of collides: -

On the basis of (1) Physical state of

dispersed phase and dispersion medium
(2) Nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
(3) Types of particles of dispersed phase.
I.

Classification based on physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium:Dispersed phase

Dispersion medium

Types of colloids

Example

Solid

Solid

Solid sol

Solid
Solid
Liquid
Liquid

Liquid
Gas
Solid
Liquid

Sol
Aerosol
Gel
Emulsion

Liquid
Gas
Gas

Gas
Solid
Liquid

Aerosol
Solid sol
Foam

Some
coloured
glasses
Paints
Smoke, dust
Cheese, jellies
Milk, Hair
cream
Fog, mist
Pumice, Stone
Froth,
Whipped
cream

II.
classification based on nature of interaction
between dispersed phase and dispersion medium :- in
it colloidal state soles are divided into two categories :lyophillic (solvent attractive) ,
Lyophobic (solvent repelling)
a) Lyophillic colloids: The word lyophillic means liquid loving.
Colloidal sols directly formed by mixing substances like gum,
gelatine, starch, rubber etc. With a suitable liquid (dispersion
medium) are called lyophillic sol. These sols are also called
reversible sols.
b) Lyophobic Colloids: These words Lyophobic means liquid
hating substance like metals their sulphides etc. When simply
mixed with the dispersion medium do not form the colloidal
sol. Their colloidal sols can be prepared by only special
methods; such sols are called lyophobic sols. These sols are
also called irreversible sols.
III.

Classification based on type of particle of dispersed

phase:- In it, colloid are classified as multi-molecular, macromolecular and associated colloids.
a) Multimolecular Colloids :on dissolution, a large no of substance
aggregate together to form species having size in the colloidal
range (diameter <1nm) the species thus formed are
called Multimolecular colloids
b) Macromolecular Colloids :macromolecules in suitable solvents
form solution in which the size of macro molecules may be in

colloidal range .such systems are called macromolecule

colloids
c) Associated Colloids (Micelles):these are some substances
which at low concentration behave as a normal strong
electrolyte, but at higher concentration exhibit colloidal
behaviours due to the formation of aggregates, the aggregates
particle thus formed are called micelles or associated
colloids .the formation of micelles takes place only above a
particular temperature called Kraft temperature, and above a
particular concentration called critical concentration (CMC).
Mechanism of Micelles formation :soap is the sodium or potassium
salt of higher fatty acid and may be represented as RCOO- Na
(e.g.
sodium
stearate
,
(CH3(CH2)16COONa+]) when dissolve into RCOO- and Na+ ions ,the
RCOO- ions ,consist of two parts a long hydrocarbon
chain (also called non polar tail) which is hydrophobic
(water repelling ) and a polar group COO- (polar head)
which is hydrophilic (water loving ).

But,
At critical micelle concentration the anions are
pulled into the bulk of the solution and aggregate to form
a spherical shape with their hydrocarbon chain pointing
towards the center of the sphere with COO- part
remaining outward on the surface of the sphere .
An aggregate thus formed is known as Ionic micelle

Cleansing action of soaps :- the soap molecule in such a way

that hydrophobic part of the stearate ions is in oil droplet and
hydrophobic part projects out of the grease droplet like the
bristles (hairs)

Since the polar groups can interact with water, the oil droplet
surrounded by stearate ions is now pulled in water and
removed from the dirty surface thus soap help in
emulsification and washing away of oils and fats
Preparation of Colloids:a)

Chemical method: colloidal solution can be prepared by

chemical reaction leading to formation of molecules by
double decomposition, oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis.
These molecules then aggregate leading to form sols.

b)

Electrical disintegration or Bredigs Arc Method: this process

involves dispersion well as condensation. Colloidal sol of
metals such as gold silver etc can be prepared by this method.
in this method electric arc is struck between electrodes of
metal immersed in the dispersion medium the intense heat
product vaporised the metal, which then condenses to form
particles of colloidal size.

c)

Peptization: it is defined as the process of converting a

precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with dispersion
medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. The
electrolyte used for this purpose is called peptizing agent.
During peptization: - the particulate absorbs the one of the
ions of the electrolyte on its surface. This cause the

development of +ve charge on precipitate, which ultimately

break up into small particles of the size of a colloid.
Purification of colloidal Solution: The process used for reducing the amount of impurities to a
requisite minimum is known as purification of colloidal solution it is carried out by following
methods

(I)

Dialysis: -

It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by

means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.Since,

particles (ions or
smaller molecular) in a true solution can pass through an
animal membrane (bladder) or parchment paper or colloidal
particles. The molecules and ions diffuse through membrane
into the outer water and pure colloidal solution to left behind.
(II)

Electro dialysis: -

The process of dialysis is quite slow it

can be made faster by applying an electric field electrodes are
fitted in the compartment. The ions present in the colloidal
solution migrate out to the oppositely charge to electrodes.

(III)

Ultra filtration: -

In these methods special filters are used,

which are permeable to all substances except the colloidal
particles. An ultra filter paper may be prepared by soaking the
filter paper in a colloidal solution, hardening by formaldehyde
and then finally drying it. Thus, by using ultra filter paper the
colloidal particles are separated from rest of the materials. The
colloidal particles left on the ultra filter paper are there stirred
with fresh dispersion medium (solvent) to get a pure colloidal
solution.
Properties of colloidal solutions

(I)

Colligative Properties: -

The values of colligative properties

(osmotic pressure, lowering in vapor pressure, depression in
freezing point, elevation in boiling point) are of small order as
compared to values shown by true solution at same
concentration.
(II)

Tyndall effect: -

It is may be defending as the scattering of

the light by the colloidal particles present in the colloidal
solution.
(III)

Colour: -

The colour of the colloidal solution depends on

the wavelength of the light scatter by the dispersed particles.
The wavelength of light further depends on the size and nature
of the particles.
(IV)

Brownian Movement: -

It may be defined as continuous

zigzag movement of the colloidal particles in a colloidal
solution is known as Brownian movement.
(V)

Charge as colloidal particles:-

Charge as colloidal particles always carry is

electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the
particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either
+ve or ve.
Example:-

(a) +ve charged solution:1.

Haemoglobin
2.
Hydrated Metallic oxides
E.g. AS2S3.xH2O
(b) ve charged solution:1.
Metals
E.g. Cu, Ag, Au
2.
Metallic sulphides
E.g. AS2S3, Sb2S3, CdS solutions.
(VI)
Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under
the influence of an electric field is called electrophoresis. ve
charged particles move towards the cathode and +ve charged
particles moves towards anode.

Coagulation: The process of setting of colloidal particles is called

coagulation or precipitation of the sol.
The coagulation of the lyophobic sols can be carried out in
the following ways:1.
By electrophoresis: - The colloidal particles move towards
oppositely changed electrodes get discharged and precipitate.
2.
By mixing two oppositely charged sols: - Oppositely
charged sols when mixed almost equal proportional neutralise
then changed and get partially or completely precipitated.
3.
By Boiling: - When a sol is boiled the adsorbed layer is
disturbed due to increased collisions with the molecules of the
dispersion medium. This reduces the charge on the particles
and ultimately led to setting down in the form of a precipitate.
4.
By Persistent dialysis: - On prolonged dialysis, traces of
the electrolyte present in the sol are removed almost
completely collides become unstable and ultimately
coagulate.

5.

By addition of electrolyte : - When excess of electrolyte

is added the colloidal particles precipitated, the reason is that
colloids interact with ions carrying change opposite to that
present on themselves, this causes neutralisation leading to
their coagulation.
Coagulation of lyophilic sols: There are two factors which are
responsible for stability or the lyophilic sols. These factors are
change and salvation of the colloidal particles. When these
two factors are removed, a lyophilic sol can be coagulated.
This is done,
(i) By addition of an electrolyte
(ii) By adding a suitable solvent
Protection of colloids:Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols. Lyophilic
colloids have a unique property of protecting lyophobic
colloids. When a lyophilic sol is added to lyophobic sol, the
lyophilic particles (colloids) covering up the particles of
lyophobic sol.
Emulsions:An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion in which both the
dispersion medium and dispersed phase are liquids generally;
one of the two liquids is water. There are two types of
emulsions.
1.
Oil dispersed in water (o/w type) and
2.
Water dispersed in oil (w/o type)
1.

O/W type water act as a dispersion medium.

Example: - Milk and vanishing cream.
2.
W/O type - oil act as dispersion medium.
Example: - Butter and cream.
Colloids around us: -

Most of the substances all we come across in

our daily life are colloids, for example meals, clothes,
wooden, furniture, houses, newspaper are largely composed of
colloids.
Application of colloids: colloids are widely used in the
industrial sector.
Example:
Electro precipitation of smoke: The smoke, before is
comes out from the chimney, is led through a chamber
containing plates having a charged opposite to that carried by
smoke particles. The particles on coming in contact with these
plates lose their charge get precipitated, the particles thus
settle down on the floor of the chamber. The precipitator is
called Cottrell precipitator.

Purification drinking water: alum is added to water (that

contain impurities) to coagulate the suspended impurities
make water fit for colloidal in nature.

Example: - Argyrol is silver sol is used as an eye lotion.

Medicines :Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature
Ex:- Argirol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion.
Tanning :when a hide (Animal skin) , which has
+ve charged particles is soaked in tanning (or chromium salt)
which contains ve charged particles , mutually coagulation
take place. This result in the hardening of leather. This process
is termed as tanning.
Photographic plates and films: photographic plates and
films are prepared by coating an emulsion of the light
sensitive silver bromide in gelatine over glass plates or
celluloid films.
Rubber industry: Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber
particles which are negative charged Rubber is obtained by
coagulation of latex.
Industrial products: paints inks, synthetic plastics, rubber,
cement, graphite lubricants, etc. Are all colloids solution.