INTRODUCTION

Temperature is the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially

as expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by
touch.
Temperature is the concentration of thermal energy in a substance such as water. Thermal
energy is the energy that comes from heat. This heat is generated by the movement of tiny
particles within an object. The faster these particles move, the more heat is generated.
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
In order to measure air temperature properly, thermometers must be placed where air
circulation is relatively unobstructed, and yet they must be protected from the direct rays of the
sun and from precipitation. Thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.
Thermo" means heat and "meter" means to measure. It is used to measure temperature with
either mercury or alcohol. A maximum thermometer is used to record daily temperature
maximums while a minimum thermometer records minimums.

Maximum thermometer has a constriction near the bulb which prevents the mercury
from returning to the bulb as the temp falls and thus registers the highest temp since last
setting.
Minimum thermometer (of the alcohol-in-glass type) - has an index which remains at the
lowest temperature occurring since last setting.

How does a thermometer work?

-Early thermometers used water, but because water freezes there was no way to measure
temperatures less than the freezing point of water. So, alcohol, which freezes at temperature
below the point where water freezes, was used. The red colored or silver line in the middle of the
thermometer moves up and down depending on the temperature. The thermometer measures
temperatures in Fahrenheit, Celsius and another scale called Kelvin. Fahrenheit is used mostly in
the United States, and most of the rest of the world uses Celsius. Kelvin is used by scientists.
Different temperature scales (units)
All scales are relative
degrees F = 95 degrees C + 32
degrees K = degrees C + 273.15

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
The amount of solar energy received by any region varies with time of day, with seasons,
and with latitude. These differences in solar energy create temperature variations. Temperatures
also vary with differences in topographical surface and with altitude. These temperature
variations create forces that drive the atmosphere in its endless motions.
A. Time Variation
The temperature continuously changes during a day, week, month, year or any period and
this change is called periodic temperature variation.
1. Periodic temperature variation - the temperature continuously changes during a
day, week, month, year or any period.
2. Diurnal variation is the change in temperature from day to night brought about by
the daily rotation of the Earth. The Earth receives heat during the day by solar
radiation but continually loses heat by terrestrial radiation. Warming and cooling
depend on an imbalance of solar and terrestrial radiation. During the day, solar
radiation exceeds terrestrial radiation and the surface becomes warmer. At night,
solar radiation ceases, but terrestrial radiation continues, and cools the surface.
Cooling continues after sunrise until solar radiation again exceeds terrestrial
radiation. The continued cooling after sunrise is one reason that fog sometimes
forms shortly after the sun is above the horizon.

The Diurnal Variation give rise to daily maximum and Minimum temperatures.

 Minimum temperature occurs when the sun rises

Maximum temperature usually occurs at 3-5 P.M.
Thermal Lag
Also known as thermal inertia.
The gradual heating of the air by convective heat transfer from the ground.
Why lag?

Because energy is proportional to temperature to the fourth power.

3. SEASONAL VARIATION -In addition to its daily rotation, the Earth revolves in
a complete orbit around the sun once each year. Since the axis of the Earth tilts to
the plane of orbit, the angle of incident solar radiation varies seasonally between
hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August
because it receives more solar energy than does the Southern Hemisphere. During
December, January, and February, the opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere
receives more solar energy and is warmer.
B Horizontal Temperature Variation:
The rate of change of temperature with a horizontal distance is known as Temperature
Gradient.
Maximum solar energy is received in equatorial region and therefore and Therefore
highest temperatures are observed in equatorial region. As the latitude Increases the solar energy
received on the earth correspondingly decreases and so also temperature decreases with increase
in latitude being lowest on the pole.
The Sum crosses the equator twice in a year therefore two maxima And two minima are observed
in annual cycle. Outside this zone only one Maxima and one minima is observed.

C.Vertical Temperature Variation:

Vertical temperature variation does not show uniform behavior and the atmosphere can be
divided into four spheres.
1. Troposphere - Temperature decreases from 150 C at earth surface up to - 60C at 11 km
height.
2. Stratosphere - Temperature increases from -60C to 0C at 50km Height.
3. Mesosphere - Temperature fall and reaches about -90C at 80 km Height.
4. Thermosphere- Temp increases due to absorption of solar radiation by atomic oxygen, up to
950C at 350 km height and 1700C at undefined upper Limit.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

The shape of the Earth causes a geographical variation in the angle of incident solar
radiation. Since the Earth is essentially spherical, the sun is more nearly overhead in equatorial
regions than at higher latitudes. Equatorial regions, therefore, receive the most radiant energy
and are warmest.
Not related to movement or shape of the earth are temperature variations induced by
water and terrain. Water absorbs and radiates energy with less temperature change than land
does. Large, deep water bodies tend to minimize temperature changes, while continents favor
large changes.
Wet soil such as in swamps and marshes is almost as effective as water in suppressing
temperature changes. Thick vegetation tends to control temperature changes since it contains
some water and also insulates against heat transfer between the ground and the atmosphere. Arid,
barren surfaces permit the greatest temperature changes.
To compare land and water effect on seasonal temperature variation, look at northern
Asia and at southern California near San Diego. In the deep continental interior of northern Asia,
July average temperature is about 50 F; and January average, about 30 F. Seasonal range is
about 80 F. Near San Diego, due to the proximity of the Pacific Ocean, July average is about
70 F and January average, 50 F. Seasonal variation is only about 20 F.
Prevailing wind is also a factor in temperature controls. In an area where prevailing
winds are from large water bodies, temperature changes are rather small. Most islands enjoy
fairly constant temperatures. On the other hand, temperature changes are more pronounced
where prevailing wind is from dry, barren regions.
Air transfers heat slowly from the surface upward. Thus, temperature changes aloft are more
gradual than at the surface. Let's look at temperature changes with altitude.

These topographical influences are both diurnal and seasonal. For example, the difference
between a daily maximum and minimum may be 10 or less over water, near a shore line, or over
a swamp or marsh, while a difference of 50 or more is common over rocky or sandy deserts.
Note that in the Northern Hemisphere in July, temperatures are warmer over continents
than over oceans; in January they are colder over continents than over oceans. The opposite is
true in the Southern Hemisphere, but not as pronounced because of more water surface in the
Southern Hemisphere.

Temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude throughout the troposphere. This
decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as lapse rate. The average decrease of
temperatureaverage lapse ratein the troposphere is 2 C per 1,000 feet. But since this is an
average, the exact value seldom exists. In fact, temperature sometimes increases with height
through a layer. An increase in temperature with altitude is defined as an inversion, i.e., lapse
rate is inverted.
An inversion often develops near the ground on clear, cool nights when wind is light. The
ground radiates and cools much faster than the overlying air. Air in contact with the ground
becomes cold while the temperature a few hundred feet above changes very little. Thus,
temperature increases with height.
The distribution of temperature at the sea surface tends to be zonal, that is it tends to be
independent of longitude (Figure 6.2). Warmest water is near the equator, coldest water is near
the poles. The deviations from zonal are small. Equatorward of 40, cooler waters tend to be on
the eastern side of the basin. North of this latitude, cooler waters tend to be on the western side.