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Thursday,April30,2009

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Phylumannelida

PhylumAnnelida
Characteristics
Annelidswerethefirstanimalstoevolveacompletecoelom(aninternalbodycavitylinedwithepithelial
tissue).Theyaresegmentedandhavemostcomletebodysystems.
Classification
MembersoftheclassPolychaetaaremarineworms.MembersoftheclassOligocheataareearthworms.
MembersoftheclassHirudineaareparasiticworms.
Movement
Annelidshavevariousmusclegroupsandsimpleappendages.Theyusesetaeandparapodiaformovement.
Feeding&Digestion
Marinewormsarefilterfeedersorscavengers.Earthwormssqueezeorganicmaterialoutoftheearth.The
digestivesystemsforallthreeclassesarewelldevelopedandusedivisionoflabor.
Circulation
Annelidsarethefirsttohaveaclosedsystemofbloodvesselsmakingpumpingmoreefficient.
Excretion
Annelidshaveonepairofnephridiapersegmentforexcretion.
Respiration
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Respirationoccursthroughdiffusion.

NervousSystem

Membersofthisphylumhaveasimplebrainlocatedintheanteriorendwithgangliaineverysegment.
Theycansenselight,moisture,andchemicals.

Reproduction

Sinceannelidsarehermaphroditic,sexualreproductionoccursthroughtheexchangeofspermpackets.

SegmentedwormsareplacedinthephylumAnnelida,whichconsistsofover12,000speciesofsegmented
wormsgroupedintothreeclasses.Thethreeclassescomprisefreshwaterwormsandearthworms,marine
worms,andleeches.Annelidshavetheuniqueabilitytoinhabitavarietyofunusualplacessuchasinsideof
otherspinelessorinvertebrateanimals(suchassponges)andtheyevenliveincylindersortubesthatare
actuallyproducedbytheirownsystemsanddischargedaroundtheirbodies.TheFeatherDusterWorm,for
example,secretesaspaciousleatherliketubewhiletheCalcareousTubeWormsecretesahardcalcium
carbonatetube.Annelidsalsoliveinotherprotectedenvironmentssuchassand,muddyareasandrock
chasms.

Annelidbodiesarecharacterizedbysegments.Eachsegmentcontainsacompartmentofthecoelomor
bodycavity,withitsinternalorgans,andapartofthebodywall.Thebodywallconsistsoftoughmuscles
andshortrigidhairscollectivelycalledsetae.Thesetoughmusclesareusedforswimmingfromplaceto
placeandforcrawlingwhilethesetaehelptokeeptheannelidinsideitscylinderortheyhelptogripdirt,
sandandsoil.

Youcanttellbylookingatthem,butAnnelidsdohaveacirculatorysystem,adigestivesystemanda
nervoussystem.Thebloodofanannelidcanbeeitherredorgreenincolorornocoloratallitdependson
thespecies.Thedigestivesystemorgutcanbefoundontheundersideofannelidsanditextendsdownthe
middlefromthemouthtothehead.Wasteisreleasedthroughopeningsorductsthroughoutthebodycavity.
Thenervoussystemismadeupofsenseorgansincludingtentaclesandtastebudsaswellaseyesand
statocysts(organofbalance).Nonaquaticannelidsdonothavearespiratorysystemasrespirationtakes
placethroughthebodywallandsomeaquaticannelidsdohavegillsforbreathing.

Sohowdoannelidsreproduce?Thiscanbealittleconfusing.Dependingonthespecies,annelidscan
reproduceasexuallyorsexually.Asexualreproductiontakesplacethroughamethodcalledfission.During
fission,therearendofthebodysplitsfromtherestofthebodytoformanewannelid.Earthwormsdonot
havetheabilitytoreproducethisway,buttheydohavetheabilitytoregeneratetheirposteriorsegments.
Sexualreproductiontakesplacebyspeciesthatarehermaphroditic(someearthwormsandmanyleeches)or
speciesthathaveseparatefemalesandmales.Duringsexualreproduction,fluidsaretransferredfromthe
maleporetothefemaleovipore.Annelidstendtomatewhenconditionsaremoistorfollowingarain,
meaningtheymaymatequitefrequentlythroughouttheyear.

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Phylumannelida

Phylumannelida
AllaboutphylumAnnelidaapptpresentation
Clickhere
ThislinkisaboutthemetamerismandreproductioninAnnelids.
Checkthis
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coelom

Thecoelomisafluidfilledcavityformedwithinthemesoderm.Coelomsdevelopedintriploblastsbut
weresubsequentlylostinseverallineages.Lossofcoelomiscorrelatedwithreductioninbodysize.
Coelomsareonlyeverpresentintriploblasticanimals,thoughcoelomissometimes(incorrectly)usedto
refertoanydevelopeddigestivetract.
Functionally,acoelomcanabsorbshockorprovideahydrostaticskeleton.Italsoallowsorganstogrow
independentlyofthebodywall.Thiscanbeseeninthedigestivetractofearthwormsandotherannelids,
whichissuspendedwithinthebodyinamesenteryderivedfromamesodermlinedcoelom.Inmammals,
thecoelomformstheperitoneal,pleural,andpericardialcavities.
Inthepast,zoologistsgroupedanimalsbasedoncharactersrelatedtothecoelom.Thepresenceorabsence
ofacoelomandthewayinwhichitwasformedwasbelievedtobeimportantinunderstandingthe
phylogeneticrelationshipsofanimalphyla.However,recentmolecularphylogenieshavesuggestedthis
characteristicsisnotasinformativeaspreviouslybelieved.Indeed,thecoelommayhavearisentwice,once
inprotostomesandonceamongthedeuterostomes.

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Annelids

WhicharethemorphologicalfeaturesthatdifferentiatethebeingsofthephylumAnnelida
fromnematodesandplatyhelminthes?
Platyhelminthesarewormswithflatbodies(flatworms),nematodesarewormswithcylindricalbut
notsegmentedbodies(roundworms).Annelidsarecylindricalwormswithsegmentedbodies(theyare
metameric).

Whatisthemainevolutionarynoveltypresentedbyannelids?
ThemainevolutionarynoveltypresentedbythebeingsofthephylumAnnelidaisthecoelom,the
internalbodycavitytotallycoveredbymesoderm,afeaturealsopresentinarthropods,molluscs,
echinodermsandchordates.Platyhelminthesareacoelomateandnematodesarepseudocoelomate
(theirinternalcavityispartiallycoveredbymesoderm).
Anotherimportantevolutionarynoveltyoftheannelidsistheclosedcirculatorysystem.

Whatisthemorphologicalcharacteristicthatevolutionarilyapproximatesthebeingsofthe
phylumAnnelidatoarthropods?
Themetamericfeature,i.e.,thebodysegmentationinmetameres,approximatesannelidsto
arthropodssincetheseanimalsaresegmentedbeingstoo.(Bristlespresentinoligochaeteand
polychaeteannelidsarealsocoveredwithchitin,thesamesubstanceofthearthropodexoskeleton.)
HowdoesdigestioninbeingsofthephylumAnnelidaworkandwhichtypeofdigestive
systemdotheyhave?
DigestioninbeingsofthephylumAnnelidaisextracellular.Theseanimalshaveacompletedigestive
system,withmouthandanus.

Whicharethecharacteristicsandorgansofthedigestivesystemofearthwormsrelatedto
thetypeofdietoftheseanimals?
Earthwormseatdecomposingorganicmaterialandsmallorganismsingestedtogetherwithsoil
particles.Thedigestivetubesofearthwormshavespecialstructures,likeamuscularwallanda
gizzard,thattrituratethefoodandscratchitagainsttheingestedsoilparticles.Sinceannelid
digestionisexclusivelyextracellularearthwormsalsopresentintheposteriorpartoftheirdigestive
systemstructureslikethececumandthetyphlosolethathavethefunctionofincreasingthe
absorptionsurfaceoftheintestine.

Thevascularlesionscausedbyleechesuponthebloodvesselsoftheirhostcauseblood
naturallytocoagulate.Howdoestheleechsolvethisproblemsinceitcouldbeexpected
thattheingestedbloodwouldcoagulateinsideitsbody?
Ingestedblooddoesnotcoagulateinsidetheleech(Hirudomedicinalis)becauseinitssalivathereisa
potentanticoagulantsubstance,aproteincalledhirudin.
Inthepastleecheswerelargelyusedasmedicaltreatment.Nowadayshirudotherapyisbeingusedin
patientswithextensiveandchronicinflammationoftheskin,inpreventionagainsttissuenecrosis
aftersomesurgeriesandinseveralothersfieldsofMedicine.
HowistherespiratorysystemofbeingsofthephylumAnnelidacharacterized?
Respirationinannelidscanbecutaneousorbranchial.Cutaneousrespirationoccursduetotherich
vascularityundertheepidermis.Thegills,presentinaquaticannelids,arelocatedintheparapodia
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(falseclaws)thathaveanextensivecapillarynet.

WhatismeantwhenitissaidthatbeingsofthephylumAnnelidaarevascularbeings?
Fromwhichotherphylaoftheanimalkingdomdoesthisfeaturedifferentiatethem?
Theclassificationofthesebeingsasvascularbeingsmeansthattheyhaveacirculatorysystem,with
vesselsthatdistributesubstancesthroughoutthebody.

Poriferans,cnidariansandflatwormsdonothaveacirculatorysystem.Innematodesthereis
circulationofgasesandnutrientsthroughthepseudocoelomfluid.

Howarethecirculatorysystemsofanimalsclassified?
Acirculatorysystemisclassifiedasopenorclosed.Inopencirculatorysystemsbloodgetsoutof
vesselsandflowsalsotolargecavitiesthatperfusethetissuestobeirrigated.Inclosedcirculatory
systemsbloodcirculatesonlywithinbloodvesselsandthroughtheheart.

Whatisthetypeofcirculatorysystempresentinannelids?
InbeingsofthephylumAnnelidathecirculatorysystemisclosed,i.e.,bloodcirculationtakesplace
onlywithinspecializedvessels.

Istherearespiratorypigmentintheannelidblood?
ThebloodinbeingsofthephylumAnnelidacontainstherespiratorypigmenthemoglobin(thesame
foundinchordates)andotherpigmentstoo.

Howcanthepresence,localizationandfunctionofmusculartissueinbeingsofthephylum
Annelidabeexplained?
Inthesebeingstherearealongitudinalmuscularlayerundertheepidermisand,internallyjuxtaposed
andperpendiculartoit,anothercircular(radialtotheaxis)muscularlayer.Thecircularmusclelayer
hasthefunctionofelongatingthebodywhilethelongitudinalshortensit.Byalternatingactionsboth
promotemovement.

Howcantheexcretorysystemofannelidsbedescribed?
Ineachsegment(metamere)ofthebeingapairofcompleteexcretorystructurescalled
metanephridiumexists.Themetanephridiumhasanextremity,thenephrostoma,whichcollects
residualsfromthecoelom,filteringthemandcausingreabsorptionalongitsextension(similarto
humannephrontubules).Thematerialtobeexcretedgoesoutthroughapore,thenephridiopore,
whichopensinthebodysurface.
HowisthenervoussystemcharacterizedinbeingsofthephylumAnnelida?Howcanone
comparecephalizationinannelidstocephalizationinnematodesandplatyhelminthes?
Annelidshaveanervoussystemmadeoftwoventralchordsandonerelativelybignervouscell
concentrationinitsanteriorportionresemblingaprimitivebrain.

Nematodeshaveananteriorneuralringconnectedtotwoneuralchords,aventralandadorsalone,
whileinplanarias(platyhelminthes)thereareonlytwosmallanteriorcerebralgangliafromwhich
neuralchordssplit.Cephalizationinannelidsthusismoreoutstandingthaninnematodesorin
flatworms.

Whatistheclitellumofearthtwormsandwhereitislocated?
Theclitellumisaspecialregionoftheannelidconstitutedbyrings(metameres)withreproductive
function.Itcanbefoundintheanteriorportionoftheanimalanditischaracterizedbyalightercolor
incomparisontothenormalcoloroftheothersegments.
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ConcerningtheoccurrenceofseparatedsexeshowarethebeingsofthephylumAnnelida
classified?
Thesebeingsmaybedioecious(themajorityofpolychaetes)orhermaphroditemonoecious
(oligochaetesandhirudineans).

Istheembryonicdevelopmentinearthwormsdirectorindirect?
Inearthwormsthereisnolarvalstage,sotheembryonicdevelopmentisdirect.

Whatisthenameofthelarvalstageofpolychaetes?
Amongtheannelidclassesonlypolychaetespresentalarvalstage.Theirlarvaiscalledtrocophore.

Whatistheecologicalroleofearthworms?
Earthwormshaveanimportantecologicalroleastheyeatdecomposingorganicmaterial.Theyalso
digtunnelsinthesubsoilallowingtheentranceofgasesandnutrientsthatareusefulforplantroots
andotherlivingbeings.Sotheyactasdecomposersandasfertilizerstoo.

IntowhichclassesisthephylumAnnelidadivided?
Thephylumisdividedintothreeclasses:oligochaetes(forexample,earthworms),hirudineans(e.g.,
leeches)andpolychaetes(thesearemostlymarineaquaticwithparapodia,likenereis).

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Annelida

Excretion.
Thebasicunitsoftheannelidexcretorysystemareeitherprotonephridia,whichhavetubules(solenocytes)
thatendblindlywithincells,containflagella(whiplikeprojections),andarejoinedtoacommonductthat
drainstotheoutsideormetanephridia,whicharefunnelshapedstructurescontainingcilia(short,hairlike
processes)thatopentotheoutside.
Ammoniaisthechiefnitrogencontainingendproductofproteinmetabolisminaquaticannelids
earthworms,adaptedtolivinginthesoil,excretemoreofanothernitrogencontainingcompound,urea,
probablyaspartofamechanismtocontrolsaltandwaterbalanceintheworm.TheseamouseAphrodita,a
polychaete,excretes80percentofitsnitrogenasammonia,whichisalsotheprimarynitrogenousexcretory
productinleeches(smalleramountsofureaalsoareexcreted).Partoftheammoniaexcretedbyleeches
maycomefrombacteriainpartoftheleechsexcretorysystem(nephridialcapsules).Theabilityofleeches
towithstandhighconcentrationsofammoniaisbelievedtoresultfromaprotectiveeffectprovidedbyhigh
levelsofcalciumintheircells.
Threeaspectsofnephridialfunctioninannelidscorrespondtothoseofthevertebratekidneyfiltration,
resorption,andsecretion.Coelomicfluidfiltersthroughsolenocytes.Theciliatedfunnelsofmetanephridia
retainminuteparticlesandthoseofmoderatesize.Inoligochaetes,whosecoelomicfluidcontainsproteins,
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particlesareactivelyabsorbedintheciliatedregionofthetubule.Thetubulesofearthwormsalsoresorb
inorganicionssuchassodiumandcalciumandcanselectivelyeliminateexcretoryproductsfromboththe
coelomicfluidandthebloodstream.

LasteditedbyAFRMSSaturday,May02,2009at01:16PM.Reason:Formatting

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phylummollusca

Phylummollusca
"Mollusk"soundslikeitoughttobethenameofsomeprehistoricanimal,butitisnt.Mollusksarea
hugedivisionofanimalswithoutbackbones,andtheyrangefromsnailstoclams,andoystersto
octopuses.Theydifferinsizefromalmostinvisibleincreaturestogiantsquids15meterslong!They
mayliveinthetropicsorinthearctic,indeepseasoronland!Buteventhoughtherearemorethan
60,000differentspeciesofmollusks,theyhavecertaincharacteristicsincommon.Allmolluskshave
soft,slimy,bonelessbodieswhicharecoveredwithbigfoldsoffleshcalled"mantles."Inmany
mollusks,thismantleiscoveredwithahardshell,suchasthatoftheoyster,whileothershaveno
protectingshellatall.Almostallmolluskshaveakindof"foot,"whichisanextensionofthemantle
andwhichhelpsthemmoveabout.Itmayhelpthemswimorwalk,burrowinthemud,ortunnel
throughwood,dependingonthespecies.Therearefivegroupsofmollusks,andthemembersof
threeofthemareverywellknowntoeverybody.
Thefirstofthesecommongroupsiscalled"Gastropoda,"whichmeans"stomachfeet."Amongthe
gastropodsaresnails,slugs,andperiwinkles,allofwhichhaveonelarge"foot"ontheirstomachs.All
gastropodshaveaheadonwhichareeyesandfeelers,andmanyofthemcarrysinglespiralshellson
theirbacks.Thesecondcommongroupofmollusksisthebivalvegroup.Inthisgroupyouwillfind
oysters,clams,mussels,scallops,andmanyothers.Allbivalveshaveshapelessbodiesprotectedby
double,hingedshells.Allofthemarewatercreatures.Thelastcommongroupofmollusksiscalled
the"Cephalopoda,"whichmeans"headfooted."Themembersofthisgrouphavemanyarms,or
tentacles,surroundingtheirmouths.Thisgroupincludestheoctopus,cuttlefish,squid,nautilus,and
others.Theyarethearistocratsofthemolluskworld,withanervoussystemthatraisesthemfar
aboveothermollusks.Allmolluskslayeggs,butsomelayonlyafewandothers,many.Insomethe
younghatchoutaslarvaeinothers,theyaretinyreproductionsoftheirparents.

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Phylummollusca

Phylummollusca
linktopptpresentation
checkthis
thisisalinktoanothercomprehensivepresentationaboutphylummollusca
clickhere.
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Phylummollusca

PhylumMollusca

Torsion(gastropod)
Torsionisagastropodsynapomorphywhichoccursinallgastropodsduringlarvaldevelopment.
Torsionistherotationofthevisceralmass,mantleandshell180withrespecttotheheadandfootof
thegastropod.Thisbringsthemantlecavityandanustoananteriorpositionabovethehead.
Insomegroupsofgastropodsthereisadegreeofsecondarydetorsionorrotationtowardsthe
originalposition,thismaybeonlypartialdetorsionorfulldetorsion(seeOpisthobranchia.)
Therearetwodifferentdevelopmentalstageswhichcausetorsion.Thefirststageiscausedbythe
developmentoftheasymmetricalvelar/footmusclewhichhasoneendattachedtotheleftsideofthe
shellandtheotherendhasfibresattachedtotheleftsideofthefootandhead.Atacertainpointin
larvaldevelopmentthismusclecontracts,causingananticlockwiserotationofthevisceralmassand
mantleofroughly90.Thisprocessisveryrapidtakingfromafewminutestoafewhours.Afterthis
transformationthesecondstageoftorsiondevelopmentisachievedbydifferentialtissuegrowthof
thelefthandsideoftheorganismcomparedtotherighthandside.Thissecondstageisamuch
slowerstageandrotatesthevisceralmassandmantleafurther90.Detorsionisbroughtaboutby
reversaloftheabovephases.
Duringtorsionthevisceralmassremainsalmostunchangedanatomically,therearehoweverother
importantchangestootherinternalpartsofthegastropod.Beforetorsionthegastropodhasan
euthyneuralnervoussystem,wherethetwovisceralnervesrunparalleldownthebody.Torsion
resultsinastreptoneuralnervoussystem,wherethevisceralnervescrossoverinafigureofeight
fashion.Asaresulttheparietalganglionsendupatdifferentheights.Becauseofdifferencesbetween
theleftandrighthandsidesifthebody,therearedifferentevolutionarypressuresonleftandright
handsideorgansandasaresultinsomespeciesthereareconsiderabledifferences.Someexamples
ofthisare:inthectenidia(equivalenttolungsorgills)insomespecies,onesidemaybereducedor
absentorinsomehermaphroditespeciestherighthandrenalsystemhasbeentransformedintopart
ofthereproductivesystem.
Evolutionaryroles
Theoriginaladvantagetorsiongavegastropodsisunclear.Itisfurthercomplicatedbythefactthat
torsionbroughtwithitanumberofproblems.Aparticularproblemgastropodshadtoovercomecome
wasthelocationwherewasteswereexcretedabovetheheadwhichcanpotentiallyleadtofouling
ofthemouthandsenseorgans.Nevertheless,thediversityandsuccessofthegastropodssuggests
torsionisveryadvantageousindeed.
Onerolewhichisseemsalikelycandidatefortheoriginalpurposeisthatofdefenceagainst
predatorsinadultgastropods.Bymovingthemantlecavityoverthehead,thegastropodcanretract
itsvulnerableheadintoitsshell.Somegastropodsclosetheentrancetotheirshellwithatough
operculumwhichisattachedtotheirfoot.Inevolutionarytermstheappearanceofanoperculum
occurredshortlyafterthatoftorsion,apossiblelinkwiththeroleoftorsion,thoughthereisnot
sufficientevidenceeitherfororagainstthistheory.
Therearemanyotheradvantagestorsionprovidedgastropods.Foraquaticgastropodstheanterior
positioningmaybeusefulforpreventingsedimentgettingintothemantlecavity,whichismorelikely
withaposteriorpositioningduetosedimentbeingstirredupbythemotionofthegastropod.In
terrestrialspecies,ventilationisbetterwithanteriorpositioning.Thisisduetothebackandforth
motionoftheshellduringmovementwhichwouldtendtoblockthemantleopeningagainstthefootif
itwasinaposteriorposition.Anotherpossibleadvantageforaquaticspeciesistheosphradium
(olfactorysenseorgans)aremovedtoananteriorpositionandareabletosamplethewaterthe
gastropodismovingintotoratherthanfrom,thismayhelpthegastropodlocatefoodoravoid
predators.
Evolutionofanasymmetricalconispiralshellallowedgastropodstogrowlargerbutresultedinan
unbalancedshell.Torsionallowsrepositioningoftheshell,bringingthecentreofgravitybacktothe
middleofthegastropodsbodyandsohelpspreventtheanimalorshellfromfallingover.
Whatevertheoriginalroleoftorsion,itisclearthatfurtheradaptationslinkedtotorsionprovide
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moderngastropodswithmanyadvantages.

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EconomicimportanceofMolluscs

EconomicimportanceofMolluscs.
Molluscsareindirectlyharmfultomanbutmostofthemarebeneficial.Molluscsareofgreat
importantinvariousways.Therearesomebenefitsofmolluscs:
1.Theharmfulmolluscsateslugsandshipworms.Slugsareinjuriousingardensandcultivations.
Theynotonlyeatleavesbutalsodestroyplantsbycuttinguptheirrootsandstems.Teredo,a
shipwormdamageswoodenpartsofship.
2.Manymollusksaregreatsourceoffoodformaninmanypartsofworld.Largequantityofcalms,
oystersandmusselsareeateninFareast,EuropeandAmerica.Oystersareregardedasdelicacy.
3.Shelloffreshwatermusselsisusedinbuttonindustry.
4.TheshellofoysteraremixedwithtarformakingroadsinAmerica.
5.Shellsincertainpartsofworldarealsousedformakingornaments.
6.Someoystersalsomakevaluablepearlse.g.thepearloyster.
7.Somepearlsareusedformakingjewellery.
8.Someanimalsincludinginthisphylaareusetoeatinsomecountries,mussels.
9.Someoftheshelledbarnaclesgetattachedtotheshipsandcauseproblemsforshippingindustry.

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Biologysite

BiologyQuestionsandAnswersisawebsitethatdiscussesallbranchesandsubjectsof
Biology.YoucanlearnanythingaboutBiologyhere!
ThissitewasspeciallywrittenandorganizedtomakeBiologylearningeasier.Morethan
1800questionsandanswersareavailabletohelpyoustudyBiologyintheeasiestway
possible.
ThecontentisdividedintoallBiologybranches:biochemistry,cellbiology,microbiology,
zoology,physiology,embryology,botany,genetics,evolution,ecologyanddiseases.Each
ofthesebranchesarethensubdividedintospecificsubjects.
ClickHere
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Viceroy(Wednesday,May06,2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009)
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