Name: Solomon Odegbune

ID: UP631693
Date of submission: 16/01/2013
Title: World Englishes

Introduction:
The notion of World Englishes is indeed remarkable; my interest in the topic has
rapidly become an obsession, in which vast areas of sociolinguistic and dialectal
varieties are being examined in order to explain the intriguing status of the
English language. The term Englishes represents a plural lexicon rhetoric which
refers not only to a single language, but the collaboration of local and
indigenised varieties of English. World Englishes comprises of many faculties
which resonate from the emergence of English around the globe, classifications
such as: lingua franca (mutual understanding), spread of English, and the
different varieties of English developed in different regions around the world
(Baugh AC & Cable T, 1993: P 3); all gather under the topic of World Englishes.
Many models have emerged due to the growing interest in the topic; famous
models such as, Kachrus: three circles of English and Schneiders: dynamic
model of postcolonial Englishes have all played a pivotal role in explaining the
geographical and social emergence of English throughout the globe.
In this essay I will review the core factors and effects which the English language
has had not only in its birthplace (Britain), but also its impact throughout the
globe. The essay will be aimed at unravelling political, ideological and economic
implications of the spread of English in the world, narrowing its significance to its
origin - Britain. Although the topics above comprise of many sub-topics, I will
only be highlighting the core issues at hand.

Historic roots of the spread of English

In 1914, Follick anticipated the global spread of English; anticipating English
dominance throughout the globe. English is used as the global networking
language spoken in all fields which require international contact and cooperation. The English language has predominately become the official global
language, solidifying its presence in foreign establishments, none to say the least
in small back-street shanty towns across the globe. According to Crystal a
language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that
is recognised in every country (Crystal, 2003 p3). However, some will still be
baffled as to why this phenomena has taken place, and why is the English
language seen as the pivotal means of international communication; Kachru
states that English as a common means of communication is necessary in order

to act as a communicative tool of immense political, ideological and economic

power (Kachru 1996, p10).
Although the world has moved onward from the era of colonization, one cannot
avoid its imperialistic presence. The first emergence of the English language
begun during the 19th and 20th century (Kachru 1996, p111), whereby countries
such as: Wales, Scotland and Ireland began to adopt English has its legislative
means of communication (Alfred 1969, p122). Centuries on, many travelled to
North America, Australia and New Zealand due to religious persecutions,
subsequently re-birthing remarkable varieties of Englishes in those regions
(Kachru 1996). The extent of British influence across the globe is markedly
inhabited by historic factors such as: slave trade, colonization, commence, and
trade etc. Countries began to use English as a medium of communication
(Crystal 1997, p4), adopting it in domains such as: government establishments,
law courts, the media, and the educational system (Crystal 1997, 1994); regions
like: South Asia, South east Asia, West and South Africa have all become direct
receivers of the English Language. The English language continues to explore its
way around the globe, entrenching its presence in advertising and publications,
especially in industrialized countries; in which nations use English to promote
their goods across the globe, for example: Ford, Coca Cola, Kodak and Kellogg
household names recognized by all. Due to the growing interest in the spread of
English, models were introduced in order to explain how this phenomenon had
taken place. Famous linguist known as Kachru parcelled together a model known
as the three circles of English; he postulates that the spread of English around
the world could be summed up in three concentric circles, subsequently
representing different ways in which the language has been acquired and is
currently used (Kachru 1997, p220). The model includes the historic,
sociolinguistic and literal elements of English.
The inner circle; Kachru refers to the traditional basis of English, where it
primarily emerged; it includes the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand (Kachru 1998, p5).
The outer or extended circle comprises the earlier phases of the spread of
English in non-native settings, where the language has become part of a
countrys chief institutions, and plays a pivotal role in a multilingual setting, it
includes: Singapore, India, Malawi and over fifty other territories (Kachru 1998,
p5).
Lastly, the expanding circle involve nations which recognise the importance of
English as an International language though do not have a history of
colonization by members of the inner circle, nor have they given English any
special status. It includes: China, Japan, Greece and Poland, and an increasingly
growing number of other states (Kachru 1997, p214).

Figure 1: Kachrus three circles of English

Other famous models were introduced by Edgar Werner Schneider, by which

efforts were made to avoid the geographical and historical approach evident to
that of Kachru (three circles of English). His model incorporates sociolinguistic
implications relating to acts of identity (Schneider, E.W. 2007 p 28); he outlines
five characteristic stages in the spread of English, distinguishing social periodic
stages of the emergence and acceptance of English; including: Foundation
(introduction of English to a new territory), Exormative stabilization
(stabilization due to political rule), Nativisation (the acceptance of a new
identity and language), Endonormative stabilization (the gradual acceptance of
local norms and linguistic self-confidence), and lastly, Differentiation (the
dynamics of identity) (Schneider, E.W. 2007 p 28).
Researchers have markedly accepted these models as an overall outline as to
the extent and detail of the topic; the research also outlines the dramatic depth
in which the English language has spread, exemplifying its remarkable growth
and dominance within foreign territories.

English as a Lingua Franca

The extreme growth has become so great that there is nothing likely to stop its
continued spread as a global language, and contemporary trends have labelled
this epidemic as a lingua franca (mutual understanding) (Crystal 2003 p2).
The term lingua franca refers to a language which is commonly used by different
ethnic groups in order to form mutual intelligibility if both parties do not share

the same language in their L1 disposition (cited from Wikipedia). The notion of a
lingua franca resonates from the need to communicate under the umbrella of
common understanding; the geographical extend to which a lingua franca is
framed is usually governed by political factors (Todd, 1984 p86). The essential
need for a lingua franca emerged strongly only in the 20 th century, and since the
1950s in particular; whereby Global organisations such as: UNESCO, World Bank
and UNICEF demanded that a common language be spoken in its international
offices where other foreign counterparts were based, due to the vast numbers of
multinationals which were present during international groupings (Crystal 1997,
p12) factors such as: translation cost etc, were also mainly behind the idea.
However, one may assume that a common language spoken across the board is
in fact a good idea, essentially breaking misconceptions due to unintelligibility
between ethnic groups, but Robert Philipson refutes this idea by arguing that the
concept of a lingua franca is in fact modern day linguistic imperialism (Robert,
1992 p56). He postulates that the promotion of English is in fact a sophisticated
form of western domination over developing nations (Robert, 1992 p57). The
postulation that the English language itself is a form imperialism came under
scrutiny by Henry Widdowson, he argued that language itself cannot exert
itself as a hegemonic control mechanism (Henry Widdowson 1998, p. 398),
making the assumption that a language is only seen as a means of mutual
communication, and not a compelling force to dominate other values (Henry
Widdowson 1998, p. 398). It is apparent that underlining questions still need to
be answered regarding the general position of a lingua franca, by which
individuals have accused English influence of acting as a colonial trapping, by
harming political autonomy in developing countries an ideological attack on
dying languages. However, the need of a global language could still be seen as
something which is essential and rightly needed in order to generalise
widespread knowledge across the globe, and create mutual comprehension.
Why English?
Frequent questions are often asked as to why English? What makes the English
language so attractive, does it donate simplistic linguistic attributes which
enable learners to acquire the language easier than that of Chinese or Arabic, or
is western values at front here whereby individuals are at race to align
themselves with the dominant class. According to Crystal, historic factors may
account for some traces of the English movement around the world (Crystal
1997, p29).
The growth of the English language emerged in the nineteenth century (Crystal
1997, p29) due to colonial developments in Africa and the South Pacific when it
was adopted as an official language by many autonomous states. Social bodies
saw English has a simplistic model which seemed easy to learn. According to
John Wallis English grammar is easy and attainable (Wallis). He goes further to
suggest that foreigners tend to demand the study of English due to many famous
works being written in the English language (Crystal, 1997 p72), he also states
that all kinds of literature are widely available in English editions, and, without
boasting, it can be postulated that there is narrowly any worthwhile body of

knowledge which has not been recorded today, at least in the English language
(cited in Crystal, 1997 p72). Although some may suggest that the extravagance
could be quite embarrassing, whereby some claim that the divine providence of
the English language is bizarre (Crystal, 1997 p74), lacking superior
pronunciation and grammatical construction it was by this that in 1871 German
Jakob Grimm, a pioneering philologist of his time, remarked that of all modern
languages, none have achieved such great strength as English (cited in Crystal,
1997 p74), concluding that the presence of the English language is indeed a
remarkable one, whereby it has indeed solidified its prestige in all aspects of
importance (Crystal 1997, p75).
Continuing with the question as to why English many suggest that its former
colonial stance around the globe may be at play here, whereby English is seen in
many foreign countries as the language of the elite, subsequently creating
negative attitudes across the board. According to Tickoo, English has appeared
to have perfect command over the privileged, pushing the illiterate small
Brahmanic caste to the side (Tickoo, 1996 p234). However, perception
regarding access to English is only an element of wider social tensions; in which
Prodromou states that it is not English that creates the elite, it is the elites
whom absorb and appropriate English (cited in Kramsch 1998, p76). In nations
such as: South Africa, there were reports that black students who spoke English
were perceived as being arrogant (de Kadt, 1998 p319). One may assume that
the reason for this may be that English is often regarded as an alchemy
(Kachrus term: 1986) for social change, and those who fear this change venture
their fear onto English.
It is evident that various factors disseminate as to why English has played a
pivotal role in every works of life, influencing elite groups, acting as a tool for
success in developing nations, and providing worldwide communication.

The spread of English: a Britain Perspective

When one considers that vast spread of English throughout the world, and its
remarkable accomplishment at an international stage, one cannot avoid the
discussion surrounding its birthplace (Britain), and the unique history and figures
which aided its dissemination.
The dissemination of the English language dates back to Britain during the 5 th
century AD. Germanic tribes embarked upon a quest towards the North Sea from
what is today Denmark and North Germany (Singh, 2005 p56), in a somewhat
warlike pursuit in order to conquer land around that area. At the time
indigenous descendants of Britain spoke Celtic languages; however, intrusion of
Germanic forces caused Celtic speakers to go North, - mainly Wales, Scotland
and Ireland (Singh, 2005 p74). Tribes such as: the Saxons, Angles and Jutes
mixed their different Germanic dialects, these groups of dialect forms are usually
referred to as Old English or Anglo-Saxon. The word "English" was in Old English
"Englisc", and that comes from the name of the Angles. The Angles were named

from Engle, their land of origin. Before the Saxons, the language spoken in what
is now England was a blend of Latin and numerous Celtic languages which were
spoken before the Romans came to Britain (54-5BC). The Romans carried Latin to
Britain, which was part of the Roman Empire for over 400 years. Many of the
words passed on from this era are those coined by Roman merchants and
soldiers. These include win (wine), candel (candle), belt (belt), weall (wall).
("Language Timeline", The British Library Board).The influence of the Celtic
language on Old English was quite insignificant, in fact, very few Celtic words
have lived on in the English language; however, some famous river names still
donate Celtic origins: Kent, York, Dover, Cumberland, Thames, Avon, Trent, and
Severn. The English language in Britain went through quite a turbulent period,
Britain was subjected to harsh attacks from a tribe called the Dans (Alfred
1969, p76). The attack led to English churches being burnt to the ground,
subsequently almost leading to the disintegration of the English language and its
future (Singh, 2005 p201). The leader at the time King Alfred eventually
defeated the Dans, then devoted considerable attention on resonating the
English language and returning its prestige as a local language; King Alfreds
interest came from the fact that the English language carried biblical status
(Abels, 1958 p45), and also to promote moral value which he thought lied in
the English language. Leading on from Alfreds vision, a fair number of texts
which provided guidelines for English usage emerged, such as dictionaries,
grammars and spelling rules. The pedagogical rudiments of the English language
is indeed dynamic, its lexicon colocations are intriguing and somewhat bizarre;
the English language is a diverse collection of words which were taken from
several Indo European families which include: Latin, Germanic, Slovic, French,
Baltic and Celtic languages (Singh, 2006 p299). The influence of these Indo
European languages can be seen today, for example, the word father is vater
in German, pater in latin, and pitr in Sanskrit these words are all cognates,
similar words in different languages that share the same root.

Dialects of Great Britain

It might seem bizarre, but regions across Britain have adopted a kind of
linguistic division used to determine ones affiliation to a particular social group.
In Britain there are many variations of English, some still prevalent today, while
others have somewhat died due to the lack of traditional interests amongst its
speakers; many have debated regarding the need to abolish these local dialects,
and instate a general mode of speech that being Standard English.
Across Britain dialects and accents are usually related to differences in socialclass background and prestige; Standard English, known in Britain as Received
Pronunciation, first emerged due to the dominance of a particular social group
who were in power at the time. During that time Standard English came from the
South Eastern region around London, in which the Normans established
prestigious courts and universities in order to cater for the growing wealth which
began to disseminate across the capital (Mcdowall, 1999, p111).

The linguistic nature of Standard English has led to it being viewed as the most
perfect and accurate variety which should be learnt by the working class society
(Mcdowall, 1999 p51); however, some maintain that Standard English is not
superior or recognized in other parts of Britain, postulating that other dialects
across Britain are equally important, and linguistically intelligible (Well, J.C. 1997,
P28); the judgments around SE have led some to think that covert issues lie
behind its propagation, including social economic prejudice amongst lower
citizens.
Received Pronunciation, known as the ideal accent grew common amongst
English fee-paying or public school students around the nineteenth century; soon
after working class and the elite started to adopt RP as the preferred mode of
speech also known as Queens English or BBC English. However, regardless of
its popularity, according to Melchers only 12 per cent of the population are
speakers of RP, and 9 per cent speak with RP, but with regional accents (Shaw,
2003 p47); the figures point out that the number of Standard English speakers in
Britain are very small, signifying the notion that many are not interested in
learning this mainstream mode of communication.
The variation of dialects across Britain linguistically emerged from Standard
English due to social and economic implications. Regions have broadly split into
geographical clangs adopting dialects or accents associated with their social
group. The dialectal differences tend to be associated with pronunciation,
phonology, morphology, and the general context of words which are used
(Melchers & Shaw 2003 p49). In Britain these linguistic variations have markedly
split into two striking regions: Northern and Southern sides of Britain. This spilt
resonated due to social-economic factors: Northern cities for example, Newcastle
stood high in the unemployment rate, higher than any part of the South east
region (cited in Wikipedia, 2007). I will briefly illustrate some of the contrasting
dialectal differences, and their associated regions.

Southern English Dialects

In the South-Eastern region (London), the trend spoken amongst locals is usually
Standard English known as RP (Received Pronunciation). The linguistic features
of RP are quite ordinary and broad; it could be recognized as the English
Language we all learned at school. Standard English is usually pronounced with a
slit diphthong /ie/, words like: cat and trap are pronounced with /ae/. Different
varieties of sub-dialects also formed from Standard English such as: Cockney and
West Country (Melchers & Shaw 2003 p111). Cockney is an inner-city dialect
spoken by working-class London locals; it is characterized by a number of
phonological and lexical differences from Standard English famous TV programs
such as BBCs Eastenders tend to broadly use this form of dialect. On the other
hand, West Country dialect avoids urban usage, and is usually associated with
those in rural areas; covering regional areas of Avon, Devon, Dorset,
Gloustershire and Somerset (Wells, J.C. 1997, P33). According to Trudgill, many

deem West Country dialect as primitive and backward, used by locals who have
opted for a rather troglodyte lifestyle (Trudgill, 2000 p153).
Midland Dialects
The linguistic formations across the midlands are quite intriguing; the diversity of
the dialect is defined by the close geographical boundaries set around the
region. Birmingham and Wolverhampton are amongst the areas famous for
adopted this peculiar dialect. The name given to this dialect is Brummie, spoken
by its own urban working-class community (Trudgill, 2000 p100); statements
such as them are constantly used to define anything associated with general
demonstration, if one were to be describing an event which took place.
Northern English Dialects
Northern dialects reside at the brunt end of the dialectal continuum affected by
both geographical and physical presence of the River Humber. Northern dialects
share striking similarities with the Scottish accent (Well, J.C. 1997, P226); this is
due to the close geographical proximity between the regions. The most famous
Northern dialects are Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumbria, and Geordie; all these
dialects dissolve into sub-accents usually spoken amongst working class locals.
In Liverpool the accent is Scouse, the features of the accent resonate from
Lancashire adopting lexical origins from Ireland and Wales. Geordie being the
most distinctive dialect of Northern England is usually spoken by working-class
locals in Newcastle (Trudgill, 2000 p54); according to Trudgill, Geordie broadly
contrast from other dialects in the Northern region, due to explicit phonological,
grammatical, and lexical features which reside in the dialect (Trudgill, 2000 p56).
The mixture in pronunciation in the Geordie dialect is determined by the
speakers sex. For instance, English sound /a/, pronounced commonly in Geordie
as [], may also have other, more specific pronunciations reliant upon whether
one is male or female. Males only often pronounce the sound /a/ as [u], for
example, the word house (/has/) pronounced as [hus]. Females, on the other
hand, will often pronounce this sound as [e], thus: [hes] (cited in wikipedia
Geordie 2001).
Capitalism and the spread of English
The value of English in Britain has indeed become a leading capitalist power, as
Pennycook states, not only is it good for business but also good business itself
(Pennycook, 1994 p154). In Britain, the annual income per year totals to 800
million, this huge figure is generated by the sale of language materials
distributed across the globe; demanded by countries looking to profit from the
growing interest in the international market.
The demand for EFL material has exploded in countries like China and Vietnam
(Zhenhua, 1999. P12), ELT is such a big business, that it has prompted the British
government to enforce standards and commercial policies (Widdowson 1992,
p337). However, some EFL material has been criticised, in which some have
referred to it as too anglo-centric (Prodromou 1998, p31); where in continents

like: Africa and Asia, cultural practices are not parallel to that of Western reality.
Books, dictionaries, and academic material are written for these regions by
people who have no knowledge of the linguistic and cultural reality there
(Deineire 1998, p393). Furthermore, this may result in a social conflict, leading
governments to only use material from indigenous parties, rather than imports
from abroad.
Another major financial boost to the British economy is the outstanding influx of
foreign nationals who flock British airports almost daily seeking to benefit from
the surrounding atmosphere and culture; sourced by the British council, up to
700, 000 foreigners visit Britain per year, registering at language schools across
the country (British Council).
On a social-economic scale, upon arrival in Britain refugees are encouraged to
learn English in British immigration centres; the idea resonates from the means
to empower their channel of communication, and means of financial gain (Berns
et.al. 1998, p279). The English language has indeed brought many economic
benefits, in which Henry Widdowson states that English language holds the key
to economic and political power (Widdowson, 1998a p398).
Conclusion
In conclusion, World Englishes essentially acts as a conventional source used to
illustrate the pivotal elements which resonate from the English language.
Multidialectal societies have seen English as the pioneering source of
communication, nations have remarkably innovated new concepts to the
language (grammar) which natives cannot relate to; Standard English has
become standardized not in its original form, but the form given by nations that
use it as a second language. The English language is perceived as the most
appropriate means of communication, used to achieve local purposes around the
world. Many maintain that regions across the world find English necessary for the
enhancement of its citizens, and a sourced tool for eradicating social-illiteracy.
The discussion demonstrates that language is seen as a diverse tool, not only
used to formulate communication but also functions as an extrospective element
of attaining prestige and dominance over the weaker class; Britain in particular,
exemplifies the social prejudice which occurs amongst speakers of RP, and
speakers of Cockney, whereby speakers of RP tend to be well educated and
socially advanced in comparison to the latter. Language in some way is used as
an ideological tool against those unfortunate in attaining what is deemed as the
preferred speech.
The social and economic achievements of the English language also illustrate the
immense popularity around the world, in which results suggest that non-natives
race to attain English in order to become more prolific and employable within
their society. Technology, Agriculture and other forms of social needs are all
translated into English, representing international interests in creating dynamic
mutual intelligibility. Fresh markets have also profited from this epidemic causing
material which was once unobtainable due to its distance , to become easy to

reach, though the vast sale of English products which are sent to areas across
the globe adding huge profits to nations which manufacture them.
As a result of worldwide publications printed in English, Britain has also become
a worldwide hub for individuals seeking to liberate themselves from oppressive
governments and institutes which promote non-egalitarian movements seen to
threaten their tyrannical rule. Furthermore, English is perceived as a mode of
intellectual intelligence used to fight against the unjust.
However positive the presence of the English language may seem fundamental
questions still linger across the spectrum; highlighting Phillips claims of English
acting as a modern day form of linguistic imperialism, or the question of English
being used as an ideological attack, some still doubt the necessity of having the
English language promoted in foreign countries, where reports maintain that
indigenous languages are dying due to the epidemic. Moreover, we still cannot
avoid the huge accomplishments that the English language as gained during the
years; the emergence has solidified a genuine presence in the globe which no
language in history as ever achieved, subsequently making it a unique
phenomenon.

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