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Dyscalculia (Math)
is comprised of the following articles from Perspectives (P), our quarterly
journal for members of IDA:
Mathematical Overview: An Overview for Educators
David C. Geary
(P: Vol. 26, No. 3, Summer 2000, p. 6-9)
Mathematical Learning Profiles and Differentiated Teaching Strategies
Maria R. Marolda, Patricia S. Davidson
(P: Vol. 26, No. 3, Summer 2000, p. 10-15)
Translating Lessons from Research into Mathematics Classroom
Douglas H. Clements
(P: Vol. 26, No. 3, Summer 2000, p. 31-33)
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DISORDERS:
MATHEMATICAL
AN OVERVIEWFOREDUCATORS
17
uring the past 20 years,we have
ff
l-/witnessed enormous advancesin
our understanding of the genetic,
neurological,and cognitive factors that
contributeto readingdisorders,as well
as advancesin the ability to diagnose
and remediate this form of learung
disorder (e.g.,Torgesen et a1.,7999).
We now understandthat most forms of
readinsdisorderresult from a heritable
risk and have a phonologicaicore; for
instance.manv of these children have
difficulties associating letters and
words with the associated sounds,
which makes learning to decode
unfamiliar words difficult (Light,
DeFries,& Olson, 1998). At the same
time, there have been a handful of
children's
researchers studying
difficulties with early mathematics,
difficulties that emerge despite lowaverage or better intelligence and
adequateinstruction (Ceary,Hamson,
& Hoard, in press;Jordan& Montani,
1997). This essay overviews this
research,including discussionof the
nrcvalence of
children with
mathematical disorders and their
diagnoses,the approach researchers
use to study these children, and some
malor nnolnSs.
How common is a
MathematicalDisorderand
how is it diagnosed?
Although there are no definitive
answers, studies conducted in the
United States,Europe, and Israel all
converqe on the same conciusion:
About 6%. of school-agechildren and
adolescents have some form of
mathematicaldisorder and about one
half of these individuals also have
difficulty in learning how to read
(Gross-Tsur,Manor, & Shalev,199Q.
These studies also suggest that
mathematicaldisordersareas common
as reading disorders and that a
common deFicitmay contribute to the
co-occurrence of a mathematical
disorderand a readingdisorderin some
children(Ceary,1993).
Like readingdisorders,there is no
universally agreedupon set of criteria
Summer2000
6 Perspectives,
BYDavidC' Geary
for the diagnosis of mathematical
disorders.In our recentwork, we have
found a lower than expected(basedon
IO) perfonnanceon math achievement
testsacrossat leasttwo gradelevelsto
be a useful and practicalindicator of a
mathematicaldisorder(Gearyet al., in
press). This and other studiesindicate
that children with a mathematical
group and
disorderarea heterogeneous
show one or more subrypesof disorder
(Geary,1.993).
Mathematical Disorders:
Subtwe I
SemantiiMemory
Mathematical Disorders:
Subtvoe 2
Proc6dural
Mathematical Disorders:
Subtrroe 3
Visuo'sfiatial
Futures:
Features: Cogrtwe& Perfotnance
Cqnttive& Perfomance
A. Difficulties in spaually
A. Relativelyfrequentuse
rePresenunS
numencar
of devel6pmentally
rntormatlonsuchast-fre
urunatureproceoures
misalignmentof numerals
B. Frequentenors in the
in mufticolumnarithmetic
executlonot procedures
or roatirgrurnbels
problerns
C. Potentialdevelopmental
delayn the Lrndeisundmg B. Misinterpretationof
spatially'represented
of fle conceptsunderlyrgnumencallntormatlon,
proceoural
use
suchasplacevalueenors
D. Difficuluessequencing
C. Mav resultin difficulties
thp mrrlhnlp
c t p n c "'
rn
"'"r"
in aieas*ut rely on spatial
complexproceoures
abilities,sucha3georhetry
Neuroy sychoIogicalFeatures:
N euroy sychologicalFeatures:
N euroy sychologicaI Features:
Appearsto be associated
A. Appearsto be associated
Unclear,althoughsome
rlzrtt-r
nght hemispheric
#ith left hemispheric
anassociabon
datasuggest
dystunchon,m partl.cular,
dysfunction,in paru.cular,
with left hemispheric
postenorreqronsot the
postenorregronsot tne
dysfuncuon,and n some
lpFt hpmicn6era
uftnp$
ipht herrusphere,
cisesa prefronal{ifurrtion
the panetalcortexot the
subcortical
B. Possible
left hemispheremay
- be
involvement,
suchasthe
implicatedas well.
basalganglia
CeneticFeatures:
CeneticFeatures:
Unclear
Preliminarystudiesand
the relatioirwith certain
formsof readrngdisorder
sugqestthat this deficit
md'! be heritable
Futures:
Cogiive& Perfomana
A. Low frequencyof
arithmeticfac[ retrieval
B. When factsare
retrieved,there is a high
error rate
C. Errorsare frequendy
assoclates
ot tne
numbersin the problem
D. Soluuontimes for
correctretrievalare
unsystematlc
:
ionsh
iy tokading D isordets
Relat
Appearsto occurwith
nHnnetir
F^*.
:
ing Disorders
Relation
shiy n Read
Unclear
nf
Relationshiy
n RudingDisordes:
Doesnot appearto be
related
i' -- p
_a
- "r^l i^nbo d
* ^i c' "n^r-d" c' r
approach
How do researchers
th e study of M athem atical
Disorders?
NumberConcepts
Psychologistshave been studying
children's conceptualunderstandingof
number, for instance that "3" is an
abstractrepresentationof a collectionof
any three things, for many decades.It is
now clear children's understandinsof
small auantitiesand number is evident
to some degree in infancy. Their
understandingof larger numbers and
related skills, such as place value
concepts(e.g.,the "4" in the numeral
"42"
representsfour groups of 10),
emerges slowly during the preschool
and early elementaryschool years and
some times only with instruction
(Iuson, 19BB;Ceary, 1994).
The few studies conducted with
children with mathematical disorders
suggestthat basicnumbercompetencies.
at leastfor smail quantities,are intact in
most of these children (Ceary, 1993;
Cross-Tsuret al..1996'.
CountingSkills
S i e g l e r ,1 9 8 4 ; F u s o n , i 9 B B ) . T h e s e
inductions include " adjacency'(counting
must proceedconsecutivelyand in order
from one to the next) and "start at an
end" (counting must proceed from left
to right).
Studiesof children with concurent
mathematicai disorders and readinq
disorders or mathematical disorderi
alone indicate that these children
understand most of the essential
features of counting, such as stable
order. but consistentlv err on tasks that
assess"adjacency"and order-irrelevance
(Ceary Bow-Thomas, 8t. Yao, 1992;
Geary et al., in press). In fact, these
children, at least in first and second
grade, perform more poorly on these
tasks than do children with much lower
IO scores, suggestinga very specific
deficit in their counting knowledge. It
appearsthat thesechildren,regardless
of
I
Difficultiesin using
countingprocedurescan
thuscontributeto later
arithmetic-factretrieual
problems.
their readingachievement,believe that
counting is constrained such that
counting procedures can only be
executed in the standard way (i.e.,
objects can oniy be counted
sequentially),which, in turn, suggests
that they do not fully understand
counrlngconcepB.
Other studiessuggestthat children
with mathematicaldisordersalso have
difficulties keeping information in
working memory while monitoring the
counting process or performing other
mental manipulations (Hitch &
McAuley, 1991),which, in tum, results
in more errors while counting. Thus,
young children with mathematical
disorders show deficits in countins
knowledge and counting accuracy.
ProceduralDeficits
Much of the researchon children
with mathematical disorders has
focused on their use of counting
strategies to solve simple arithmetic
problems and indicates that these
children commit more errors than do
their normal peers (Ceary 1993; Jordan
& Montani, 1997).They oftenmiscount
or iose track of the counting process. As
a group, young children with
mathematical disorders also rely on
finger counting and use the sum
procedure more frequently than do
continuedon pag,e8
Perspectives,
Summer2000 7
RetrievalDeficits
Many children with mathematical
disorders do not show the shift from
direct countingproceduresto memorybasedproductionof solutionsto simple
arithmetic problems that is commoniy
found in normal children. It appears
that there are tvvo different foims of
retrieval deficit, each reflecting a
disruption to different cognitive and
neural systems (Barrouillet et aI., 1997;
Geary,1993).
Cognitive studies suggestthat the
Summer2000
8 Perspectives,
Skills
Visuospatial
In a variety of neuropsychological
studies. soecific difficulties with
visuosoatialskillshave been associated
with specificreference
with dyscalculia,
to spatial acalculia. The particular
featuresassociatedwith spatialacalculia
include the misaiisnmentof numerals
in multi-column irithmetic problems,
numeral omissions,numeral' rotation,
misreadingarithmeticaloperationsiSns
and difficulties with place value and
decimals(seeGeary 1993).Russelland
Ginsburg (1984) found that fourthsfade children with mathematical
iisorders committed more errors than
their lO-matched normal peers on
complex arithmetic problems (e.g.,
34x28). These errors involved the
misalignmentof numberswhile writing
down partial answers or errors while
carrying or borrowing from one
column to the next. The childrenwith
mathematical disorders appeared to
understandthe base-10sysiemas well
as the normal children did, and thus the
errorscould not be attributedto a poor
conceptual understanding of the
structure of the problems (see also
Rourke & Iinlayson, I97B). Other
studiessuggestthat spatialdeficitswill
also intluence the ability to solve other
types of mathematicsproblems, such
as word problemsand certaintypes of
geometryproblems(Geary.199Q. In
elementary school, however, this
subwoe of mathematicaldisorderdoes
not apoear to be as common as the
other subtvpes.
continuedon yage Q
Conclusion
References
measuresin reading-disabled
and
controltivin paks.HumanBiology,
70,
215-237.
(1978).
Geary,D. C. (1993). Mathematical Rourke,B. P, & FinlaysoqM. A. ].
Neuropsychological
significance
of
disabilities:
Cogutive,neuropsyctrologrcat
variations
in
pattems
of
academic
Psychologial
and geneticcomponents.
Verbalandvisual-spatial
performance:
Bulletin,
444, 345-362.
abiliues.
Journalof AbnormalChild
P
s
y
ch
ol
o
gy,
b, 121-133.
mathematial
Geary,D. C. (1994).Children's
and Vractical
develoVment:
Research
R. L., & GinsburgH. P (1984).
apyliations. Washington, DC: Russell,
Cognitive
analysis of children's
Association.
AmericanPsychological
mathematicaldifficulties.Cognition
4,217-244.
andInstruction,
and
Geary,D. C. (1996).Sexualselection
sex differencesin mathematical
R. S.,& Shrager,
J.0984).Suategy
abiliues.Behaviual
andBrainSciences,Siegler,
choice
in
addition
and subtraction:
49,229-284.
How dochildrenknowwhatto do?In
C. Sophian@d.),Originsof cognitive
Geary,
D. C.,Bow-Thomas,
C.C.,&Yao,Y
. sbills (pp. 229-293).Hillsdale,NJ:
(1992). Countingknowledgeand
^ r . ; r f l:l -l r-u^5 ,-1^t l:t L
;... addition: A
Erlbaum.
JNtll
lv(
^ ^ - - ^ - : ^ ^ - u^r r n o r m a l a n d
lvlllP4rrDvrr
Torgeser5
J. K., Wagner,R I(., Rose,E.,
mathematically disabled children.
T.,& Carvan,
Lindamood,
P,Conway,
Joumalof Lweimenal ChildPsychology,
54,372-391.
Geary,D. C..Hamson,C. O.,& Hoard,
M. K. (in press).Numericaland
arithmeticalcogninonA longitudinal
studyof process
andconceptdeficitsin
childrenwith leamrrgdisabili
ty.Joumal
ofExVeimenal
Ckh Psychology.
C. (1999).Prevenbng
readngfailurein
young childrenwith phonological
processingdisabilities:Group and
to instruction.
individualresponses
94,
Joumalof MuationalPsychology,
s79-593.
Perspectives,
Summer2000 9
Z\
\M\
a)l
lf-t
AND
LEARNINGPROFILES
MATHEMATICAL
TEACHINGSTRATEGIES
DIFFERENTIATED
\V
10 Perspectives,Summer2000
S.Davidson
ByMariaR.MaroldaandPatricia
"disability" in mathematics
leaming
may be thought of as the occurenceof
multiple "mismatches" and the
inability to overcomethosemismatches.
A tantalizing issue then becomes
whether specificapproachesor sffategies
could be used so that the mismatches
are minimized and the disabiliry is
resolvedor disappears.
It is imporiant to recognizethat
the diagnosticprocessin educationis
quite different from the diagnostic
process in medicine. Whereas the
medical diagnostician is lookrng to
uncover what is wrong and what the
patient can't do, the educator must
strive to uncover the student's
I
Theconstructionof a
ChildlWorldsystem
focuseson differences
amongleamersaswell as
differences
in the demands
of whatis to belearned.
strengthsand what the studentcan do.
The goal of the educator is to find
those strengths that can be used to
addressthe weaknessesand difficulties
inherent in students'learningprofiles.
In focussins on the Child in the
a
system of mathematics,a
Child/\X/orld
multidimensionalview must be taken
and a variew
of parametersconsidered.
-the
Specificaliy, following factorsshould
be explored in order to understanda
student'sMathematicalLeamingProtile:
o the presenceof speciftcdevelopmental featuresthat are prerequisiteto
specificmathematicstopics;
. the preferredmodelswith which
mathematicaltopics are interpreted;
r the preferred approacheswith
which mathematicaltopics are pursued;
. memory skills that affect
students' ability to participate in
mathematical activities;
DevelopmentalFeaturesof
MathematicalLearning
Profiles
A definition of a student's
mathematical leaming profile should
incorporate an appreciation of the
developmentalmaturiw of studentsat
varioui ages.There a.. -".ry developmental milestonesin terms of mathematical readiness for dealing with
numerical, spatiai and logical topics.
For numerical concepts,the developmental milestones consist of an
appreciationof number,the conceptof
number (enumeration/cardinality),
conservation of number, one to one
correspondenceand the principles of
classinclusion. For spatialconcepts,the
construct of space. conservation of
length and conservationof volume must
be considered. Ior logical thought,
deveiopmental milestones include the
concepts underlying classification,
seriation, associativity,reversibility and
inference. Most chiidren between the
ages of four and eight have acquired
thesemilestones.
Recent ciinical investigation and
teaching practicehave suggestedthat
the concept of place value might also
be developmentaliymediated(Marolda
& Davidson, 1994). That is, an appreciation of placevalue dependsmore on
the state/ase of the child than on
specifict.ulhi.tg experiences. If the
child is not cognitively ready to deal
with place value, then the concept of
place value cannot be formally or
meaningfully developed,despiteteaching
efforts. The formal concept of place
for most
valueseemsto be established
children beNveenthe ases of six and
eight. The appreciation of formal
place value concepts is of particular
importance since they are necessary
prerequisitesfor the understandingof
larger quantities and the pursuit of
multi-digitcomputation
(onilnuedon page | |
MathematicalLearningProfilesand DifferentiatedTeachingStrategies
continuedfrom Vage 40
PreferredModels and
Preferred Approaches of
MathematicalLearning
Profiles
Mathematical situations can be
interpretedwith concrete,pictorial, or
symbolic models. For a particular
student, a specific interpretation might
be more comfortable and meaningful.
Among concrete models, further
distinctions can be made. Within the
concrete mode, students may prefer
set (discrete)models,such as counters,
while others appreciate perceptually
driven (measurement)models,such as
Cuisenairerods.
The ways in which students
process or approach mathematical
situationsfollow nvo distinct Datterns
(Marolda & Davidson, 1994). Some
studentsprocesssituationsin a linear
fashion, building forward to an exact
finai solution. Sometimes, these
students are so focused on the
individuai eiements that the overall
thrust or goal is obscured.This style of
processingis often characterizedas a
sequential,step-by-stepapproach. For
other students,a careful building up
approach hoids little inherent
meaning. Such students prefer to
establish a general overview of a
situation first and then refine that
overview successivelyuntil an exact
solution emerges. Such studentsmay
be prone to imprecision and tend to
lack appreciationof all relevantdetails.
lhrc
ct\/lP
ot
nrncpssino
iq
nFtcn
^'^Fil.
Preferred
Modelsfor Number:
. SetModels
Preferred
Modelsfor Number:
. Perceptual(Measurement)Models
Preferred
Ayyroaches:
Preferred
Ayyroaches:
. Deductive,global
. Often relieson successive
aooroximations
o I inpar
Toyics
ofPantcukrChallenge:
. Broaderconceptsand overarchingpnnciples
o Estimationsrrategies
. Appreciationof appropriateness
of solution
generarco
. Selectionof aritimetic operationin word
problems: difficulty swrtthing
tretweenoperauons
ln a setot word problerns
. Conceptof a fraction
o More sophisucated
geometnctopics
. Requirementfor flexibleor
alteirranveaooroaches
ToyicsAyyroachedwith Ease:
o Counting backward
. Conceptsof subtraction& division
. Estimatlon
. Fracbonconceptsrrterpretedin a vaneryof
\,1SUal
mooets
. CeometricShapes:
Emphasison spatiai
relationshiosaird manibulauors
Toyrcs
ofPattrularChallenge:
. Appreciationof all salientdetailsof multistip procedures
or word problems
. Pursuitof multi-stepcalculationprocedures
. Relevanceof exactsolutiorx;prefersto guess
. Follow throush to exactsolutionsin word
problems,deipite conectchoiceof operation
. Formalfracuonoperations,despitecomfon
wlth underlymgrracEonconcept
o Requirementto descnbeapproachin
exacungverbalterms
o Insistence
on a single,specificapproach
Table4
mobilize skills and strategies
memory: registration of the
associatedwith the altemativeleamrng
stimulus,encoding,organization,
stvle. For success.teachers must
storage and retrieval....Learning
trinslate activities into the student's
disabled children, however, are
operatingsryle,building a scaffoldthat
constantly described in the
integratesthe areas of strengthsand
psychological and educational
weaknessesso that thev comolement
literature as having memory
one anotherand leadto ihe acouisition
deficits of various types, usually
.visual or auditorv (shorcrerm or
of mathematical conceoti and
proceduresin a meaningfulway.
otherwise). In almost all cases,
The foliowing charts flables 2 &
the impairment involves either
3: as shown on pages13 and 14)offer
the initial encodins or the
more explicit featuresof each of the
effectiveretrievalof iriformation.
(p.1Be)
Mathemitical LearningStylesand can
be helpful in recognizing them and
In mathematics, it is particularly
teachingto them.
important to consider the distrrctron
between encodingand retrieval aspects
of memory. Is the student having
Memory Skillsas a Feature
difficulty remembering the fact or
of MathematicalLearning
procedurebecauseit was neverproperly
Profiles
understood and therefore not encoded
Often students are characterized for storagein memory? Or is the student
as having difficulry in mathematics
having difficulty remembering the fact
becausethey "can't remember." The
or procedure because it cannot be
attribution of mathematicaldifficulties
aCcessed
from the student'srepertoireof
to a global memory deficit is
leamedskills?
somewhat simplistic. Cognitive
psychologists(Hoimes, 19BB)suggest Four specitic memory skills are
that memory issues, in general. are
important in mathematics:
very comprex.
o retrievalof solutionsto one dieit
In evaluating a child's recall of
facts;
materials, the clinician should
. the recallof the sequenceof
recogtize the various components
multi-step procedures;
of the process ioosely called
continuedon page | 2
Perspec-tives,
Summer2000 11
MathematicalLearningProfilesand DifferentiatedTeachingStrategies
continuedfrom Vage 4 4
established.the procedure is more
effectivelyencoded.That understanding,
however, may emerge from different
a0Droacnes.
-In dealing with geometric designs,
students need to use visual memory
In terms of retrievaldifficultiesin
skills. With visualmemorv difficulties,
the productionof solutionsto one digit
students may find the buiiding and
facts, mathematically it may be more
copylrrgof geometricdesignschallengng.
important to considerif the solution is
To support visuai memory difficulties
produced efficiently rather than
students might be encouraged to
automatically. The distinction that is
interpret geometric designsin verbal
important is whether the retrieval is
terms. Difficulties in visual memory
auiomatic or efficient. Difficuities
can also manifest themselvesin nonwith the retrieval of one digit facts
geometric situations,such as difficulties
may be supported by alternative
orienting written digits, difficulties
strategiesthat are compatible with a
aligningnumeralsin written procedures,
student's inherent learning style and
and difficulty organizing a page of
result in more efficient production of
+
problems. Copying problems from the
6,
a
In
the
example,
B
solutions.
text and the board or interpreting data
student with Mathematics Learning
presented on a computer screen may
Style I would be most efficient tuming
to counting on strategies:9,10,1I,12, also be difftcult. In response,copying
requirements should be minimized,
13...14!or strategiesthat build 10s:B +
(2+4) = 1.0+ 4 = l4l A student with
while graphicorganizersmay be offered
to support the copying that is required.
Mathematics Leamrng Sryle II would
Students with auditorv memory
be most efficient turrung to related
difficultiesare challengedwhen required
facts,e.g.doubles,B+B=16,so 8+6=14
. . . 2 L e s s ! O r 6 + 6 = 7 2 ,s o 8 + 6 = 1 4 . . . 2 to rememberail relevantdata presented
in instruction, remember the overall
More!
outcome sought, remember directions,
multi-step
In dealing with
or remember all the relevant infororocedures. the recall of the
relies
mation in word problem situations
specific
steps
organizationof the
on an understandingof the conceptual presentedverbally. Thesestudentsmay
be supported by offering directions in
foundationsdriving the procedure. By
visual formats as well as by offering
offering alternative approaches that
written directions and / or allowing
appealto a specificlearning style, the
studentsto write down the directions
orocedure is better understood and
and then referring to the written text
more easily pursued. In dealingwith
as needed. Interestinglystudentswith
the multiplication problem 23 x 14, a
apparent auditory memory issuesare
Learning
with
Mathematics
student
Style I would tum to a successrve often confused with students whose
primary difficulties are in language
addition approach or the formal
where memory difficulties are
supports to
algorithm. Iurther
rememberingthe steps of procedures secondary to specific language processingissues.
include encouragingverbai mediation
techniques, developing verbai and
visual flow chartsthat can be used as
Languagelssues
referents,and developing mnemonics
Language skills, both oral and
to cue each step. In contrast, the
written.
are imoortant in mathematics
student with Mathematics Leamins
in
terms
of:
SryleII would turn to the definition oT
. word retrievalskills;
multiolication as an area and would
o verbalformulationresuirements;
then-combine the area of the four
r comprehension
requirements.
subregions to determine the final
issue when
become
an
They
solution. Further supports would be
students are required to retrieve the
estimationtechniquesmade iteratively
names of coins,'geometricshapesor
o! once an initial estimate is made, the
other mathematical terms, when they
use of a calculator for an exact
are asked to explain their solutionsor
solution. With firm understanding
. visual memory of perceptual/
geometric stimuli;
. recallof mathematicaldata
presentedauditorially.
12 Perspectives,Summer2000
MathematicalLearningProfilesand DifferentiatedTeachingStrategies
continuedfrom page 42
Mathematical
Behaviors
Teachins Implications
& Strat6gies
. Approaches
situations
usingrecipes;
t ; ^ 1 1^. , L - ^ , , - L r , ^ ^ t . ^
6'^J L' uuuBl
LaJNr
tn
Airerr
nrnrpd'
'.ac
. Approachesmathematicsin a mechanical,
rddtine basedtashion
. B u i l d s i m p l ee s t r m a r i o ns r r a t e g i e s ;
encourageNvo hnal stepsto eachcalculabon
problem:"Does this arsiver the quesuon?"
"Does
and
the solurjon seem righr?"
. D i f f i c u l t i e s . " c h e c k i nw
g 'o r k ; m u s t r e - d o
entlre problem
. D i f f i c u l r i e s . c h o o s i nagn a p p r o a c hi n
word problems
. PrefersHOW to WHY
. Prefersnumericalapproachover
manipulative moddls
. Prefers
explicitdelineation
of eachstepof a
procedure
and linkageof stepsoneto another
. Challengedby perceptualdemands
I AAteI
IJ
MathematicalLearningProfilesand DifferentiatedTeachingStrategies
continuedfrom yage 43
Mathematical Behaviors
. Benefitsfrom manipulatives
Teaching Implications
ag)trategres
. Offer a variew of models: introduce
perceptr-ralmodels, sud-ras BaseTenBlocksor
Cuisinaie Rols, to suppon calculations.
. Emphasizegeometry'dsa viul
part ot fhe curnculum.
. Relate manipulative models to
proceduresbefore practicingalgorithms
. Keward approachas well as precrse
solunons.
. Develop an appreciationof how much
preclslona sltuatlon warrants.
o Encouragemultiple refinementswhen
building geomet'ricdesignsin order to
incorpola-"te
all the indiv-idualparts.
. PrefersWHY to HOW
. Prefersnonsequentialapproaches,
.
involving pattems and intenelationships
. Preferssuccessiveapproximationsapproach
to formal alsorrthms
. Addition an"dmultiplication factsinvolvlng 9s
more readily generited becauseof underlying,
patternsthat are recogruzedbut not verbauzed
. Not troubled bv mixe-doracticeworksheets
. Comfortable with horizontal formats for
long calculations
. lnclude generalreasoningexamplesin
logical p"roblemsolving ictivities.
. Difficultieswith precisecalculations
. Difficultiesofferiire
- rationalefor
correctsolutions
. Encourasestudentsto describethe
ng
approach
or conceptual.
underpinni
evenrt lhev cannotmobllrzean
exacungproceoure.
Table
3
14 Perspectives,
Summer 2000
MathematicalLearningProfilesand DifferentiatedTeachingStrategies
continued
frompage44
Conclusion:
The Child/World System allows
teachersto achieve an understanding
of the dynamic interplay that affects a
student'slearning in mathematics. It
leads to the delineation of specific
Mathematical Learning Profiles.
Extensive clirucal investigations and
classroom instruction, along with
rigorous research efforts, have
corroboratedthe presenceof speciFic
MathematicalLeaming Profiles.Those
learningprofiles involve differencesin
deveiopmentas well as preferencesfor
modelsand preferences
for approaches.
Complicating the consideration of
iearrung profiles in mathematics are
more general memory and language
issues that intrude on efforts in
mathematicalactivities.
The understandingof Mathematical
Learning Profiles helps teachersoffer
specificapproachesand strategiesthat
make use of students'areasof relative
strengths, that minimize areas of
vulnerabiliryand that support areasof
specific deficit, ensuring the
comfortable participation and growth
of all students in the mathematical
arena.The importance to teachersof
understanding Mathematical Learning
Profiles is that they lead to the
development of more effective
learning strategieswhich, in turn,
Holmes,].M. (1988).Testing.In R.
Rudel,J.M.Holmes& J.R.Pardes
(Eds.),
Assessment
of Developmental
Disorders: A neuroysychological
(pp.1,1,6-201).
aVproach
New York:
BasicBooks.
MaroldaM.R. & DavidsonP.S.(1994).
Assessingmathematicalabilities
and learning approaches.In
Windows
ofo47ortuility.
Reston,VA:
NationalCouncilof Teachersof
Mathematics.
Visitthe
IDAWebsite
ItlXtlt.it terdys,ofg
PERSPECTIYES
Perspectives,Summer2000 15
INTO
LESSONS
FROMRESEARCH
TRANSLATING
.JL
ZII
\Un
MATHEMATICSCIASSROOMS
Mathematicsand SpecialNeedsStudents
17
often students with leaming
Too
I disabiiitiesreceivelimited mathematici
instruction.This is due in part to special
education teachers feeling uncomfortable teachins mathemitics. This
leads to an overimphasis on training
skills. There are three reasonsfor thii
focus on skills. First, there is a major
misconceptionthat skill learning is ihe
bedrock of mathematics.uooriwhich
all further mathematicsmubt be built.
Second,skills are easierto measureand
teach.Third, teachersoften believethat
students' perceived memory deficits
imply the need for constant repetition
ano orlll.
H. Clements
ByDouglas
may benefit iessfrom intensive drill and
prattice and more from help searching
For, finding., a.nd us]ng fatterns ii
learrunsthe baslcnumber comblnatlons
and aiithmetic strategies (Baroody,
1996).
Many-from
of the lessons we have
research for general
learned
p p l'students
y,- with
e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s a 'tb
modifications of course,
with soecial needs as well. A
particulaily important one is "less is
more." That ii. in mathematics and
science,we have found that sustained
time on fewer bey coftce4tsleads to
sreater overall student achievementin
Lessonsfrom Research
Decades of researchindicate that
studentscan and should solveproblems
before they have masteredprocedures
or algorithms traditionally used to solve
these problems (National Council of
Teachersof Mathematics,2000).If they
are given opportunities to do so, their
conceptualunderstandingand abiliry to
transfer knowledge is increased (e.g.,
Carpenter,Franke,Jacobs,Fennema,&
Empson,1997).
-Tndeed.
some of the most
consistendy successfulof the reform
curriculahive been orosramsthat
o build directlv Jn students
strategles;
.
provide opportunitiesfor both
tnventronanclpractlce;
o have children analyzemultiple
strategles;
.
ask fo-rexolanations.
Researchevaluatioi-rs
of theseprograms
'facilitate
show that these curricula
conceptual
'and qrowth without sacrificinq
skills
ilso helo students ieari
concepts (ideas) arid skills while
problem
solving(Hiebert, 1999).
'
What is re"markableis that similar
principles apply to students with
learning disabiliiies. Many children
classifiedas leamins disabledcan learn
effectively with qrialiry conceptuallyorientedinstruction(Paimar& Cawley,
1997).As the Pinciylesand Standardsfor
(National
SchoolMathematicsrTTustrates
Council of Teachersof Mathematics,
2000), a balanced and comprehensive
instruction,using the child's-abilitiesto
shore up weak-iesses,provides better
long-termresults.For exlmple, students
I
Decadesof research
indicatethat studentscan
andshouldsolueproblems
beforetheyhouemastered
proceduresor algorithms
traditionally usedto solue
theseproblems.
the long run. Compared to other
countries"that sienificindy outperform
us on tests, LJ1S.curri?ula do not
challenge students to learn important
topics in depth (National Cenier for
Education Statistics, 199Q. We state
many more ideas in an averagelesson,
but developfewer of them, dompared
to other countries (Stieler
& Hibbert,
.
Y
Iyyyl. Inus. u.5. studentswould De
better off focusingon in-depth study on
fewer importanf concepis. Such an
aooroachis critical with studentswith
ldarning disabilities. They , need to
concentrateon mastenngthe Key rcleas,
and these ideas are iot arifhmetic
algorithms. Even proficient adults use
relationshipsand itrategiesto produce
basic fact's. Thev ten-d not to use
traditional paper-and-pencilalgorithms
when computlng.
Anoth'er research lesson is that a
variety of instructional materials is
Recommendationsfor
ClassroomPractice
Researchprovides several recommendations for meeting the needs of
all studentsin mathematlcseducation.
4. KeeV exyectations reasonable,
but not low.
Low exoectations are esoeciallv
oroblematic 6.."ur" students *tro ti"'.
in poverry,studentswho are not native
spiakers- of English, students with
disabiiities, females, and many nonwhite students have traditionally been
far more likely than their counterparts
in other . demog.raphicgroups to be
the vrctrms ot low exDectatlons.
Exoectationsmust be raisdd because
"rnathematics can and must be learned
continuedon page32
Perspectives,Summer2000 31
I
In general,the traditional
curriculumdoesnot allow
adequate
time for the
manuinstructionaland
leamingstrategies
for the
necessaru
mathematicalsuccess
of
learningdisabledstudents.
skills
in
a
5. Develop
meaningfal and yuryoseful fashion.
Practiceis important, but practice
at the problein solving'level
is preferied whenever p-ossible.
Meamngfuf purp,osefulpracti.S gives
us two tor the Drlce ot one.
Meaninsless drill mhv actuallv be
harmful"to these children (Bar6ody,
1999:Swanson& Hoskyn, 1998).
8. Make connections.
Integrate concepts and skills.
Help children link iymbols, verbal
descriptions. and work with
32 Perspectives,
Spummer2000
,h^^\
^ , v
- 1
4997).
References
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approach to the mathematlcs
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Austin. TX: Pro-ed.
Baroody, A.l. (1999).The development
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arithmetic knowledge among
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handicapped.In L. M. Glidden(Id.),
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$lol. 22, fp. 5 I - I 03).New
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Pagliaro,
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AmericanAnnalsof theDeaf, 143(I),
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Parmar,R..S.,& Cawley,J. F. (1997).
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Gersten,R. (1985).Direct instruction
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mathematrcsto students wlth
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learning disabilities.Journalof
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Raphael,
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Shaw,K. L., Durden,P.,& Baker,A.
(1998).Learninghow Amanda,a
Hiebert, l. C. (1999). Relationships
palsystudent,
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un?erstands
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98,I9B-204.
andMathematu;
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Sowell, E. J. (989). Effects of
Kame'enui, E. I., & Carnine, D. W
(1998) Effectiv,eteac.hingsrrateg,ies
manioulative materials in
IhaI a((0mm0daledNerse learners.
mathbmaticsinstruction.Journal
Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Prenticefor Research in Mathematics
.
Education.
20. 498-505
Hall.
Lerner, l. (1997). Learning disabilities. Stigler,
J.W., & Hiebert,J.0999).The
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Best ideasfrom the
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-teachers
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in
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Mastropieri,M. A., Scruggs,T. E., &
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Shiah, S. (1991). Mathematics
Suydam,M N (1980. Manipulative
instruction for learninq disabled
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Learnine Disabilities Research&
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Mclaughlin, M. J., Nolet, V., Rhim, L.
M; & Henderson, K. (1,999).
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.
materlals
and
Note:
Time ro nrenarethis material
was partially provided by tvvo
National Science Foundation (NSF)
Research Crants, ESI-9230804,
"Building Biocks-Foundations for
PreThinking,
Mathematical
Kindergartento Grade 2: Researchbased Materials Development" and
"Pianning
for
ESI-981,42I8:
Professional Development in PreSchool Mathematics: Meeting the
Challenge of Standards2000." Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this
publicationare those of the author and
do not necessarilyreflect the views of
the NSF.
of
Douglas H. Clements, Professor
Mathematics, Early Childhood, and
Computer Education at SUNY/Buffalo,
has conductedresearchand published
widely in the areas of the learningand
teachingof geometrycomyuteraVplications
and the effeas of sotial interactionson
seueralNSF
learnina.He has co-directed
yroiects, Vroducing Logo Ceometry,
Investigationsin Numbel Data, and
Syace,and morethan /0 referredresearch
articles.Activein the NCTM, he is editor
and author of the NCTM Addenda
materialsand was an authord NCTM's
Princiyles and Standards for School
Mathematics(2000).He was chair of the
Editorial Panel of NCTM's research
journal, the Journal for Researchin
MathematicsEducation. In his current
NSF-funded project, Building BlocbsFoundationsfor Mathematkal Thinbing
to Crade 2: ResearchPre-Kinderparten
heandJulie
basedMatirials Develoyment,
Sarama are develoying mathematics
softwareand activitiesfor young,children.
acnrevemen[.
Perspectives,
Summer2000 33