HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

Luminous Diamond

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND

INTERFERENCE
1. NATURE OF LIGHT
The study of nature of light has been attracting the attention of the scientists for
hundreds of years. Many theories about the nature of light were developed through
experiments and by observation of its behaviour. The various theories regarding the
nature of light are discussed below:

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND

INTERFERENCE
1. NATURE OF LIGHT
The study of nature of light has been attracting the attention of the scientists for hundreds of years. Many
theories about the nature of light were developed through experiments and by observation of its behaviour.
The various theories regarding the nature of light are discussed below:
(i) Newtons Corpuscular Theory: Newton put forward this theory in 1678. According to this theory,
light consists of tiny particles called corpuscles which are shot out by a luminous object. The corpuscular
theory was supported by the fact that light seemed to travel in straight lines instead of spreading out as the
waves do. Reflection was explained by considering the corpuscles as small elastic spheres bouncing from a
perfectly elastic surface. Refraction was explained by assuming that the corpuscles were attracted by the
particles of the denser medium and were thus accelerated. Thus the speed of light was increased in the denser
medium and this resulted in a change in direction. This theory is based on the fact that the speed of light must
be greater in the denser medium. However, it was found later that light travels more slowly in glass or water
medium (denser) than in air (rarer).
(ii) Huygens Wave Theory: A conflicting theory of light was proposed by the Dutch scientist
Huygens. According to Huygens, light was a longitudinal wave that travelled through an invisible substance called ether (not to be confused with the liquid used as an anesthetic). As light passes, the ether
vibrates. This theory is based on the fact that the speed of light must be less in a denser medium. This was
a very strong point in favour of the wave theory. In 1801, Thomas Young showed that two light beams
interfered with each other in the same way as two sound waves interfere. His observation of light was a
clear demonstration of the wave nature of light. The wave theory successfully explained many of the
observed phenomena including the slower speed of light in an optically denser medium. However, Huygens
wave theory could not prove the presence of ether.
(iii) Electromagnetic Theory: In 1860, Maxwell gave the mathematical theory of electromagnetism which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves propagating with the speed
c = 1 0 0 = 3 108 ms 1 . This is precisely the speed of light. Maxwell correctly suggested that this
agreement is not accidental but indicates that light is an electromagnetic wave. Maxwells theory was
confirmed by Hertz in 1886 who produced and detected electromagnetic waves in the laboratory by
electrical means.
An electromagnetic wave consists of changing electric and magnetic fields. The two fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of travel of the wave. Thus, light waves are transverse in nature. The
electromagnetic waves can propagate through space even in the absence of any material medium. Thus, the
difficulty of ether was removed and it appeared that all evidence was in favour of the wave theory of light.
(iv) Quantum Theory: The reign of wave theory was short as it failed to explain the experimentally
observed phenomena like photoelectric effect, atomic excitation, etc. In 1905, Einstein proposed a new
theory of light (called quantum theory) in order to explain the above phenomena. According to quantum
theory, light is transmitted as tiny bundles of energy called photons. A photon is considered to be a
massless bundle of electromagnetic energy. The energy E of a photon depends upon its frequency f and
is given by;
E=hf
where
h = Plancks constant = 6.63 1034 Js
When a photon interacts with matter such as happens when light is absorbed by your skin, it ceases to
exist. Its energy is converted to some other form of energyfor example, into thermal energy of atoms and
molecules in your skin. Photons only exist while moving and do not have rest mass.
(v) Dual Nature of Light: We seem to be in a dilemma. Some experiments show that light behaves like a
wave and others indicate that it has a particle-like nature. These two theories seem to be opposite in character
but both have been shown to have validity. Physicists have finally come to the conclusion that this dual nature
of light must be accepted as a fact of life. It is difficult to visualise this duality. We cannot picture a combination
of wave and particle. Instead, we must recognise that two aspects of light are different faces that light shows
to the experimenters.

2. OPTICS
The branch of physics which deals with light and its behaviour is called optics. It is conveniently divided into
three heads, each of which requires a markedly different method of theoretical treatment. These are:
(i) Geometrical optics
(ii) Wave optics
(iii) Quantum optics.
(i) Geometrical optics: This branch of optics is treated by the method of light rays. Under ordinary
situations, light travels in straight lines. This reasonable assumption has led to a ray model. The straight line

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

paths followed by light are called light rays. The ray model is found very successful in explaining phenomena
like reflection, refraction and formation of images by mirrors and lenses. Since these explanations involve
straight line rays at various angles, it is called geometrical optics (or ray optics).
(ii) Wave optics: This branch of optics is concerned with the nature of light and involves primarily the
theory of waves. It deals with the phenomena like interference, diffraction, polarisation etc. It is also called
physical optics.
(iii) Quantum optics: This branch of optics deals with the interaction of light with the atomic entities of
matter. It deals with such phenomena as photoelectric effect, atomic excitation, etc.

3. WAVEFRONT
A wavefront is a surface or line in the path of a wave motion on which the disturbances at every point
have the same phase.
Wavefronts
C

Wavefront
here afte
time t

Rays

Spherical Wavefronts
(i)

Fig. 20.1

Plane Wavefronts
(ii)

Consider a point source of light S in air. Suppose the disturbance or wave originates at S as a result of
vibrations occurring inside the atoms of the source and travels outwards. After a time t, the wave has travelled
a distance ct (c = velocity of light in air) and the light energy has reached the surface of the sphere of centre S
and radius ct as shown in Fig. 20.1 (i). The surface of this sphere (of radius ct) is called the wavefront of the
light at that instant and every point on it is vibrating in step or in phase with every other point on this
surface. As the time passes, the wave travels further and new wavefronts are formed which are the surfaces of
the spheres with centre at S. A point source of light produces wavefronts of this type.
At large distance from the source S, such as points C and D, the wavefronts are portions of spheres of
very large radii and the wavefronts are then substantially plane [Fig. 20.1 (ii)]. Light from the sun reaches the
earth in plane wavefronts because sun is very far off. A ray is a line which represents the direction of travel of
the wave; it is at right angles to the wavefronts.
(i) The disturbance caused by the wave is the same at every point on the wavefront.
(ii) A wavefront shows how the light energy travels from one place in a medium to another. A ray
indicates the direction along which the energy travels. Therefore, a ray is at right angles to the
wavefronts.
(iii) Wavefronts and rays are convenient geometrical devices to help visualise the changing direction
of a wave as it is reflected and transmitted at the boundary between two media.

4. TYPES OF WAVEFRONT
Depending upon the source of light, wavefronts can be of three types viz. (i) spherical wavefront (ii)
cylindrical wavefront (iii) plane wavefront.
(i) Spherical wavefront: If a point source in an isotropic medium (i.e., a medium in which the waves
travel with the same speed in all directions) is sending out waves in *three dimensions, the wavefronts are
spheres centred on the source [See Fig. 20.2 (i)]. Such a wavefront is called a spherical wavefront. It is a
diverging spherical wavefront.
(ii) Cylindrical wave front: When the source of light is linear (e.g., a slit), all the points equidistant from
the linear source lie on the surface of a cylinder [See Fig. 20.2 (ii)]. Such a wavefront is called a cylindrical
wavefront.
(iii) Plane wavefront: At a large distance from a source of any kind, the wavefront will appear plane [See
Fig. 20.2 (iii)]. Such a wavefront is called plane wavefront.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

See Animation No. 1

(i)

(ii)
Fig. 20.2

Note. A spherical wavefront can be coverging or diverging. Fig. 20.3 (i) shows a converging spherical wavefront whereas Fig. 20.3 (ii) shows a diverging spherical wavefront. Note that rays are always
normal to the wavefront. The rays corresponding to the direction of wave motion are straight lines perpendicular to the wavefront.
(i) Parallel rays indicate plane wavefronts.
(ii) Diverging rays indicate expanding wavefronts.
(iii) Convering rays indicate collapsing wavefronts

Converging Wavefront
(i)

Diverging Wavefront
(ii)
Fig. 20.3

5. HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
If the present position of a wavefront is known, then Huygens principle enables us to determine what its
position will be at some later time. Huygens principle can be stated as under:
(i) Every point on a given wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets that move in the forward
direction at the same speed at which the wave moves.
(ii) The new position of the wavefront at any instant is a line drawn tangent to the edges of the
wavelets at that instant.
As a simple example of the use of Huygens principle, consider the wavefront AB which is travelling
away from a point source S [See Fig. 20.4]. Now our original wavefront is AB and we want to find the position
of the new wavefront after time t. According to Huygens, every point on the wavefront AB acts as a source
C

See Animation No. 2

A
1

Secondary
wavelets

2
3

Direction of trave

4
Original wavefront

5
B
D
Fig. 20.4

New position of
wavefront

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

of secondary wavelets; 1, 2, 3... have been arbitrarily chosen such points. The new position of the wavefront
after time t is found by constructing secondary wavelets centred on these points and of radius ct (where c is
the velocity of light). The centres of these small circular arcs are on the original wavefront AB. Each arc
represents a small wave called wavelet that moves away from a point on the original wavefront. The common
tangent to all these wavelets, the line CD, is the new position of the wavefront.
A A C
C
Note that Huygens' construction provides a result
A
A
that is consistent with observation i.e., a circular wavefront
t
c
a c t
(two-dimensional case) continues as a circular wavefront.
a
Note. A surface AB touching tangentially all the secb
b
ondary wavelets in the backward direction [See Fig. 20.5 (i)]
can also be drawn giving a backward wavefront but it is
c
contrary to observation. According to Huygen, only the forc
ward wavefront should be considered since there is no backd
ward flow of energy during propagation of a wave. The same
d
procedure can be used for finding the new position of a
e
cylindrical or a plane wavefront. In Fig. 20.5 (ii), AB is the
e
B
orginal plane wavefront whereas CD represents the new poB
D
sition of the wavefront after time t. Huygens principle can be
used to explain the phenomena of reflection and refraction of
B B D
Fig. 20.5
light on the basis of wave theory of light.
( i)
(ii )

6. LAWS OF REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE THEORY

Fig. 20.6 shows the phenomenon of reflection from a reflecting surface XY. The laws of reflection are:
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection i.e. i = r.
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the reflecting surface and the reflected ray lie in the same *plane.
To prove the laws of reflection on the basis
Normal
of wave theory (i.e., by means of Huygens construction), consider a plane wavefront AB inciIncident
Ray
dent on the mirror XY at an angle i (angle of
incidence) as shown in Fig. 20.7. Now, 1, 2 and 3
Reflected
are the corresponding rays perpendicular to AB.
Ray
According to Huygens principle, every
i r
point on the wavefront AB is a source of secondary Wavefront
wavelets. The wavefront is in contact with the surY
X
face XY at point A. Let the secondary wavelet from
Fig. 20.6
B strike XY at A in t seconds. Then BA = ct, where
c is the velocity of light. Note that side A of the wavefront has just reached the surface XY while side B will
reach the surface XY after time t. During the time the side B of the wavefront reaches A, a secondary wavelet
of radius AB (= ct) will be generated by A. Since XY is a reflecting surface, this secondary wavelet must be
emitted into the region above
Secondary wavelet
from A
1

3
B

2
C

1
i
X

B
C

i
A

3
r
A

Fig. 20.7

XY and is shown here as a part of a circle of radius AB (= c t).

The new wavefront will be tangent to this wavelet and must contain A. It will, therefore, be along
AB i.e. AB is the reflected wavefront. The reflected rays must be at right angles to this wavefront, and
will be bounded by the rays 1, 2 and 3.
In right-angled triangles ABA and ABA, AA is common, BA = AB = ct and ABA = ABA = 90.
Therefore, the two triangles are congruent.

BAA = BAA
i.e.
i = r
where i and r are the angles between the incident and reflected wavefronts and the surface XY respectively.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

This proves first law of reflection.

Further, the incident wavefront (AB), the reflecting surface (XY) and the reflected wavefront (AB)
are all perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Therefore, the incident ray, the normal to the reflecting
surface and the reflected ray will lie in the *same plane. This proves the second law of reflection.

7. LAWS OF REFRACTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE THEORY

Fig. 20.8 shows the phenomenon of refraction of light where
light enters from a rarer medium to a denser medium. The
velocity of light is v1 in the rarer medium and v2 in the
denser medium. Clearly, v2 < v1. The laws of refraction are:
(i) The incident ray, the normal to the refracting
surface and the refracted ray lie in the same
plane.
(ii) The refractive index of the second medium
(i.e., the medium in which the light is refracted)
is given by;

Incident Ray
Normal
Wavefront

v1 Rarer

Y
r

v
sin i
= 1
...Snells law
sin r v2
where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively.
=

v2 Denser
Refracted Ray

Fig. 20.8

To prove the laws of refraction on the basis of wave theory (i.e., by means of Huygens' construction),
consider a plane wavefront AB incident on a plane transparent surface XY at an angle i (angle of incidence)
as shown in Fig. 20.9. Now, 1, 2 and 3 are the corresponding rays perpendicular to AB. The surface XY
separates a denser medium of refractive index m from a rarer medium. The wave's speed is v1 in the rarer
medium and v2 in the denser medium. Note that wavefront advances from rarer to the denser medium.
3
B

2
C

1
i
X

v1 rarer

A
C

A
r

v2 dense

B
Secondary
wavelet from A

Fig. 20.9

According to Huygens principle, every point on the wavefront AB is a source of secondary wavelets.
The wavefront is in contact with surface XY at point A. Let the secondary wavelet from B reach XY at A in t
second. Then BA = v1t. In the same time, A will emit a secondary wavelet of radius v2t. It is shown as an arc of
a circle (dotted) with centre at A and radius v2t (= AB). The new wavefront will be tangent to this wavelet and
must contain A. It will, therefore, be along AB i.e., AB is the refracted wavefront. The refracted rays must be
at right angles to this wavefront and will be bounded by the rays 1, 2 and 3.
vt
AB
= 1
In right-angled ABA,
sin i =
AA AA
AB v2 t
=
In right-angled ABA,
sin r =
AA AA
v
sin i
= 1 = which proves Snells law.

sin r v2
Referring to Fig. 20.9, it is clear that incident rays, the normal to the refracting surface and the refracted
rays lie in the same plane i.e. in the plane of paper in this case. Thus, the laws of refraction stand established
on the basis of wave theory.

8. DIFFRACTION
The spreading of waves that pass through a narrow opening or move past an obstacle is called diffraction. This is illustrated in Fig. 20.14. The spreading of waves increases as the size of the obstacle or
aperture decreases. Thus in Fig. 20.14 (iii), the opening is of the same size as the wavelength of the
wave passing through the opening. The Huygens' wavelets form a new

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

Wavefront

Wavefront

(i)

(ii)
Fig. 20.14

wavefront that spreads to the sides. As the opening is made smaller, the wave spreads more after passing
through the opening.
We shall discuss more about diffraction in chapter 21 but one important and general result may be kept
in mind i.e., if the opening or the obstacle is large compared with the wavelength of the wave, the bending of
the wave is not noticeable and the wave propagates in straight lines. For example, the wavelength of light
ranges from 4 107 m to 8 107 m. Since the wavelength of light is very small as compared with the size of
ordinary objects and openings, we cannot easily notice the diffraction of light. Diffraction of light is large when
the size of the object or opening is of the order of the wavelength of light. Indeed this is why geometrical optics
using rays is so successfulnormal openings and obstacles are much larger than the wavelength of the light
and so relatively little diffraction or bending occurs.

9. SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
When two or more waves meet, they interfere and produce a resultant wave whose properties can be calculated
by using the principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition states that whenever two or more waves travelling in the same region

superpose, the total displacement ( y ) at any point is equal to the vector sum of their individual displace

ments ( y1 , y2 , y3 ...) at that point i.e.

y = y1 + y2 + y3 + .....
If there are only two waves, then the resultant displacement is given by;

y = y1 + y2

Here y , y1 and y2 are the functions of time and space.

The superposition principle holds good for mechanical waves as well as electromagnetic waves. The
most dramatic evidence of wave superposition is interference. Consider that two harmonic waves of the same
frequency and wavelength meet in the same region.
(i) If the two waves are in phase, the amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the two waves. This is called constructive interference. Note that in constructive
interference, crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other (and trough of one falls on the trough
of the other). Consequently, the resultant amplitude is the sum of amplitudes of the two waves [See
Fig. 20.15] i.e.

y = y1 + y2
(ii) If the two waves differ in phase by 180, the resultant wave amplitude is the difference between the
amplitudes of the two waves. This is called destructive interference [See Fig. 20.16]. Note that in
destructive interference, the crest of one wave falls on the

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

y

y
y
y2

y2

y1
t

0
y1

Fig. 20.15

Fig. 20.16

trough of the other. Consequently, the amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference of the
amplitudes of the two waves i.e.

y = y2 y1

10. INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES

When two light waves from two sources meet, they interfere and produce a resultant wave according to
superposition principle. In order to observe interference of light waves, the two sources of light must be
coherent i.e., the two sources must emit waves of the same frequency and having zero phase difference or
constant phase difference. Suppose two point sources of light S1 and S2 have exactly the same frequency and
*amplitude of vibrations and that their vibrations are always in phase with each other. Therefore, the two
sources S1 and S2 are coherent sources.
S1
Brightness
C
P

Darkness

S2
Fig. 20.17

(i) Consider a point C equidistant from S1 and S2 as shown in Fig. 20.17. The light waves from the two
sources are always in phase when they reach point C. It is because the distance S1C travelled by
the wave originating at S1 is equal to the distance S2C travelled by the wave originating at S2.
Consequently, constructive interference occurs at C and the resultant wave has an amplitude
double that of either wave and a frequency the same as either. Since the energy of a wave is directly
proportional to the square of its amplitude, the light energy at C is 4 times that from S1 or S2 alone.
As S1 and S2 are coherent sources, therefore, the waves from S1 and S2 arriving at C are always in
phase. Hence, point C is a permanent seat of brightness.
(ii) Now consider a point P [See Fig. 20.17] whose distance from S1 is half a wavelength
longer than its distance from S2, i.e., S1P S2P = /2. Therefore, at point P, the waves from the two
sources differ in phase by 180 and destructive interference occurs at point P. Note that intensity
at point P is zero and, therefore, point P is a seat of darkness. Since S1 and S2 are coherent sources,
the waves from S1 and S2 will always have a phase difference of 180 at P. Therefore, point P is a
permanent seat of darkness.
Thus, we see that as a result of superposition of light waves from two coherent sources, the light energy
is redistributed in the space. This phenomenon is called interference.
The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy in a medium as a result of the superposition of light
waves from two coherent sources is called interference.
At a maximum point, the energy is 4 times that from a single source whereas at a minimum point, the
energy is zero. However, the average energy is the same as if the two sources acted separately without
interference. Hence, the law of conservation of energy holds good. Indeed, the energy which apparently
disappears at the minimum point is still present at the maximum point. Therefore, no violation of the law of
conservation of energy is involved in the interference phenomenon.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

11. PHASE DIFFERENCE AND PATH DIFFERENCE

A common cause of phase difference between two waves is the path length travelled by the waves.
Consider two sources of light S1 and S2 that have exactly the same frequency and
P
amplitude of vibration and that their vibrations are always in *phase with each
other. The two sources are, therefore, coherent. The waves from S1 and S2 arriving at point P on the screen have a path difference S2P S1P [See Fig. 20.18] i.e. S1
Path difference,
x = S2P S1P
If the path difference is (wavelength of waves from S1 and S2), the phase
difference () between the two waves at P will be 2. If the path difference between S2
the waves arriving at point P is x, then phase difference between them is given by;

x or x =
2

Fig. 20.18
The point P will be a seat of brightness or darkness depending upon whether the waves from S1 and S2
arriving at P are in phase or out of phase. Constructive interference will occur at P if the path difference
of the two waves is any integer times the wavelengths. On the other hand, destructive interference will
occur at P if the path difference of the two waves is any odd number of half wavelengths.
=

12. YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

In 1801, Thomas Young established the wave nature of light by showing that light waves can interfere with
each other. Fig. 20.19 shows a diagram of Young's famous double-slit experiment. S is a narrow slit (about 1
mm wide) illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. At some distance from S (about 10 cm), there are
two fine slits A and B (about 0.5 mm apart) equidistant from S. The light transmitted by these slits then falls
on a screen placed at a considerable distance (2m) from the slits.
Observation: If light consists of particles (corpuscles), then these bundles should move straight through
the slits and produce a sharp image of each slit on the screen. However, the pattern Young actually observed
on the screen consisted of alternate bright and dark lines (fringes).
If we cover one of the slits (A or B), we find that fringes have disappeared and the light near the centre of the
screen is nearly uniform.
Explanation: As shown in Fig. 20.19, light emerging from slit S spreads out by diffraction and encounters
slits A and B. Diffraction occurs again at these slits and the waves emerging from the slits interfere with each
other. Bright bands occur where the light waves interfere constructively; dark bands occur where the waves
interfere destructively. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 20.19. Let the solid arcs represent the crests
and the dotted arcs represent the troughs.
2

1
A

S
O

1
Fig. 20.19

Screen
2

(i) Since the waves emerging from slits A and B originate from the same source S, they are in *phase.
In other words, the light sources A and B are coherent sources a condition required for stable
interference pattern.
(ii) At point O on the screen which is equidistant from each slit (A or B), the waves from the slits arrive
in phase. Therefore, constructive interference occurs at O and a bright band is produced. Thus at
the centre of the interference pattern, there is a bright band called the zeroth-order interference

10

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

maximum. Constructive interference also occurs at position 2 where the path difference of the
waves arriving from A and B is . Note that during constructive interference, crest of one wave falls
on the crest of the other and trough of one falls on the trough of the other.
(iii) Between the bright bands, a crest from one slit arrives at the same time as a trough from the other
slit. Consequently, destructive interference occurs and a dark band is produced (position 1). Note
that during destructive interference, the crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave.
(iv) The alternate bright and dark fringes are equally thick and are equally spaced.
Notes: (a) Typically, the separation between the slits A and B is a fraction of millimetre and their
distance from the screen is several metres. Fig. 20.19 is, therefore, a schematic, not an accurate scale
drawing.
(b) If S is a source of white light, interference fringes are coloured and their widths are unequal.

13. ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF INTERFERENCE

Consider a monochromatic source of light S emitting waves of wavelength and two narrow slits A and B
placed at some distance; the slits A and B are equidistant from S and act as coherent sources [See Fig. 20.20].
Note that waves emerging from slits A and B are in phase and have the same amplitude and wavelength. Let a0
be the amplitude of each wave. Suppose the phase difference between the two waves arriving at point P is .
Then the waves can be represented as:
P

A
S

d
B

Screen
D
Fig. 20.20

y 1 = a0 sin t
y 2 = a0 sin (t + )
According to superposition principle, the displacement (y) of the resultant wave is given by;
y = y1 + y2 = a0 sin t + a0 sin(t + )
= a0 sin t + a0 sin t cos + a0 cos t sin
or
y = a0 sin t (1 + cos ) + a0 cos t sin
Put
a0 (1 + cos ) = R cos
and
a0 sin = R sin

y = R sin t cos + R cos t sin

or
y = R sin (t + )
It is an equation of a simple harmonic vibration of amplitude R.
Squaring (i) and (ii) and adding, we get,

...(i)
...(ii)
...(iii)

R2 sin2 + R2 cos2 = a02 sin2 + a02 (1 + cos )2

or

R2 = a02 sin2 + a02 (1 + cos2 + 2 cos )

2
2
2
2
= 2 a0 + 2 a0 cos = 2 a0 (2 cos

+ 1 1)
2

2
2
2
2
R2 = 2 a0 (2 cos ) = 4 a0 cos
2
2

or
R = 2a0 cos
2

Eq. (iii) becomes:

y = 2a0 cos sin (t + )
2
The intensity at a point is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude. If I0 is the intensity at
P due to light from one of the slits acting alone (the other slit covered), then,
I0 a02

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

11

The amplitude of the resultant wave is R ( = 2a0 cos /2) so that intensity I of light at P from both slits is
2
2
I 4 a0 cos
2
I

4 cos 2
or
I0 =
2

...(iv)
2
Note that resultant intensity at P depends upon the phase difference () between the two waves
reaching that point.
Note. In case of different amplitudes of the two waves, we have,
y 1 = a0 sin t and
y2 = b0 sin (t + )
2
I = 4 I 0 cos

or

Proceeding in a similar manner as above, we have,

R = a02 + b02 + 2 a0 b0 cos
Since the resultant intensity I is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the resultant
wave,

I R2

or

I a02 + b02 + 2 a0b0 cos

(i) Condition for constructive interference: When constructive interference occurs at a point, the
resultant intensity at that point is maximum. It is clear from eq. (iv) that the resultant intensity will be maximum
(i.e., 4 I0) when cos2 /2 = 1 i.e.

= 1
2

or
= 0, , 2, 3 . . .
2
or
= 0, 2, 4, 6, . . .
or
= n (2)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
Now a phase difference of 2 corresponds to a path difference of . Therefore, for constructive
interference, the path difference between the interfering waves should be:
Path difference,
x = n
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . .
cos

Hence constructive interference will occur at any point P if the two waves arriving at P have a phase
difference of zero or an integral multiple of 2 or path difference of an integral multiple of wavelengths.
(ii) Condition for destructive interference: When destructive interference occurs at a point, the resultant intensity at that point is minimum. It is clear from eq. (iv) that the resultant intensity will be minimum (i.e. I
= 0) when cos2 /2 = 0 i.e.

cos = 0
2
or

3 5
,
= ,
...
2
2 2
2
= , 3, 5 . . .

or
or
= (2n 1)
where = 1, 2, . . .
Now a phase difference of p corresponds to a path difference of /2. Therefore, for destructive interference,
the path difference between the interfering waves should be:

where n = 1, 2, 3. . . .
2
Hence destructive interference will occur at any point P if the two waves arriving at P have a phase
difference of an odd integral multiple of p or path difference of an odd integral multiple of half the wavelengths.
(iii) Energy distribution: The resultant intensity I at any point P is given by;

Path difference,

x = (2n 1)

2
where
I0 = intensity on the screen due to either slit acting separately
The intensity at bright points is 4 I0 and at dark points, it is zero. Fig. 20.21 shows the intensity I as a
function of phase difference . Since the average value of a cosine-squared function over a cycle is 1/2, the
average intensity is
Iav = 4 I0 (1/2) = 2 I0
2
I = 4 I 0 cos

The average intensity is indicated by the dashed line.

12

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

I
4I0
2I0

5 4 3 2

Fig. 20.21

Now each source acting separately would contribute I0 and so without interference we would have a
uniform intensity of 2 I0. Thus, the average intensity of the interference pattern is exactly that which would
exist in the absence of interference. In interference, the energy is not destroyed but is merely redistributed in
the interference pattern. At a maximum point, the energy is 4 times that from a single source whereas at a
minimum point, there is no energy at all. However, the average energy of the interference pattern is the same as
if the sources acted separately without interference. Thus, the formation of interference fringes is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Notes: (i) We have considered the usual case of the two interfering waves having the same amplitude.
If the two interfering waves have different amplitudes, say a0 and b0 (a0 > b0), then,
Imax (a0 + b0)2
... constructive interference
Imin (a0 b0)2
... destructive interference
(a0 + b0 )2
I max
I min = (a0 b0 )2

It is clear that the resulting interference pattern will lack contrast.

(ii)

R 2 = a02 + b02 + 2 a0 b0 cos

Since I1 a02 and I 2 b02

Resultant intensity, I R = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos

(iii) If w1 and w2 are the widths of two slits and the intensities of light emerging from them
are I1 and I2 respectively, then,
a2
I1
w1
= 02
=
w2
I 2 b0

14. CALCULATION OF FRINGE WIDTH

Consider two slits A and B equidistant from a monochromatic light source S. The two sources A and B are
coherent. The two sorces have zero phase difference i.e. the waves emerge from A and B in phase. Let the
separation of the sources be d [See Fig. 20.22]. Suppose a screen is placed at a perpendicular distance D from
the coherent sources. Since point C on the screen is equidistant from A and B, the waves arrive at this point in
phase. Therefore, constructive interference occurs and a bright fringe is produced at C.
Consider a point P at a distance x from C. The path difference between the waves reaching P from A and
B is BP AP. It can be found as under :
P

d/2
C

d/2
B

R
Screen
D
Fig. 20.22

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

13

d
d
; PR = x +
2
2
2
2
2
d 2
d
2
2
+
+
+
D
x

D
x

(BP) (AP) =

2
2

or (BP AP) (BP + AP) = 2 xd

2xd
or
BP AP = BP + AP
Since d << D, BP + AP can be taken equal to 2 D (as long as P is close to C). Therefore,
2xd
xd
=
Path difference = BP AP =
2D
D
The waves from A and B arriving at a point on the screen will interfere constructively or destructively
depdending upon this path difference.
(i) Bright fringes : If the path difference is an integral multiple of wavelength , then point P is bright
fringes :
xd
= n
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . . .
D
D
...(i)
or
x = n
d
Eq. (i) gives the distance of the bright fringes from point C. The distance of the various bright fringes
from point C can be found as under :
For
n = 0,
x0 = 0
... central bright fringe
D
For
n = 1,
x1 =
... first bright fringe
d
2 D
For
n = 2,
x2 =
... second bright fringe
d
D
For
n = n,
xn = n
... nth bright fringe
d
The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes (or dark fringes) is called fringe width ().
2 D D D
=

Fringe width,
= x2 x1 =
d
d
d
D

=
...(ii)
d
This is the width of dark fringe.
(ii) Dark fringes: If the path difference is an odd integral multiple of half wavelength, then point P is
dark. Therefore, for dark fringes;

xd
= (2n 1)
where n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
2
D
D
or
x = (2n 1)
...(iii)
2d
Eq. (iii) gives the distance of the dark fringes from point C. The distance of the various dark fringes from
point C can be calculated as under;
D
For
n = 1,
x1 = 2 d
... first dark fringe
3 D
For
n = 2,
x2 =
... second dark fringe
2d

PQ = x

For

n = n,

Fringe width,

D
x n = (2n 1) 2 d

= x2 x1 =

... nth dark fringe

3 D D D
=

2d
2d
d

D
...(iv)
d
This is the width of bright fringe.
From eqs. (ii) and (iv), it is clear that width of bright fringe is equal to the width of the dark fringe. All the
fringes are equal in width regardless of the order of the fringe.
Order of interference fringes: Fig. 20.23 shows the order of interference fringes.
B0 ... zero order bright fringe
B1 ... first order bright fringe
B2 ... second order bright fringe
D1 ... first order dark fringe
D2 ... second order dark fringe

14

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

15. SOME POINTS ABOUT YOUNGS INTERFERENCE FRINGES

Fig. 20.24 shows the arrangement for Young's double slit experiment.
D
Fringe width
=
d
(i) As expression for is independent of n, all fringes are of the same width.
(ii) If the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits, the fringe width is unaffected but the
intensity of fringes increases.
B2
D2
B1
A

D1
A

B0
B

D1

d
B

B1

Screen

D2

B2

Fig. 20.24

Fig. 20.23

(iii) If distance d between the slits is reduced, keeping S fixed, the fringe width increases. If D is
increased, then fringe width increases.
(iv) Since is directly proportional to , the fringes produced by light of shorter wavelength will be
narrower compared to those produced by light of longer wavelength.
(v) If the source slit S is widened, the fringes gradually disappear. The slit S is then equivalent to a large
number of narrow slits, each producing its own fringe system at different places. The bright and
dark fringes of different systems therefore overlap, giving rise to uniform illumination.
(vi) If one of the slits (A or B) is covered up, the fringes disappear.
(vii) All the bright bands have the same intensity and all dark bands have zero intensity as explained
below :
Imax (a0 + a0)2

or

Imax 4 a02

Imin (a0 a0)2 or

Imin 0
Thus all bright bands are of the same intensity and all dark bands have zero intensity.
(viii) If white light is used, the central fringe is white and the fringes on either side are coloured. Blue is
the colour nearer to the central fringe and red is farther away. This can be easily explained. The path
difference to point C on the perpendicular bisector of the slits A and B is zero for all colours and as
a result each colour produces a bright fringe here. As they overlap, a white fringe is formed. Farther
away from C, in a direction parallel to the slits, the shortest visible wave, blue, produces a bright
fringe first.
(ix) Angular width,

0 =

D/d
=
=
D
D
d

0 =

i.e.

wavelength of light decreases. Therefore, fringe width (= D/d) decreases.

(x) When the apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index , =

16. COHERENT AND INCOHERENT SOURCES

(i) Coherent sources: Two sources of light which emit continuous light waves of the same frequency,
same wavelength and have zero phase difference or constant phase difference at all times are called
coherent sources.
An interference pattern is observed only when the sources are coherent. Thus, the two slits A and B in
Fig. 20.24 are coherent sources because the light waves that emerge from A and B always have zero phase

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

15

difference. The pattern is then produced because the waves have a specific phase relation as they arrive at a
particular point on the screen. They arrive at C in phase (bright) and arrive at P out of phase (dark). Therefore,
points C and P are the seats of permanent brightness and darkness respectively.
Suppose we make such an arrangement that waves emerging from the slits A and B have a phase
difference of radians. Then, by a similar analysis, the waves arrive at C out of phase (dark), they arrive at P in
phase (bright). Note that an interference pattern is still produced but the positions of the bright and dark fringes
are shifted from their positions when the waves emerge with a zero phase difference. To produce the double-slit
interference pattern, there is no need for the phase difference between the waves emerging from slits A and B
to be zero, but there is a need for this phase difference, whatever it is, to remain constant.
(ii) Incoherent sources: If two tiny bulbs replace the two slits (or separate light bulbs illuminate each
slit), an interference pattern would not be seen. It is because the light emitted by one bulb would have a
random phase with respect to the second bulb and the screen would be more or less uniformly illuminated.
Two such sources are called incoherent sources. Thus two incoherent sources cannot produce a stable
interference pattern.
In an ordinary light source, such as a light-bulb filament, light is emitted as a result of electron transitions
within the individual atoms of the source. Since it is impossible to predict the exact time a particular atom will
make a transition, the phase fluctuates randomly. If two independent light bulbs are used, the phase relation
between the waves will be continuously changing. The interference pattern changes so rapidly that the impression is one of uniform illuminationnevertheless, the interference still occurs. Thus, two separate light bulbs
are incoherent sources and they cannot produce a stable interference pattern.

17. CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE

In order to produce a stable interference pattern, the following conditions should be satisfied:
(i) The two sources must be coherent.
(ii) The waves that are interfering must have approximately the same amplitude, otherwise the resulting interference pattern will lack contrast.
(iii) The light used must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different colours will overlap.
(iv) The two sources must be close to each other. This will enable to have large fringe width.
(v) The two sources should be narrow.
(vi) The two sources should emit waves continuously.

18. INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

A thin film of liquid (e.g. soap film or a layer of oil over water) appears bright or dark when viewed in a
monochromatic light. This effect is caused due to the interference of light reflected from the top and bottom
faces of the film.
A
To see how this happens, consider a thin transparent film
of thickness t as shown in Fig. 20.25. A monochromatic ray of
light AB is incident on the top surface of the film at B. A part of the
incident ray of light is reflected at B and the rest of the light is
transmitted into the film. Part of the transmitted ray is reflected
from the bottom surface of the film at C and moves back towards
the top. As a portion of this ray leaves the top surface at D and
B
D
moves towards our eye, it interferes with the ray reflected at B.
t
The interference may be either constructive (the film will appear
C
bright) or destructive (the film will appear black) depending upon
the wavelength of light and extra distance BCD travelled by the
Fig. 20.25
ray passing through the film. For constructive interference to occur, the light leaving the surface at D must be in phase with the light reflected at B. For destructive interference
to occur, the light leaving the surface at D must be out of phase with the light reflected at B.

19. COLOURS IN THIN FILMS

When a soap bubble is viewed in sunlight, it appears coloured. Similarly, a thin layer of oil over water
appears coloured in sunlight. The various colours that are observed with ordinary light result from the interference of waves reflected from the top and bottom faces of the film.
When white light falls on a thin film, the path BCD (See Fig. 20.25) will be such so as to cause constructive interference of rays reflected at B and that leaving D for only one wavelength at a given viewing angle. This
colour will be seen as very bright. For light viewed at a slightly different angle, the path BCD will be longer or
shorter, and a different colour will undergo constructive interference. Thus, for an extended (nonpoint) source
emitting white light, a series of bright colours will be seen next to one another. The colour pattern would depend
upon the thickness of the film, nature of material of the film and on the position of the observer.

16

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE AND INTERFERENCE

20. FRINGE SHIFT

When a thin transparent plate of thickness t and refractive index is introduced in the path of one of the
interfering waves (say in the path S1P in Fig. 20.26), then the effective path in air is increased by ( 1) t due to
the introduction of the plate. Referring to Fig. 20.26,
Effective path difference in air

= S2P [S1P + ( 1) t]
= S2P S1P ( 1) t
xd
( 1) t
D
For maxima, path difference = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

x
S1

d
S2
D

Position of nth maxima is given by;

xn d
( 1) t = n
D
D
[n + ( 1) t ]
or
xn =
d
D
Fringe width,
= xn + 1 xn =
d
In the absence of the plate (i.e., t = 0), the position of the nth maxima is
nD
xn =
d
Displacement of fringes is
D
n D
[n + ( 1) t ]
x =

d
d

D
( 1) t = ( 1) t
=

Fig. 20.26

( 1) t

Thus we find that with the introduction of the transparent plate in the path of one of the slits, the entire
fringe pattern is displaced through a distance
D

( 1) t or ( 1) t
d

towards the side on which the plate is placed. There is no other change in the pattern.
Shift in the interference pattern is
D
( 1) t
x =
d

x =