Murre, Kristo & Janssen (In Press) Memory

Memory, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.811253
The effect of self-reported habitual sleep quality and

sleep length on autobiographical memory
Jaap M. J. Murre1, Gert Kristo2, and Steve M. J. Janssen3,4
1
Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Department of Medical Psychology and Neuropsychology, Tilburg University, the
Netherlands
3
Department of Psychology, Hokkaido University, Japan
4
School of Psychology, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia
Downloaded by [UVA Universiteitsbibliotheek SZ] at 00:01 02 July 2013
A large number of studies have recently shown effects of sleep on memory consolidation. In this study
the effects of the sleep quality and sleep length on the retention of autobiographical memories are
examined, using an Internet-based diary technique (Kristo, Janssen, & Murre, 2009). Each of over 600
participants recorded one recent personal event and was contacted after a retention interval that ranged
from 2 to 46 days. Recall of the content, time, and details of the event were scored and related to sleep
quality and sleep length as measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Hierarchical regression
analyses indicated that poor sleep quality, but not short sleep length, was associated with significantly
lower recall at the longer retention periods (30!46 days), but not at the shorter ones (2!15 days),
although the difference in recall between good and poor sleepers was small.
Keywords: Autobiographical memory; Sleep; Diary study; Memory consolidation; Internet-based testing.
The question of whether sleeping less than the

recommended 7 or 8 hours leads to accelerated
forgetting of the memories of ones own life has
become increasingly relevant in the light of recent
work on the consolidation of memory. Memory
formation is subject to several types of forgetting,
such as retroactive interference and other natural
decay processes (Wixted, 2004). This forgetting is
hypothesised to be counteracted by a consolidation process that stabilises, transforms, or enhances new memories in the course of several
days to several months or even years.
For about a century sleep has been thought to
be the ideal candidate for mediating this longterm memory consolidation process. Early sleep
deprivation experiments were based on very few
participants and on comparisons of retrieval
performance tested after short retention intervals
(Heine, 1914; Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924; Van

Ormer, 1932, 1933). Many of the early experiments
on the influence of sleep on memory found weak or
no effects (e.g., Graves, 1937; Richardson &
Gough, 1963). Others reported positive results,
but the majority of these experiments suffered
from confounds, such as stress and fatigue of sleepdeprived participants or time-of-day effects
(Benson & Feinberg, 1975, 1977; Ekstrand, 1967;
Ekstrand, Barrett, West, & Meier, 1977; Idzikowski, 1984; Lovatt & Warr, 1968; Nesca & Koulack,
1994; Newman, 1939).
However, in the last decade a large number of
studies on sleep and memory have appeared that
do not suffer from the earlier shortcomings: stress
and fatigue of participants and time-of-day effects
are unlikely explanations of the sleep advantages reported (e.g., Born, Rasch, & Gais, 2006;
Address correspondence to: Jaap Murre, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA,
Amsterdam, Netherlands. E-mail: address: jaap@murre.com
# 2013 Taylor & Francis
MURRE, KRISTO, JANSSEN
Diekelmann & Born, 2010; Drosopoulos, Wagner,

& Born, 2005; Drosopoulos, Windau, Wagner, &
Born, 2007; Ellenbogen, Hulbert, Stickgold,
Dinges, & Thompson-Schill, 2006; Ellenbogen,
Payne, & Stickgold, 2006; Hobson, 2005; Maquet,
2001; Rasch, Bu chel, Gais, & Born, 2007; Stickgold, 2005; Stickgold, Hobson, Fosse, & Fosse,
2001; Stickgold, James, & Hobson, 2000; M. P.
Walker, 2005). Novel sleep paradigms have
yielded additional evidence for the role of sleep
in consolidation. For example, allowing participants to have a daytime nap after a learning task
improves memory performance later (Mednick,
Nakayama, & Stickgold, 2003; Schoen & Badia,
1984; Tucker et al., 2006), whereas sleep deprivation before learning has the opposite effect (e.g.,
Van Der Werf et al., 2009). Whereas most studies
have focused on forms of procedural memory,
several studies have also found effects of sleep
on the retention of declarative memories (e.g.,
Dumay & Gaskell, 2007; Gais et al., 2007; Gais &
Born, 2004; Gais, Lucas, & Born, 2006; Plihal &
Born, 1997).
In short, there is now overwhelming evidence
to suggest that sleep plays a role in the consolidation of long-term declarative memory. An important question, however, remains whether these
findings have any implications for the formation
and retention of memory with naturally occurring
sleep habits. For example, it seems reasonable to
extrapolate these results to the hypothesis that
sleeping habitually less than the recommended 7
or 8 hours per night will lead to accelerated
forgetting of personal events due to a failure to
properly consolidate these memories. Such tempting generalisations can regularly be found in the
popular science press. Descriptions of deprivation
experiments are often followed by warnings that
lack of sleep may impair long-term memory (e.g.,
BBC, 2008), but strictly speaking this does not
follow logically from those experiments. All
studies mentioned above are based on intervals
of 24 hours or less between a learning episode and
some form of sleep manipulation, typically one
night of complete sleep deprivation or a daytime
nap. None of the studies cited thus far includes a
partial restriction of sleep, where participants are
only allowed to sleep a limited number of hours,
and none of the studies cited includes long
periods of restricted sleep. Such studies would
allow one to extrapolate to groups of the population that might experience naturally occurring partial sleep restrictions, such as parents of
young infants. Although there is now very strong
evidence that manipulation of sleep can affect

declarative memory, the effects of natural variations in sleep patterns on long-term memory are
still unclear.
As far as we are aware, the relation between
naturally varying sleep patterns and autobiographical memory has not been studied, leaving the
important question of whether people who habitually sleep 6 or fewer hours per night or who
experience low sleep quality retain fewer autobiographical memories than people who sleep
normal hours unanswered. To our knowledge this
is the first study that investigates this question. It
is based on a prospective diary technique in which
participants are first asked to record a personal
event on which they are later tested.
Autobiographical memories present several
research challenges not found in most other types
of memory. This kind of research involves the
recollection of memories that people have about
personal events that were experienced at a specific
moment in time (Brewer, 1986). To capture a
cross-section of such memories we took measures
so that not only important events were reported,
but also many unimportant, even trivial, events
were included. Because the time-course of memory consolidation is not well known and may range
up to 6 weeks or longer in humans (Frankland &
Bontempi, 2005; Murre, Graham, & Hodges,
2001), we investigated the retention of autobiographical memories in a range of 2 to 46 days. This
choice of retention interval was also motivated by
our desire to replicate our earlier diary study
(Kristo, Janssen, & Murre, 2009). To manage the
large variability across autobiographical memories
we collected information on factors known to
influence autobiographical memory, such as importance and emotionality (Kristo et al., 2009;
Rubin & Kozin, 1984). For the same reason we
used the Internet, which allows the collection of
large samples of participants in a convenient and
affordable manner (e.g., Janssen, Chessa, &
Murre, 2005; Kristo et al., 2009; Logie & Maylor,
2009; Maylor & Logie, 2010; Meeter, Murre, &
Janssen, 2005; Meeter, Ochtman, Janssen, &
Murre, 2010).
Based on the results of an earlier diary-based
experiment by us (Kristo et al., 2009) and other
diary experiments (e.g., Catal & Fitzgerald, 2004;
Wagenaar, 1986) we expected to find a decrease
in the autobiographical memory performance at
longer retention intervals. Given the current state
of research on the effects of sleep on episodic
memory, briefly reviewed above, we hypothesised
SLEEP AND AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY
that autobiographical memory retention should

be better for participants who slept well or who
slept sufficiently long than for participants who
did not sleep well or who slept much less than the
average (slept short). These differences were
expected to be larger at longer retention intervals,
because sleep was assumed to affect the consolidation of memories (e.g., Stickgold, 2005).
METHOD
Participants
The study was presented on the Internet. The
website of the study was submitted to search
engines, links were posted on related websites,
and the website was promoted in traditional
media, such as newspapers and magazines.
Furthermore, participants who had taken other
tests on the website, such as the Galton-Crovitz
test (Janssen et al., 2005; Janssen, Chessa, &
Murre, 2006; Janssen & Murre, 2008; Janssen,
Rubin, & St. Jacques, 2011) were invited to
participate in this study as well. The study was
reviewed and approved by the Ethical Review
Board of the University of Amsterdam.
In this study we analysed the results from 609
Dutch volunteers residing in the Netherlands. The
participants, who were not paid for their participation, were between 16 and 80 years old (M "
51.64, SD "13.99), with the majority (64.2%)
possessing the equivalent of a college or university education. The sample included more female
(N "434) than male (N "175) participants,
x2(2) "110.15, pB.001. Participants who were
residing outside the Netherlands or who were
younger than 16 or older than 80 years old were
allowed to take the test, but their results were not
included in the analyses.
Materials and procedure

The materials and procedure of this study are
described in more detail in a previous study (Kristo
et al., 2009). Briefly, the study consisted of two
phases. In the first phase participants were asked to
give a brief description of a personal event that had
happened recently (no older than 6 days). Participants recorded the event on the website and
answered several questions about the main gist
(what, who, where, when) and the details (important and unimportant) of the event. They also rated
the importance and the emotionality of the event

on 5-point scales and the pleasantness and the
frequency of occurrence on 7-point scales. All
participants were told at the end of the first phase
that we would contact them by email in a few days
or weeks.
The second phase of the experiment took place
after 2, 7, 15, 30!31, or 45!46 days. Participants
were randomly assigned to one of the retention
intervals and asked to answer the same questions
with the help of cues and to perform the same
ratings as in the first phase. They were also asked
to rate how often they had talked and thought
about the event.
The second and third author scored all answers
(see Table A in the Appendix), and, while scoring
the answers, they were unaware of the participants retention interval, sleep quality, or sleep
length. Answers given at the second phase were
compared to answers given at the first phase. A
score of 2 points was given by each scorer when
the answers were similar. When the answer of the
second phase was partially similar or less specific
than the answer of the first phase, 1 point was
awarded. No points were given when the answer
of the second phase was dissimilar to that of the
first phase. The participants also received 1 point
for each correct time element (i.e., day of week,
time of day, day of month, month). Inter-rater
correlation ranged between .819 (who) and .943
(unimportant detail).
Furthermore, the participants also answered
the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), which
was used to investigate the quality and length of
sleep (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, &
Kupfer, 1989). This questionnaire measures the
subjective quality, latency, duration, and efficiency of sleep. It also takes into account sleep
disturbances, sleep medication and daytime dysfunction. The PSQI was given at the end of the
study. Until the end of the second phase participants were unaware that they would be given a
questionnaire about their sleep habits, so participants with sleep problems would not be primed.
We expected differences in the retention of the
autobiographical memories depending on sleep
quality and sleep length.
RESULTS
In the first two subsections of this section basic
results will be reported. In the first subsection
performance on the autobiographical memory
test will be examined, specifically participant

characteristics, such as age, gender and level of
education, and event characteristics, such as
retention interval, emotionality, and importance,
which are both well known to influence autobiographical memory retrieval. In the second subsection sleep quality and sleep length will be
investigated and also whether participants characteristics, such as age, gender, and level of
education, affect those two variables and whether
participants who sleep poorly or who sleep less
report personal events that differ on event factors,
such emotionality and importance. In the third
and final subsection of the Results section the
main goal of the study (i.e., the influence of sleep
on autobiographical memory recall) will be examined. These analyses will first be conducted
with hierarchical regression analyses, first including only gender and then also participant characteristics, such as age, gender, and level of
education, as well as event characteristics, such
as importance and emotionality.
Autobiographical memory recall

The total scores on the autobiographical memory
test could range between 0 and 28. There were
five participants (i.e., less than 1% of the sample)
who had a score of 0 on the test. These participants were not included in the analyses, because
despite been given information about what the
event was, who was involved, and where it had
taken place, they still could not recall when it had
happened or the details of the event. It is therefore likely that, for these participants, none of the
cues elicited the appropriate personal event.
The remaining 609 participants had an average
diary score of 17.98 (SD "6.40). We first tested
whether the scores on the test were affected by
the retention interval. The scores were strongly
affected by the retention interval, F(6, 602) "
31.32, p B.001, g2p :238. The forgetting curve is
shown in Figure 1, combining the 30- and 31-days
points and the 45- and 46-days points. A power
function, DS "26.71 days #0.148, was fitted
through these data points, in which DS is Diary
Score and days denotes time in days, explaining
95.8% of the variation. These parameters are
similar to those fitted to the data in the Kristo et
al. (2009) study, indicating that the results of the
previous study were successfully replicated.
Figure 1. Average diary score as a function of retention time

in days. A power function has been fitted through the data
points explaining 95.8% of the variance.
To maximise statistical power in the subsequent analyses the results were collapsed into two
groups with roughly similar number of observations: 2!15 days (N"283) and 30!46 days (N "
326). Participants assigned to the shorter retention interval ranging between 2 and 15 days
recalled more information (M "20.90, SD "
5.28) than those assigned to the longer retention
interval ranging between 30 and 46 (M "15.45,
SD "6.22), t(607) "11.57, pB.001, Cohens d"
0.851.
We then tested whether there were effects of
age, gender, and level of education on the autobiographical memory scores. In Figure 2 Diary
Score as a function of age and retention interval is
shown. The number of participants per age group
and retention interval is given in Table 1.
Although there seemed to be a tendency to recall
more information for participants in their late
teens and twenties, we did not find a main effect of
age (p ".27). Nor did we find a main effect of
education (p".18), but there was a medium-sized
effect of gender on autobiographical memory
Figure 2. Average diary scores with standard error bars as a

function of age group and retention interval.
TABLE 1
Number of participants for short and long retention intervals
and each age group, as shown in Figure 2
Retention interval
Age Group
16!20
21!30
31!40
41!50
51!60
61!70
71!80
Total
2!15 days
30!46 days
5
15
30
53
97
61
22
283
9
28
36
53
110
68
22
326
performance. Women (M "18.65, SD "6.23) performed better than men on recalling the event
(M "16.34, SD "6.55), t(607) "4.08, p B.001,
Cohens d"0.360.
We subsequently examined whether there were
effects of emotionality, importance, valence, and
frequency of occurrence on the autobiographical
memory scores. There were no main effects of
emotionality (p".87) and frequency of occurrence (p".53), but pleasantness had a small
effect the scores on the autobiographical memory
test, F(6, 602) "2.66, p B.05, g2p :026. Pleasant
events were remembered better (M "18.32, SD "
6.38) than unpleasant events or events that were
neither pleasant nor unpleasant (M "16.84, SD "
6.39), t(607) "2.39, pB.05, Cohens d "0.230.
Importance also had a small effect on the scores,
(4, 604) "2.42, pB.05, g2p :016. Important
events were remembered than unimportant
events (r".090, p B.05).
Sleep quality and sleep length

Participants had an average score of 5.28 (SD "
3.00) on the PSQI. Higher scores on the PSQI
denote a lower quality of sleep. Participants who
obtained a score of 5 or lower (N "376) were
considered to have a good quality of sleep,
whereas participants with a score higher than 5
(N "233) were considered to have a poor quality
of sleep. In Figure 3 the distribution of the PSQI
scores is given. The scores are more skewed and
have a thicker right tail than the scores of the
healthy adults in the original study (Buysse et al.,
1989), suggesting that some of the participants in
the present study experienced poor sleep. Indeed,
Figure 3. Distribution of PSQI scores (higher is worse). A

gamma distribution function has been fitted through the data
points explaining 96.0% of the variance.
a gamma distribution (shown) fitted the data

distribution better than a normal distribution.
On average, participants slept 7.09 hours per
night (SD "1.05). Participants who slept on
average between 6.5 and 8.5 hours (N "442)
were regarded to sleep for a normal length,
whereas participants who slept for 6 hours or
less (N "121) were regarded to sleep (too) short.
Because excessive sleep might be indicative of
sleep problems, participants who slept 9 hours or
more per night (N "46) were not included in the
analyses of sleep length, although they are shown
later in Figure 6 for completeness.
Sleep quality and sleep length were not independent, x2(2) "87.46, p B.001, Cramers V "
.379. Most participants who slept well also slept
for a normal length (83.0%). Only a few participants who slept well slept on average less than 6.5
hours (8.0%) or more than 8.5 hours (9.0%) per
night. For participants sleeping 7 hours or less,
PSQI score and hours of sleep had a correlation
of r(374) " #.505. However, participants who
slept poorly did not necessarily sleep too short.
More than half of the participants who slept
poorly (55.8%) slept on average between 6.5
and 8.5 hours per night. The length of sleep is
one of the requirements of good sleep, but it is
not necessarily the cause of poor sleep.
We then examined whether participants who
slept poorly or who slept too short are different
from participants who slept well or who slept for a
normal length in regard to their age, gender, or
level of education. The analysis of variance did
not show a main effect of age (p ".26) or level of
education (p ".94) on the quality of sleep, but
there was a main effect of gender. The sleep
quality of women was poorer (M "5.68, SD "
3.04) than the sleep quality of men (M "4.29,

SD "2.67), t(607) "5.28, p B.001, Cohens d "
0.263. There was no main effect of level of education (p ".75) on sleep length, but the main
effects of age (p ".06) and gender (p ".09)
approached significance. Figure 4 shows how
many hours participants of different ages slept.
Participants in their fifties slept the least, whereas
participants in their late teens slept the most, the
difference being nearly 45 minutes. However, this
difference only approached significance (p".05).
The difference in hours of sleep between participants in their twenties and participants in their
fifties was significant (pB.05).
Subsequently we examined whether participants who slept poorly or who slept too short
reported different autobiographical memories
from participants who slept well or slept normally
in regard to the emotionality, importance, valence, or frequency of occurrence of the personal
events. Participants who slept well reported
similar personal events to participants who slept
poorly in regard to the emotionality (p".66),
importance (p".40) and pleasantness (p ".31) of
the events, but the events that good sleepers
reported occurred less frequently (M "4.34,
SD "1.63) than the events that poor sleepers
reported (M "4.05, SD "1.56), t(607) "2.16, p B
.05, Cohens d "0.180. The emotionality (p".29),
importance (p ".17), and frequency of occurrence (p ".29) of the events did not differ
between participants who slept too short and
those who slept for a normal length, although
the difference in the pleasantness of the events
(p ".08) approached significance.
Figure 4. Sleep length in hours with standard error bars as a

function of age group.
The effect of sleep on autobiographical

memory recall
Before we examined the effect of sleep on
autobiographical memory recall, we first ensured
there was no interaction between retention interval and the quality or length of sleep. Participants
who took the second part between 2 and 15 days
after the first part of the study did not sleep better
(M "5.44, SD "3.10) than participants who took
the second part between 30 and 46 days after the
first part of the study (M "5.15, SD "2.92), p"
.23. There was also no difference between the two
retention interval groups in regard to the hours of
sleep (M "6.90, SD "0.87; M "6.93; SD "0.90),
p ".68.
Since an effect of gender was found on the
autobiographical memory test and on the PSQI,
the results of male and female participants are
first analysed separately. Later the results of these
two groups are merged. When the effects of sleep
quality and retention interval on the autobiographical memory performance of male participants
were examined, only a main effect of retention
interval, F(1, 171) "19.56, p B.001, g2p :103, but
no main effect of sleep quality (p ".98), was
found. Similar results were found for the effects
of sleep length and retention interval. Autobiographical memory performance was affected by
retention interval (F(1, 158) "8.48, p B.01,
g2p :051), but not by sleep length (p ".54).
There were no interaction effects between retention interval and sleep quality or sleep length on
autobiographical memory performance (p ".94
and p".22). The decrease in the autobiographical
memory performance was similar for male participants who slept poorly (D "5.03) and for male
participants who slept well (D "4.87), whereas
the decrease was actually smaller for male participants who slept too short (D "2.23) than
for male participants who slept for a normal
length (D "5.54). These results are summarised
in Table 2.
When the effects of sleep quality and retention
interval on the autobiographical memory performance of female participants were examined, a
strong effect of retention interval, F(1, 430) "
106.64, p B.001, g2p :199, but no effect of sleep
quality (p ".58), was found. When we looked at
sleep length, we again found that autobiographical
memory performance was affected by retention
interval, F(1, 397) "77.27, p B.001, g2p :163.
However, performance was also affected by sleep
TABLE 2
Autobiographical memory performance (and number of observations) for male, female and all participants
Poor quality
Male participants
Female participants
All participants
2!15 days
30!46 days
Decrease
2!15 days
30!46 days
Decrease
2!15 days
30!46 days
Decrease
19.29
14.26
5.03
21.72
15.34
6.38
21.37
15.13
6.24
(17)
(23)
(98)
(95)
(115)
(118)
Good quality
19.24
14.37
4.87
21.22
16.43
4.79
20.58
15.63
4.95
(54)
(81)
(114)
(127)
(168)
(208)
Short Length
17.33
15.10
2.23
20.72
14.58
6.14
20.18
14.74
5.44
(9)
(20)
(47)
(45)
(56)
(65)
Normal length
19.81
14.27
5.54
21.82
16.42
5.40
21.26
15.72
5.54
(58)
(75)
(152)
(157)
(210)
(232)
length, F(1, 397) "5.00, p B.05, g2p :012. The

decrease in the autobiographical memory performance was larger for female participants who slept
poorly (D "6.38) or slept too short (D "6.14)
than for female participants who slept well (D "
4.79) or slept normally (D "5.40), but there was
no interaction effect between retention interval
and sleep quality (p ".14) or between retention
interval and sleep length (p ".57) on autobiographical memory performance (see Table 2).
The results of male and female were combined
for the final analyses (see Table 2). Sleep quality
(p ".77) and sleep length (p".08) had no main
effect on autobiographical memory performance,
but retention interval had in both situations a
strong effect on performance, F(1, 605) "133.20,
p B.001, g2p :180; F(1, 559) "86.07, p B.001,
g2p :133. The data for sleep quality and sleep
length are plotted in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
Please note that the long sleep length (more
than 8.5 hours) included in Figure 6 was not
analysed. The decrease in the autobiographical
memory performance was larger for participants
who slept poorly (D "6.24) than the decrease in
performance for participants who slept well (D "

4.95), but there was no interaction effect between
retention interval and sleep quality (p ".19) on
autobiographical memory performance. The decrease for participants who slept too short (D "
5.44) was similar to the decrease for participants
who slept for a normal length (D "5.54). There
was also no interaction effect between the retention interval and sleep length (p".93).
Figure 5. Averaged diary scores with standard error bars as a

function of sleep quality (PSQI score) for the 2!15 days and
30!46 days retention intervals. Poor sleep quality means a
PSQI score of 6 and higher (higher is worse).
Figure 6. Averaged diary scores with standard error bars as a

function of sleep length for the 2!15 days and 30!46 days
retention intervals. Short is less than 6 hours or less,
Normal is 6.5 to 8.5 hours, and Long is 9 hours or more.
Hierarchical regression analyses

Because there were small effects of frequency of
occurrence, importance, gender, and age (also see
Kronholm et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2011) on the
autobiographical memory scores, we also conducted two hierarchical regression analyses in
which we examined the influence of the quality
of sleep or the length of sleep on the autobiographical memory scores. In these analyses event
variables, such as retention interval, pleasantness,
and frequency of occurrence, and participant
variables, such as age, gender, and level of

education, are taken into account.
In the first step we examined the effect of
retention interval on the autobiographical memory score. In the second step we entered importance, emotionality, pleasantness, and frequency
of occurrence to the regression analyses. In the
third step age group, level of education, and
gender were entered. In the fourth step of the
analysis we added the quality (PSQI scores) or
the length of sleep (hours of sleep). In the final
step the interaction between the quality of sleep
and retention interval or the interaction between
the length of sleep and retention interval was
entered. The results of the last step are given in
Tables 2 and 3.
From the results of the regression analyses it
can be concluded that retention interval had the
strongest influence on the autobiographical memory performance. Participants performed worse
when there was more time between the first and
second session. Age and gender also had significant effects (psB.05). Younger and female participants performed better than older and male
participants. The quality of sleep had no influence
on autobiographical memory recall (p ".19), but
the interaction effect between the retention
interval and the quality of sleep reached statistical
significance (pB.05). The difference in recall
between participants who slept well and those
who slept poorly increased as the time between
the first and second session increased. The length
of sleep had no influence on autobiographical
TABLE 3
Hierarchical regression analysis: Quality of sleep
Constant
Retention Interval
Importance
Emotionality
Pleasantness
Frequency
Age Group
Level of Education
Gender
Sleep Quality
Sleep Quality * Retention Interval
Beta
#.465
.077
.011
.054
#.009
#.096
.017
.102
#.048
#.086
9.99
#13.05
1.85
0.26
1.44
#0.25
#2.66
0.48
2.71
#1.30
#2.42
.000
.000
.064
.794
.151
.807
.008
.633
.007
.193
.016
Including the quality of sleep and the interaction between

the quality of sleep and retention interval, predicting
autobiographical memory performance.
Step 1: R2 ".221 (pB.001), Step 2: DR2 ".012 (p ".06), Step 3:
DR2 ".019 (p B.01), Step 4: DR2 ".002 (p ".25), Step 5:
DR2 ".007 (pB.05).
TABLE 4
Hierarchical regression analysis: Length of sleep
Constant
Retention Interval
Importance
Emotionality
Pleasantness
Frequency
Age Group
Level of Education
Gender
Sleep Length
Sleep Length * Retention Interval
Beta
#.471
.097
.010
.046
.009
#.114
.011
.087
.046
.008
6.37
#12.74
2.25
0.23
1.18
0.23
#3.03
0.30
2.31
1.25
0.22
.000
.000
.025
.820
.237
.819
.003
.763
.021
.213
.827
Including the length of sleep and the interaction between

the length of sleep and retention interval, predicting
autobiographical memory performance.
Step 1: R2 ".226 (p B.001), Step 2: DR2 ".013 (p ".051), Step
3: DR2 ".023 (p B.01), Step 4: DR2 ".002 (p ".21), Step 5:
DR2 ".000 (p ".83).
memory recall (p ".21) and the interaction effect

between the retention interval and the length of
sleep was also not significant (p ".83) (see Tables
3 and 4).
DISCUSSION
This study set out to examine the effect of sleep
quality and sleep length on the retention of
memories of ones own life. Based on the large
body of literature demonstrating the important
role of sleep in the consolidation of long-term
memory, we expected a significant, possibly large,
difference between the retention of autobiographical memories of poor and good sleepers and
between short and normal sleepers. Testing over
600 participants and successfully replicating our
earlier diary study (Kristo et al., 2009), we found
evidence that poor sleep quality is associated with
worse autobiographical memory performance at
longer retention intervals (30!46 days) but not at
shorter retention intervals (2!15 days). However,
the effect of sleep quality in the analyses was
rather small, especially given the size of our
sample. Also, sleep length did not affect the recall
of autobiographical events in our study.
Our results suggest a better memory performance for participants who slept well than for
participants who slept poorly. Compared to poor
sleepers, participants who slept well have been
previously shown to have a better short-term
memory (Kong, Li, & Liu, 2011; Machi et al.,
2012). Taken together, these studies suggest a

beneficial influence of good quality of sleep on
memory and on cognition in general (Nebes,
Buysse, Halligan, Houck, & Monk, 2009). Sleep
quality was associated with poorer autobiographical memory performance only after 4 to 6 weeks
from the recorded event. A possible explanation
for this might be that poor sleep quality interferes
with the long-term consolidation process.
Although its precise time-course in humans is
unknown, evidence from patients with semantic
dementia suggests that this process may take
about 6 weeks for autobiographical memories
(Murre et al., 2001).
There was no effect of sleep length on the
recall of autobiographical memories in our analyses. To our knowledge this is the first study that
investigates the effects of sleep length and longterm memory with retention intervals that
spanned several days to several weeks. Our
results are consistent with a previous study that
tested delayed recall of short stories (recalled in
less than 1 hour) and that also reported no effects
of habitual sleep length (Nebes et al., 2009).
Changes in sleep length also had no effect on
short-term memory (immediate free recall of 20
words) in a recent longitudinal study (Ferrie et al.,
2011). Our results therefore add to other evidence
that habitual sleep length may not affect declarative memory very much. Others have found that
sleep length does affect procedural memory in
surgical skills (Lehmann et al., 2010), although
severely limiting the numbers of hours of sleep
per night (partial sleep restriction) has been
shown to negatively affect cognitive performance
(Belenky et al., 2003; Dinges et al., 1997; McCrae,
Vatthauer, Dzierzewski, & Marsiske, 2012; Van
Dongen, Maislin, Mullington, & Dinges, 2003).
Some authors have criticised this research, however, and argued that more research with partial
sleep restriction is needed, using a larger range of
cognitive measures (Alhola & Polo-Kantola,
2007; Whitney & Hinson, 2010).
Although we recruited a large sample, we found
no effect of sleep length in our analyses. This
contrasts with two other studies that did report
effects of habitual sleep length on episodic memory: they found small effects with very large
numbers of 5000 (Kronholm et al., 2009) or even
28,000 (Xu et al., 2011) participants. Studies with
smaller numbers have reported null effects as well.
For example, the study by Nebes et al. (2009)
included 157 participants and found no significant
results. If there is an effect of habitual sleep length,
it is probably small and requires large numbers of

participants to uncover it. It should be pointed out,
however, that these studies cannot be compared
directly with our study, because they studied the
effect of sleep on episodic memory in a test that
measured free recall after 5 minutes or 1 hour.
Although recall after 5 minutes can already be
considered a form of (long-term) episodic memory,
the autobiographical memories examined in the
present study were measured after several days or
weeks and included at least two nights in which
memory consolidation might have taken place.
Hence both the nature and the time-course of the
types of memories in the present study differ from
previous experiments.
A reason for the absence of a sleep-length
effect may be that partial chronic sleep restriction
has been found to reduce mainly REM sleep
while having virtually no effect on slow-wave
sleep (Van Dongen et al., 2003; see also below).
Yet it is slow-wave sleep that has typically been
found to have the greatest effects on the consolidation of episodic memory (Born et al., 2006;
Rasch et al., 2007). Diary entries represent a form
of episodic memory (Conway, 2001) and we might
thus expect these to remain relatively unaffected
by any partial sleep restriction. If this is the case
we would predict that, when sleep is restricted to
less than 4 hours per night (i.e., to the extent that
the slow-wave length is starting to be affected),
there will be negative effects on the retention of
autobiographical memories. It seems that, for
practical and ethical reasons, the time-course of
such severe sleep deprivation experiments should
be kept short, but it would be feasible to conduct
such an experiment, given enough recorded details of the autobiographical memories, so measurement of short-term forgetting is possible.
Another reason why we did not find an effect
may be that there are large variations in how
much sleep individuals need (Ferrara & De
Gennaro, 2001) and in how much of the habitual
variation in sleep length observed in the population is due to partial sleep restriction. Some
reports suggest that modern society suffer from
large-scale, self-imposed, partial sleep restrictions
(e.g., Curcio, Ferrara, & De Gennaro, 2006),
whereas other studies indicate only minor sleep
restrictions (Kronholm et al., 2008). Our data
suggest minor differences in sleep length for
participants of different ages (see Figure 4). It is
possible that habitual partial sleep restriction is
indeed mild or relatively rare, and that idiosyncratic sleep variations over a large range of sleep
10
lengths achieve a similar degree of consolidation

of autobiographical memories.
By directly affecting the quality of sleep, the
length of sleep may indirectly influence long-term
memory. Sleep length and sleep quality were
found to be related in our study. Participants
reported to sleep less than 7 or more than 8.5
hours experienced sleep problems. This inverted
U-shaped pattern has been recently shown to be
correlated with long-term memory task performance (Kronholm et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2011).
Participants in this study who slept poorly did not
always sleep too short, but often they slept too
long. Although the length of sleep is one of the
requirements of good sleep, it is not necessarily
the cause of poor sleep.
We succeeded in replicating the results of our
previous diary study (Kristo et al., 2009; Rubin &
Kozin, 1984). Retention interval had the strongest
influence on the autobiographical memory performance, and pleasant events were remembered
better than unpleasant events (Linton, 1975;
Wagenaar, 1986; W. R. Walker, Skowronski, &
Thompson, 2003; White, 1989). In addition, both
age and gender influenced the recall of autobiographical memories. Younger and female participants performed better than older and male
participants.
Research via the Internet is less well controlled
than in the laboratory, and in this case it is possible
that some participants recorded their personal
events on a piece of paper. It is unlikely, however,
that this would influence the present results. In line
with previous findings (Kristo et al., 2009), in the
present study only 36 participants obtained the
maximum score, and the majority of them were in
the 2-days or the 7-days condition (72.2%). Since
participants were randomly assigned to the different retention intervals, any influence of recording
events would have been divided over the conditions. Additionally, the pattern of results obtained
here is similar to that in studies that were conducted in a more controlled laboratory setting,
suggesting that conducting the experiment via the
Internet did not yield different results.
Despite the often convincing results from sleep
deprivation and daytime napping studies on the
effects of sleep on memory retention, the present
study suggests that even when participants report
sleeping just 6 or even fewer hours per night, this
is not necessarily associated with accelerated
forgetting of the memories of their lives.
Although there are many health-related reasons
for sleeping sufficiently long, the consolidation of
autobiographical memory does not seem to be

one of them. With participants who reported
deteriorated quality of sleep, however, we found
impaired retention of autobiographical memories
after 4 to 6 weeks, but the difference between
participants who reported good and poor sleep
was small. It is, however, possible that such
decline would continue after 6 weeks and become
more severe after many months, but such long
periods were not included in the present study.
Manuscript received 27 July 2012
Manuscript accepted 30 May 2013
First published online 1 July 2013
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APPENDIX
TABLE A
Scores on the autobiographical memory test
Element
What
Who
Where
Content
Day of week
Time of day
Day of month
Month
Time
Important detail
Unimportant detail
Details
Total
Scorer 1
Scorer 2
Total Score
2
2
2
6
1
1
1
1
4
2
2
4
14
2
2
2
6
1
1
1
1
4
2
2
4
14
4
4
4
12
2
2
2
2
8
4
4
8
28
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