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3. COMPONENTS OF BUILDING

INTRODUCTION TO TYPES OF LOADS ON BUILDINGS:

Dead Load
Live Load/Imposed Load
Wind Load
Horizontal Pressures Below Grade
Structural Member Forces
Uplift
Earthquake
Dead Load: The dead load in a building comprises the weight of roofs,

floors, beams, columns, walls, and partition walls etc. which form
permanent part of the building. It is to be found by working out
volume of each part and then multiplying with unit weight. Unit
weights of various materials are listed in part-I of IS: 875. Unit
weights of some of the common materials are presented in Table 1 .
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Live Load/Imposed Load: The loads which keep on changing from time to

time are called as imposed loads. Common examples of such loads in a

building are the weight of the persons, weights of movable partition,
dust loads and weight of furnitures. These loads were formerly known
as live loads. These loads are to be suitably assumed by the designer. It
is one of the major load in the design. The minimum values to be
assumed are given in IS 875 (part 2)1987. It depends upon the
intended use of the building. These values are presented for square
metre of floor area. The code gives the values of loads for the following
occupancy classification:
(i) Residential buildingsdwelling houses, hotels, hostels, boiler rooms
and plant rooms,
garages.
(ii) Educational buildings
(iii) Institutional buildings
(iv) Assembly buildings
(v) Business and office buildings
(vi) Mercantine buildings
(vii) Industrial buildings, and
(viii) Storage rooms.
In a particular building, imposed load may change from room to room.
For example in a
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hotel or a hostel building the loads specified are,

Wind Load: The force exerted by the horizontal component of wind is to

be considered in the design of buildings. It depends upon the velocity of

wind and shape and size of the building. Complete details of calculating
wind load on structures are given in IS-875 (Part 3) -1987.

Types of soils, rocks and foundation strata:

Rocks and soils - Rocks: Broken into regular and irregular sizes by joints Soils (particulate earth material):
Boulder (too large to be lifted by hands),
cobble (particle that can be lifted by a single hand),

gravel aggregates (course grained particle larger than 6.4mm) , sand

(frictional, size varies from 6.4 to 0.06mm), silts (frictional, low surfacearea to volume ratio, size varies from 0.06 mm to 0.002mm) and

clays (cohesive - fine grained - high surface-area to volume ratio, size

smaller than 0.002 mm)

Peat (soils not suitable for foundations)

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Porous(sandy)

Clays

CONCEPT OF BEARING CAPACITY

Definition
Bearing capacity of the soil means the load carrying capacity of the
subsoil. OR The power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive
settlement.
This value is determined using the formulae developed in soil
mechanics. It depends upon the cohesiveness, frictional properties and
unit weight of subsoil. It can be determined by directly by a test known
as plate load test. In this test a 300 300 mm 18 mm thick or 450
450 mm 18 mm thick steel plate is kept directly on the subsoil. A
short steel column is connected to it and at ground level a platform is
built. This platform is loaded with an increment of 5 kN at a time and
the settlement is observed through a level. This process of loading and
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observing settlement is continued till the subsoil yields and sudden

sinking is observed. Load settlement curve is plotted and load
corresponding to yielding is taken as ultimate bearing capacity of the
soil. This value is divided by a factor of safety of 2 to 3 depending upon
the reliability of the soil and the value thus obtained is known as safe
bearing capacity (SBC) of soil.
The following are a few important terminologies related to bearing
capacity of soil.
1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf): It is the maximum pressure that a
foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.
2 Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra
pressure (in addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation
soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

qn =

qf - q o
Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is
equal to D for level ground without surcharge where q f is the unit
weight of soil and D is the depth to foundation bottom from Ground
Level.
3 Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation
soil is subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.
qs

qn
qo
F

Here. F represents the factor of safety.

4 Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the
foundation soil is subjected to considering both shear failure and
settlement.
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OR
It is the maximum allowable net loading intensity which can be applied
to the soil taking into account the ultimate bearing capacity, the
amount and the kind of settlement expected and the ability of the given
structure to withstand the settlement expected. It is therefore,
dependent upon both the sub-soil and the type of building proposed to
be erected thereon. The allowable bearing pressure adopted in the
design of the foundation is lesser of the following two values:
a) The safe bearing capacity of the soil, or
b)

The maximum allowable bearing pressure that the soil can take
without exceeding the specified limits of the permissible
settlement.

Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are
some important ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table
9. Eccentricity in footing load
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10.

Inclination of footing load

11.

Inclination of ground

12.

Inclination of base of foundation

BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1 Plate Load Test

Fig: typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and
settlement characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation
level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in
size, 25 mm thick acts as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed
on plate on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.
5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading.
For smaller loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags
apply the load.
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6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the

ground. A hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge
readings are recorded after the settlement reduces to least count
of gauge (0.002 mm) & average settlement of 2 or more gauges is
recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted
on the horizontal scale and settlement () is plotted on the vertical
scale.
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one
indicates the local or punching shear failure.
10.

The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives

the ultimate bearing capacity of soil.

1. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect
is essential in such soils.
2. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load
and carry out testing for several days in the tough field
environment.
Bearing capacity of soil may be increased by:
1.

Increasing the depth of foundation, since the lower strata or

ground has natural compaction.

2. Putting granular materials like sand and gravel on the natural soil
and then compacting well.
3. By combining the soil in an enclosed area by driving sheet piles or
sand piles.
4. Draining out the area, if it is a marshy land.
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5. Attempts have been made to improve bearing capacity of soil by

chemical treatment also.

FOUNDATION
Definition :
{The low artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the
structure to the ground is called foundation.
OR
A foundation (also called a ground sill) is a structure that transfers loads to the
earth.}

It is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil.

Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the super structure
to the soil below such that the stresses in soil are within permissible
limits and it provides stability against sliding and overturning to the
super structure. It is a transition between the super structure and
foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical engineer is to ensure that
both foundation and soil below are safe against failure and do not
experience

excessive

settlement.

Footing

and

foundation

are

synonymous.

PURPOSE OF FOUNDATION:
It is often misunderstood that the foundation is provided to support the load of
the structure. It is in fact a device to transmit the load of the structure to the soil
below. Foundation is provided for the following four main purposes:

1) To distribute the weight of the structure over large area so as to avoid

over-loading of the soil beneath.
2) To load the sub-stratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.

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3) To provide a level surface for building operations.

4) To take the structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability,
preventing, overturning.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATION

Shallow Foundations :
Foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the ground
level are known as shallow foundations. Such foundations are mostly placed on the first hard
and firm strata available below the ground level.
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:
1.

Spread footing or open trench foundations

2.

Grillage foundations

3.

Raft foundations

4.

Stepped foundations

5.

Inverted arch foundation

In all these cases depth of footing is calculated using Rankines formula:

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Where, p = Safe bearing capacity of soil

w = Unit weight of soil,

f = Angle of repose of the soil

However a minimum depth of 0.9 m is provided in all cases.

1) Spread Footing Foundations :
Foundations constructed by increasing the area at the base of the structure by means of offsets,
are called spread footing foundations. In such foundations, spread is given under the base of a
wall or a column by providing offsets. This spread is known as footing and the foundation itself
is called spread footing.
Broadly speaking, all types of shallow foundations can be referred to as spread footing
foundations. However ,from design and construction point of view, they have been designated
separately.
The various types of spread footing foundations are ;
a) Wall footings:

This is a common and the simplest type of spread footing foundation; It consists of a number of
courses of bricks, the lowest being usually twice the thickness of wall above. In this type of
foundation, the base. Width of the wall is increased by providing 5cm (one-fourth of brick
length) offsets on either side of the wall. The depth of each course is usually 10 cm
In some cases, however, the bottom course is made 20cm deep. In the case of footing for store
walls, the size of offset is slightly more than that of the brick wall footing.
Suitability:
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This is the cheapest type of spread footing foundations and is largely used for walls of ordinary
buildings.

b) Masonry Pillar Footing:

Isolated footings are used to support the individual pillars and columns constructed in
brick or stone masonry. They are stepped down in the wall footing after providing 15cm
offset of foundation concrete on all the sides.
C) Concrete Column Footing:
These are either stepped type, slate type or slope type, having projections in the concrete.
To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement
provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both directions. Concrete column
footings may be either isolated footings or combined footings. Isolated footings are used
to support the individual columns, whereas combined footings are used where
projections of different columns are not possible on all the sides, due to limited space.
The combined footings are generally rectangular in shape when both columns are of
same sections and trapezoidal in shape when the columns are of different sections.

2) Grillage Foundation :
The foundation which consists of one or two tiers of wooden or rolled steel section with space
filled up with concrete is known as Grillage foundation. This is so called because the bed
constructed in this type of foundation is called grillage. This type of construction avoids deep
excavation and provides the necessary area at the base of the structure to reduce the intensity of
pressure within the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
OBJECT :
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The object of this type of foundation is to spread the load over a large horizontal area at the base
of a structure.

TYPES :
Depending upon the material used in construction, grillage foundations are further classified
into two types.
1.

Steel Grillage Foundation

2.

Timber Grillage Foundation

SUITABILITY :
Steel grillage foundations are useful for structures like columns, piers, stanchions subjected to
heavy concentrated loads and hence are employed for foundations of the buildings such as
theaters, factories, town, halls etc. Timber grillage foundations re usually provided for timber
columns subjected to heavy concentrated loads.
This type of grillage foundation can also be safely used for light buildings where the soil
encountered is soft and is permanently water-logged.

3) RAFT FOUNDATION :
The foundation consisting of a thick R.C.C slab covering the whole area of a mat is known as raft
foundation.

SUITABILITY :
This type of foundation is useful for public buildings, office buildings, school buildings,
residential quarters etc, where the ground conditions are very poor and bearing power of the
soil is so low that individual spread footing cannot be provided.

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4) STEPPED FOUNDATION :
For constructing this type of foundation, excavation is done into steps having short length and
uniform thickness and the masonry work is done on the horizontal bed of concrete thus
prepared.
If there is any possibility of slipping of the structure bodily, R.C.C piles can be driven along its
base concrete on the sloping side.

5) INVERTED ARCH FOUNDATION :

The foundation consisting of inverted arches between the piers is known as inverted arch
foundation. In this type of foundation, the load from the piers is transferred to the soil by
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constructing arches in inverted position at their at their base. The rise of the inverted arches is
about one fifth to one tenth of the span and they are usually build in half-brick rings. The
position of arches may be either along the row of piers or across the row of piers in both the
directions depending upon the nature of soil and the type of land to be taken by them .
SUITABILITY :
This of foundation is not commonly used for buildings, but it is quite suitable for other
structures like bridges, reservoirs, tanks, supports for drainage lines etc.

DEEP FOUNDATION :
The foundation constructed sufficiently below ground level with some artificial arrangements
such as piles, wells etc, at their base are called deep foundations. Deep foundation are further
classified into the following types ;
1.

Pile foundation

2.

Well foundation

3.

Caisson foundation
1. PILE FOUNDATION :

These foundations are known as deep foundations. A pile is a slender column made of wood,
concrete or steel. A pile is either driven into the soil or formed in situ by excavating a hole
and then filling it with concrete. A group of piles are driven to the required depth and are
capped with R.C.C. slab, over which super structure is built. The pile transfer the load to soil
by friction or by direct bearing, in the latter case, piles being taken up to hard strata. This
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type of foundations is used when top soil is not capable of taking the load of the structure
even at 34 m depth.

A foundation ( spread footing or grillage ) supported on piles is called a pile foundation. A pile
foundation usually consists of a base of spread footing or grillage supported by piles at their
bottom. Piles distribute the load of structure to the soil in contact either by friction alone or by
friction combined with bearing at their ends.
SUITABILITY :
This type of foundation is suitable under the following situations ;
1.

When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable depth to keep the
bearing power within safe limits.

2.

When the grillage and raft foundation are very expansive.

3.

When the building is very high carrying heavy concentrated loads.

4.

When it is necessary to construct a building along the sea shore or river bed.

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Super Structures
(SUPER STRUCTURE TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION: LOAD BEARING, FRAMED AND
COMPOSITE.)
The portion above the ground level and below the ground floor level is known as plinth. The
portion above the ground floor level is known as super structure. It includes walls, columns,
beams, floors, roofs, doors, windows, lintels, staircases etc. In this chapter types of super
structures based on the method of load transfer is presented .

I) TYPES OF SUPER STRUCTURES BASED ON THE METHOD OF

LOAD

TRANSFER:
On this basis there are two types
1. Load Bearing Structures
2. Framed Structures.
Walls are important part of superstructure. They are commonly constructed with stones, bricks
or hollow concrete blocks. Walls enclose and divide the space in the building. In addition to it if
they are made to carry load from roof/floor apart from self weight it is called load bearing
construction.
If reinforced cement concrete or steel frame consisting of columns, beams, slabs are built
first and walls are built only to enclose the area, the load transfer is mainly by beams and
columns walls carry only self weight. These walls serve as filler material. Such structures are
called framed structures.
1. Load Bearing Structures:

In this type of structure the load on the structure is transferred vertically downward through
walls. Loads from roof and floors get transferred to wall and then wall has to transfer these
loads as well as self weight. Such constructions are used in residential buildings where
dimension of rooms is less. Residential buildings up to ground +2 floors can be built
economically with such structures.
2.Framed Structures:
Framed construction starts with foundations for columns. Columns are then raised. Beams and
floors are built simultaneously in case of R.C.C. Construction goes floor by floor. After skeleton
of second floors are ready construction of walls is taken up. Construction of multistorey
buildings are possible in this type of construction. Advantage of framed construction is interior
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alteration of rooms is possible by removing or by constructing additional walls. In factories steel

frame structures are also used. In these cases flooring is by R.C.C. and roofing is usually with
trusses supporting A.C. sheets.
Table 1.shows the comparison between R.C.C. framed structures and load bearning structures
Table 1. Comparison between load bearing and framed structures

Composite construction:
If facing and backing of walls are made using different materials it is called composite wall
construction. Facing material used is always good in appearance.
The following types of composite constructions are used:
1. Stone slabs facing with brick masonry backing.
2. Dressed stone facing and brick masonry backing.
3. Brick facing with rubble stone masonry.
4. Tile facing and brick backing.
5. Brick facing and concrete backing.
6. Stone facing and concrete backing.
In all these constructions proper bond between facing and backing should be achieved. For this
purpose GI or aluminum clamps may be used. In case of brick facing alternate courses of bricks
are projected inside backing. Rich plaster is used between facing and backing materials.
Figure shows stone slab facing with brick masonry backing.

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