classes of clauses

A. finite and non-finite clauses

- finite:
tense or modality
- non-finite:
- bare infinitive
- to-infinitive
- participial -ing form
- past participial form
B. independent and dependent clauses
C. finite dependent clauses
1. circumstantial clauses
- As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the television.
2. relative clauses
- Paul took one of the red apples that his wife had bought that morning.
3. nominal clause
- that-clause
- He saw that the bottles were empty.
- wh-nominal relative clause
- What I don't understand is why you have come here.
- dependent wh-interrogative clause
- I'll ask where the nearest Underground station is.
- dependent exclamative
- She said how comfortable it was.
4. comparative clause
- The results are much better than we expected.

Syntactic elements of clauses

Subject (S)
Predicator (P)
Direct Object (Od)
Indirect Object (Oi)
Prepositional Object (Op)
Subject Complement (Cs)
Object Complement (Co)
Locative/ Goal Complement
(Cloc)
Circumstantial Adjunct (A)
Stance Adjunct (A)
Connective Adjunct (A)

Jupiter is the largest planet.

The election campaign has ended.
Ted has bought a new motorbike.
They sent their friends postcards.
You must allow for price increases.
He is powerless to make any changes.
We consider the situation alarming.
We flew to Moscow.

SPCs
SP
SPOd
SPOiOd
SPOp
SPOs
SPOdCo
SP Cloc

The news reached us on Tuesday.

Unfortunately, we could not reach York
in time.
However, other friends were present.

SPOdA
ASPOdA

Syntactic elements of groups

Nominal groups/ adjectival groups/ adverbial groups
- head (h)
- pre-modifier (m)
- post-modifier (m)
- complement (c)
- determiners (d)
Verbal groups
- lexical verb (v)
- auxiliaries (x)
- finite operator (o)
- adverbial particle (p)
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
- prepositional head (h)
- complement (c)
- modifier (m) (degree)

ASPCs

The finite operator

- primary
eg. am, is, have, isn't (be & have)
- modal
eg. can, should, won't
- semi-modal
eg. dare, need
- 'do'
eg. do, did, don't
no-negation Vs not-negation + any
eg. Have you any money?
interrogative negative:
emphatic negative :

I haven't any money.

= I have no money.
Has nobody called this afternoon?
Hasn't anybody called this afternoon?
She's no friend of mine.
He's no actor.

a) negative and b)interrogative-negative:

- It will be difficult to find a nice present for Henry.
a. It won't be...
b. Won't it be...
- She has something to tell you.
a. She hasn't anything ...
a. She has nothing...
b. Hasn't she anything...
b. Has she nothing ...
- Someone has left a bag on a seat in the park.
a. No-one has ...
b. Has no-one...
b. Hasn't anyone ...
- He knows someone who lives in Glasgow.
a. He doesn't know anyone ...
a. He knows no-one ...
b. Doesn't he know anyone ...
b. Does he know no-one ....
- It is worth going to see some of those pictures.
a. It isn't worth going to see any ...
b. Isn't it worth going to see any ...

expanding linguistic units

- coordination
- morphemes in a word,
- heads of nominal groups:
- modifier in a NG:
- modifier in an AdjG:
- adjuncts in a clause:
- independent clauses:
- dependent clauses:
- subordination
- modifier in a NG:
- Cs in a clause:
- adjuncts in a clause:
- dependent clauses:

pro- and anti- abortionists

books, papers, and magazines
a beautiful and astonishing sight
He says he is really and truly sorry for what happened.
You can put in the application now or in a month's time.
She got dressed quickly, had breakfast and went out to
work.
I will take a holiday when the course is over and if I
pass the exam and also provided I can afford it.
A very lovable, (if rather dirty), small boy.
He is quite brilliant (though totally unreliable).
We arrived (late (though not too late)) for the wedding.
*I'll let you borrow the CDs (as soon as I've finished)
[provided you bring them back [when I need them]].

*'when I need them' is dependent on 'provided you bring them back', these together is dependent on 'I'll...CDs', 'as
soon ...finished' is dependent on 'I'll...CDs'.

- embedding
- clause at S:
- clause at Od:
- clause at c in a PP:
- clause at m in NG:
- clause at A:
- group in group:

[That he left so abruptly] doesn't surprise me.

I don't know [why he left so abruptly].
I'm pleased about [Jane winning a prize].
Thanks for the card [you sent me].
[After they had signed the contract] they went off to
celebrate.
[[[Tom's] sister's] husband's] mother
the box [on top of the cupboard [in my bedroom]]

The Adjunct
- Circumstantial Adjuncts: place, time, manner, others
eg. The new linear 'Queen Elizabeth II' sails tomorrow from Southampton.
- Stance Adjuncts:
speaker's attitude, evaluation
eg. Obviously, he'll rely on you even more now.
- Connective Adjuncts:
link two (parts) clauses
eg. The hotel was rather noisy. On the other hand, it wasn't expensive.
Subject
- Nominal Groups
- Dummy it
eg. It's raining.
-Unstressed there
eg. There were only two fine days last week, weren't there?
- Prepositional phrase and Adverbial group
eg. Will up in the front suit you?
Before midday would be convenient.
By plane costs more than by train.
Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic.
Slowly does it!

(PP of place)
(PP of time)
(PP of means)
(AdvG of place)
(AdvG of manner)

- Adjectival head
eg. The handicapped are given special facilities in public places.
- Embedded clauses
- finite clause: that-clauses and wh-clauses
eg. That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause)
Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-interrogative)
x
Why was the library .....
What he said shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause)
= 'that which'/ the things which he said shocked me.
- non-finite clause: to-infinitive and -ing clauses
eg. To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)
Where to leave the dog is the problem(wh- + to-inf. clause)
Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance.
(-ing clause)
Move the car was what we did.
(bare infinitive clause)

A to-inf. clause with its own subject is introduced by for:

For everyone to escape was impossible.
(For + S + to-inf.)
Sam having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance.
(S + ing-cl.)
The pronominal subject of an -ing cl. can be in the possessive or the objective case.
Him/his having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance.

- Anticipatory it + extraposed subject

It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test.
It was impossible for everyone to escape.
+
that-cl. or to-inf. cl. is extraposed - place after Od (everybody) or Cs (impossible)
It's easy to forget your keys. (To forget your keys is easy)
It's a pity (that) you are leaving the firm. (That you are leaving the firm is a pity)
It is time he stopped fooling around. (xThat he stopped fooling around is high time.)
+
it + verbs
It seems that you were right after all. (xThat you were right after all seems.)
It so happened that the driver lost control. (xThat the driver lost control happened.)
Direct Object
- Nominal Group
- anticipatory it
SPOdCo:

eg. I don't understand it.

(Od)

Co

Od

I
You

find
must find

it
it

strange
flattering

that he refuses to come.

having so many fans.

- Prepositional Phrase (of time or place)

I would prefer before noon for a meeting.
Don't choose by a swamp for a picnic.
- Finite clause (that-cl. and wh-cl.)
They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-cl.)
= It is feared that there may be no survivors. (extraposed cl. (passive))
No-one knows where he lives.
(wh-cl.)
= It is not known where he lives. (extraposed cl. (passive))
You can eat whatever you like.
(wh-nominal clause)
I wonder whether they know the truth.
= What I wonder is whether they know the truth.

Whether they know the truth is wondered. (wonder - reject passivisation)

- Non-finite clause
Many Londoners prefer to travel by train.
Many Londoners prefer (the train/ travelling by train).
= What many Londoners prefer is to travel/ travelling by train.
He hates people telling lies.
He hates for people to tell lies.
= What he hates is people telling lies/ for people to tell lies.
x

Indirect Object
- semantic roles:

1. Recipient (the one who receives the goods or information)

2. Beneficiary (intended recipient)

Recipient Oi

Beneficiary Oi

She has lent me a few CDs.

I'll buy you a drink.

The doctor gave the injured man oxygen.

He got us the tickets.

Sammy Karanja is teaching the students mahts.

She left him a note.

- Oi functions as a Prepositional Object:

The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man.
She lent a few CDs to her next-door neighbor.
He is teaching maths to the first-year students.

recipient: to
beneficiary: for
I'll buy drinks for you all.
He got the tickets for us all.
She left a note for her husband.

- realizations (NG/ wh-nominal relative cl.)

You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (Recip./ nom.relative cl.)
- recipient Oi can be realised by a non-finite -ing clause or a PP
I'm giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl)
Let's give before lunch-time priority. (PP)
- Prepositional verbs and the prepositional object(Op)