Introduction to hydraulics

Overview
Introduction
Pressure
Viscosity
Visualising fluid flow
Real and ideal fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layers
Flow classification

Re-cap
2

Introduction
definition of a fluid
Distinction between solid and fluid?
solid
- can resist an applied shear (may deform)
- deformation disappears once force removed
(assuming elastic limit not reached)
fluid
- deforms continuously under applied shear
- deformation permanent

Introduction
definition of a fluid
A fluid is a substance in gaseous or liquid form
Gas
expands until it encounters container walls
cannot form free surface
readily compressible

Liquid
takes shape of container
forms a free surface in
the presence of gravity

gas

liquid

difficult to compress
4

Introduction
definition of a fluid
We are not really interested in gases in this
module
When we talk about fluids, you can take it to
mean that we are talking about liquids
For the vast majority of civil engineering
problems, the liquid we deal with is water
Note that velocity is represented by the symbols
u, U, v, V
lower case usually indicates local velocity
upper case usually indicates mean velocity
5

Introduction
common properties
Mass
amount of matter in a body (kg)
Weight
force of gravity on a mass (kgm/s2 or N)
Density
ratio of mass to volume (kg/m3)
Specific weight
ratio of weight to volume (kg/m2s2 or N/m3)

Relative density
ratio of fluid density to density of water
6

Pressure
definition
Pressure is defined as force per unit area
what is the pressure exerted by a square box
of dimensions 0.5m2 and mass 100kg?

F
A

9.81 100
0.5

1962N/m2

remember that: force = mass x acceleration

- on earth, acceleration is due to gravity which
is 9.81m/s2

Pressure
hydrostatic pressure
Pressure in a stationary fluid (hydrostatic
pressure) equal in any direction at a given depth
Hydrostatic pressure acts perpendicular to any
surface and is equal in all directions
otherwise shear forces would exist
water would move
Hydrostatic pressure varies linearly with depth
h

gh
8

Pressure
force on a plane horizontal surface
The force acting on a plane horizontal surface
due to hydrostatic pressure is:
F
P
F PA
ghA
A
i.e. pressure multiplied by
area pressure acts upon

This force acts at the

centre of pressure
on a horizontal surface,
this coincides with the centroid
of the surface

Pressure
force on a plane vertical surface
The force acting on a plane vertical surface due
to hydrostatic pressure is:
F

Pmean A

h1 h2
g
A
2

i.e. mean pressure multiplied

by area over which
pressure acts
on a vertical surface, the
mean pressure equates to
the pressure at centroid of
the surface

h1

h2

10

Pressure
force on a plane vertical surface
The force again acts at the centre of pressure
but on a vertical surface this does not coincide
with the centroid of the surface

centre of pressure
is the centroid of the
pressure intensity
diagram
Text books give centroid
data for commonly
occurring geometries
11

Pressure
force on a plane surface: centroids

hc

D
hc

D
2

D
2

hc

D
3

hc

4R
3

12

Pressure
force on a plane surface general orientation
Generally, the hydrostatic force on a plane
surface of any orientation is given by:
pressure at centroid

area of surface

Force acts at centre of

pressure (centroid of
pressure intensity diagram)
Centre of pressure
always below
centroid of surface

13

Pressure
units
Variety of different units:
atmospheric pressure:
1.013 bar
101.3 kN/m2
101.3 kPa
0.76 mHg
10.2

mH2O

14

Pressure
example 1
The lock below is installed in a section of canal. If
the lock gate is 3m wide, determine:
a. hydrostatic force on each side of gate

b. where forces act

c. magnitude and point of action of resultant
hydrostatic force on gate

3.5m
2.0m

15

Pressure
solution 1
a. hydrostatic force given by:

ghc A
F1 1000 9.81
F2

1000 9.81

3 .5
3 .5 3
2
2 .0
2 .0 3
2

180kN
59kN

3.5m
F1

F2

2.0m

16

Pressure
solution 1
b. as both pressure intensity diagrams are
triangular:
3 .5
y1
1.17m
3
2 .0
y2
0.67m
3

180kN

y1

y2

59kN
17

Pressure
solution 1
c. magnitude of resultant force given by:

Fr

F1 F2

180 59 121kN

taking moments about O gives

MO
yr

121 y r

180 1.17

5 0.67

1.41m

Fr
yr 180kN
1.17m

59kN
0.67m
O
18

Viscosity
definition
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a
fluid which is being deformed by either shear
stress or tensile stress
Viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction"

Water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while

honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity
The less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease
of movement (fluidity)
19

Viscosity
definition
A property that represents the internal resistance
of a fluid to motion

viscosity

deformation under stress

Arises due to the variations in velocity between

different layers of a fluid
these variations generate shear stresses
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the
flow direction is called the drag force
magnitude of drag force depends partly on
viscosity
20

Viscosity
definition
Consider a fluid between two horizontal plates
If lower plate is fixed and upper plate can move
horizontally
shear stress acting on the fluid in contact with
upper plate is the force divided by the area

F
A

21

Viscosity
definition
The fluid in contact with the upper plate will
travel at the same velocity as the plate
The fluid in contact with the stationary lower
plate will be stationary
the fluid will deform (abcd
Also means that
there is a variation
in fluid velocity
with depth

d*

abc*d*)
F

c*

22

Viscosity
definition
The force (F) required to move the upper plate is
related to the plate area (A), plate velocity (V)
and distance between plates (d) thus:

VA
d

This implies that:

V
d

d*

c*

F
d

23

Viscosity
definition
We could rewrite this expression by introducing
a coefficient of viscosity ( ) to represent this
proportional relationship:
F

VA
d

VA
d

F
A

V
d

Recalling that:
F
A
F
A

V
d

V
d
24

Viscosity
definition
Taking an infinitely thin filament of fluid at height
y above the lower plate
u du u du
velocity gradient across filament
y dy y dy
du V
dy d
V
d d* F
c c*
V
As :
d
u + du
du
dy
d
u
dy
y
25

Viscosity
definition
If we draw a graph of against du/dy, the
gradient of the line is the coefficient of viscosity
Newtonian fluid
varies with temperature
constant with deformation
straight line

polymers,
toothpaste,
mayo

water, air

Non-Newtonian fluid
varies with temperature
and deformation
curved line

du
dy
26

Viscosity
definition

is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity

called coefficient of absolute viscosity
units of Ns/m2 or kg/ms (1N = 1kgm/s2)

Another measure is coefficient of kinematic

viscosity ( ), defined as:

units of m2/s (kg/ms

kg/m3)

27

Viscosity
typical values
Put these fluids in order of increasing viscosity
peanut
butter

blood
air

fresh
water

motor oil

28

Viscosity
typical values

Fluid
air

(kg/ms)
0.0000017

fresh water

0.001

blood

0.01

motor oil

0.05-2.0

peanut butter

150-250

Note: 1kg/ms = 1Pas = 1Ns/m2 = 10poise

29

Viscosity
example 2
Determine the force needed to maintain a
relative velocity of 2m/s between two plates
1.2m2 separated by a 1.5mm thick film of
lubricant with a dynamic viscosity of
1.55x10-3kg/ms

30

Viscosity
example 2

V
d
F

1 .2

F
A

V
d

V
F A
d
2
3
1.55 10
0.0015

2.48N

31

Viscosity
example 3
A 26mm wide vertical gap between two plates is
filled with a liquid of viscosity 1.49kg/ms.
A 2mm thick plate (0.75mx1.2m) is pulled
vertically through the gap at a speed of 0.15m/s.
Determine the force required to overcome the
viscous resistance provided the plate is in the
centre of the gap.

2mm
26mm
32

Viscosity
solution 3
We can isolate each side of the system and
treat separately:
V
F
V
V
F A
d
A
d
d
0.15
F 0.75 1.2 1.49
16.75N
0.012
The total force required is
thus 33.5N (i.e. 2 16.75N)

12mm

2mm

12mm

33

Viscosity
example 4
A cylinder 100mm diameter and 750mm long is
contained within a vertical tube 103mm
internal diameter.
The space between the cylinder and the tube is
filled with a lubricant with a kinematic viscosity
of 4.5 x 10-4m2/s and relative density of 0.92.
If the cylinder has a mass of 3.06kg, determine
its terminal velocity when it slides down the
tube ignoring all forces except gravity and
viscous friction.
34

Viscosity
solution 4
To determine the terminal velocity under the
action of gravity:

F
d
A

V
d
ma

F
V
Fd
V
A
d
A
3.06 9.81 30N
Dtube

Dcylinder
film thickness
2
wetted surface area
DL
0.92 1000
V

30 1.5 10 3
0.236 0.414

4.5 10

0.103 0.100
1.5 10 3 m
2
0.1 0.75 0.236m2
0.141kg/ms

0.461m/s

35

Recap
Fluids: we are concerned with water
Pressure
hydrostatic force on plane surface is
pressure at centroid

area of surface

force acts at centroid of pressure intensity

diagram
Viscosity
represents internal resistance of a fluid to motion

kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity used

to represent the viscosity of a fluid
36

Today
Visualising fluid flow
Real and ideal fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layers
Flow classification
Re-cap

37

Visualising fluid flow

Two important concepts
pathlines
- represent the paths followed by individual
fluid particles
streamlines
- represent the paths that fluid particles starting
from the same point will travel
- area bounded by number of
streamlines called a
streamtube
(no flow across boundary)
38

Visualising fluid flow

A streamline is one that drawn is tangential to the
velocity vector at every point in the flow at a given
instant and forms a powerful tool in understanding
flows.

39

Visualising fluid flow

Laminar flow
pathlines (

streamlines (

streamlines only truly valid

for laminar flows
Turbulent flow

laminar

pathlines X streamlines
meaningless to draw
pathlines for all particles
streamlines used to represent
general flow patterns

turbulent
40

Visualising fluid flow

Streamlines
cannot cross (cannot have 2 velocity vectors)
one at free surface and solid boundary
parallel

constant v, constant p

converging

v,

p (static to kinetic energy)

diverging

v,

p (kinetic to static energy)

e.g. flow through a

bridge

41

Real and ideal fluids

Ideal fluids
inviscid
incompressible
no surface tension effects
Real fluids

viscous
compressible
surface tension effects

Ideal fluids do not actually exist, but are

sometime used to simplify complex problems
42

Laminar and turbulent flow

At low velocities, in straight smooth pipes, flow
can be:
highly ordered

have smooth streamlines

As flow velocities increase, the effect of small
disturbances (pipe wall roughness, vibration, etc)
can lead to less uniform flow
Reynolds (1884) injected dye into a flow of water
and observed 3 different flow paths at different
velocities
43

Laminar and turbulent flow

Reynolds experiment
Laminar (low vel.)

smooth dye flow

Transitional (medium vel.)
wavy dye flow

Turbulent (high vel.)

random dye flow
dye mixes with water
44

Laminar and turbulent flow

flow classification
Laminar flow
fluid flows in discrete layers
no mixing
Transitional
bursts of turbulence over laminar flow

Turbulent
random fluid motion (velocity and direction)
Most flows we are concerned with are turbulent

45

Laminar and turbulent flow

Reynolds number
Onset of turbulence found to be related to:
velocity
viscosity
some representative dimension (l)
Leads to expression for Reynolds Number
Vl Vl
Re
In a pipe, representative dimension is ??
VD
Re
diameter (D)
46

Laminar and turbulent flow

Reynolds number
Reynolds number represents ratio of:
inertia force to viscous force
get going forces to stopping forces
Reynolds number used to compare flow types
For typical pipeline:

laminar flow:

Re < 2000

transitional flow:

2000 < Re < 4000

turbulent flow:

Re > 4000

47

Laminar and turbulent flow

Reynolds number
Reynolds number is dimensionless

kg
m
m
3
DV
m
s
Re
kg
ms
which all cancel

M
L
L
3
L
T
M
LT

48

Laminar and turbulent flow

turbulence models
Turbulence is a very complex phenomenon
Individual fluid particles vary in direction and
velocity randomly
impossible to accurately model (at fine scale)
with generally applicable numerical model
normally use empirical data

49

Boundary layers
Imagine a flat plate in a uniform flow (velocity U)
Friction between fluid and plate
velocity of 1st fluid layer (surface) is zero
Velocity of 2nd layer should be U except for the
shearing action between 1st & 2nd layer

velocity of 2nd layer

shearing action between 2nd and 3rd layer.

U
50

Boundary layers
This mechanism continues until shearing forces
become negligible
original uniform velocity (U)

Hence, velocity varies from zero (at fluid/plate

boundary) to U (some distance from plate)
Zone over which velocity variation occurs termed
Boundary Layer (BL)
u=U
u=U

u=U
u = 0.75U
u = 0.5 U
51

Boundary layers
As the fluid passes along plate, more of the flow
is affected by the shearing forces setup at the
fluid/plate boundary

BL thickness increases
Variation in layer thickness is not constant
3 regions occur

U
52

Boundary layers
laminar region
- fluid motion maintained by viscous shearing
action between layers

- smooth velocity distribution

mathematical function can describe
velocity distribution reasonable
accurately

laminar
53

Boundary layers
turbulent region
- eddies form due to faster moving flow
passing over slower moving laminar region

- eddies cause some particles to move

between fast moving flow and laminar region
momentum transfer maintains motion
(highly turbulent process)
turbulent

laminar
54

Boundary layers
transitional region
- balance between viscous shear and
momentum transfer changing

Laminar sub-layer (LSL)

there is always a very thin sublayer below the
turbulent region, as fluid velocity is always zero
at plate boundary
turbulent

transitional
laminar
laminar sublayer

55

Boundary layers
bounded flows
Most civil engineering flows are completely or
partially bounded
e.g. pipes, open channels

In pipe flow the wall BLs converge at some

distance downstream of the flow entry point
entry length is the distance to convergence
fully developed flow downstream of entry length
fully
developed
flow

U
entry length

56

Boundary layers
bounded flows
Entry lengths typically short
e.g. 50 100 diameters
normally safe to assume that civil engineering
flows are fully developed
As velocity varies in the BL
velocity varies across whole pipe diameter

57

Boundary layers
relative roughness
The effect of pipe roughness depends on the
physical roughness of the pipe walls relative to the
depth of the laminar sub-layer (LSL)

Smooth turbulent
roughness
protrusions lie
within LSL
fluid trapped
in-between
protrusions
smooth flow

Transitional
roughness
protrusions just
penetrate LSL
transitional
turbulent flow

Turbulent
roughness
protrusions fully
penetrate LSL
rough, turbulent
flow

58

Boundary layers
relative roughness
Hydraulically smooth pipe
exhibits smooth turbulent flow
Hydraulically rough pipe
exhibits rough turbulent flow
Hence concept of relative roughness
(pipe roughness relative to flow conditions)

Smooth turbulent

Transitional

Turbulent
59

Boundary layers
flow separation
BL concept can be used to explain formation of
turbulent wakes downstream of an object in a real
fluid flow

Imagine a circular object

in a fluid flow
The streamlines will converge
as they pass the object
flow acceleration
BL will also form

60

Boundary layers
flow separation
Velocity will vary within the BL
As the fluid passes the centreline of the object
streamlines re-converge (flow deceleration)
As BL velocity is lower than flow
forms wake

energy loss
pressure

high
pressure

low
pressure

61

Boundary layers
drag
Total drag (profile drag) on an object in a flowing
fluid consists of two components
pressure drag (form drag)
- due to pressure difference front-back

skin friction drag (viscous drag)

- due to object roughness
Contribution to total drag
depends on
object shape
object orientation

high skin friction

drag

high pressure
drag
62

Boundary layers
drag
Total drag determined using:
Cdr AV 2
Drag force
2
A = cross-sectional area of object presented to
flow

V = fluid velocity
= fluid density
Cdr = drag coefficient (empirically determined)
= f(shape, roughness, Re)

0.5 for sphere, 0.1 for streamlined body

63

Boundary layers
velocity distribution
Velocity distribution depends on type of flow
Based on empirical data
Laminar:

u
U

u
Turbulent:
U

=
=
=
A, B, n =
U
u

1
n

0.99U (velocity asymptotic to U)

velocity at depth y
BL thickness
coefficients
64

Flow classification
temporal and spatial
Temporal variation
steady flow:

conditions do not vary with

time

unsteady flow:

conditions do vary with time

Spatial variation
uniform flow:

conditions do not vary with

distance along channel

non-uniform flow: conditions do vary with

distance along channel
(gradual or rapid)
65

Flow classification
temporal and spatial
Steady, uniform flow
e.g. constant flow through pipe of constant
cross-section

Steady, non-uniform flow

e.g. constant flow through tapering pipe
Unsteady, uniform flow
e.g. instantaneous pressure surge in pipe of
constant diameter (impossible!)

Unsteady, non-uniform flow

e.g. flood wave in natural river channel
66

Flow classification
dimensions
Most flows are 3-D (+ 1!)
parameters can vary in three directions (x, y, z)
parameters can vary with time
Analysis of such flows is very complex, even with
todays computing power
Normally appropriate to consider flows in 1-D
i.e. consider variations in 1 physical dimension
(general direction of flow) and with time

velocity and pressure variations across section

are accounted for elsewhere
67

Recap
Fluid visualisation
pathlines represent the paths followed by
individual fluid particles

streamlines represent the paths that fluid

particles starting from the same point will travel
Ideal fluids
do not actually exist, but are sometimes used to
simplify complex problems

68

Recap
Flow classification
type (Reynolds number)
- laminar flow
- transitional
- turbulent
temporal/spatial
- steady or unsteady
- uniform or non-uniform

Boundary layers
lead to velocity variations and turbulence
69