Chapter 1

Temperature and the Kinetic

Theory of Gases

A
B B
A

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.1 The zeroth law of thermodynamics. (a) and ( b) If the temperatures of A and B are measured to be the same
by placing them in thermal contact with a thermometer (ob ject C) , no energy will be exch anged between
them when they are placed in thermal contact with each other (c) .
 30°C 30°C

20°C 20°C

(Charles D. Winters)

FIGURE 1.2 As a result of thermal expansion, the level of the mercury in the thermometer rises as the mercury is heated
by water in the test tube.
 Scale

0
Mercury
P
reservoir
Gas

A B
Bath or
environment
to be measured Flexible
hose
FIGURE 1.3 A constant-volume gas
thermometer measures the pressure of
the gas contained in the flask immersed
in the bath. The volume of gas in the flask
is kept constant by raising or lowering
reservoir B such that the mercury level in
column A remains constant.

T (°C)
0 100
FIGURE 1.4 A typical graph
of pressure versus temperature taken
with a constant-volume gas thermometer.
The two dots represent known reference
temperatures (the ice and steam points
of water).
 P Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

–273.15 –200 –100 0 100 200 T (°C)

FIGURE 1.5 Pressure versus temperature for

experimental trials in which gases have different
pressures in a constant-volume gas thermometer.
Note that the pressure extrapolates to zero at the
temperature of 273.15°C for all three trials.
Temperature (K)
109

108 Hydrogen bomb

107 Interior of the Sun

106 Solar corona

105

104
Surface of the Sun
103 Copper melts
Water freezes
102
Liquid nitrogen
10 Liquid hydrogen

1 Liquid helium

achieved
˜ 10 K
–9

F I G U R E 1.6 Absolute tempera-

tures at which various selected
physical processes occur. Note
that the scale is logarithmic.
 (a, Frank Siteman, Stock/Boston; b, George Semple)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.7 (a) Thermal expansion joints are used to separate sections of roadways on bridges. Without these joints, the
surfaces would buckle due to thermal expansion on very hot days or crack due to contraction on very cold days. (b) The long, vertical
joint in a wall is filled with a soft material that allows the wall to expand and contract as the temperature of the bricks changes.
FIGURE 1.8 A structural model of
the atomic configuration in a solid.
The atoms (spheres) are imagined to
be connected to one another by
springs that reflect the elastic nature
of the interatomic forces.

a
Ti

a + ∆a

TTi + ∆T

b + ∆b

Figure 1.9

Thermal expansion of a
homogeneous metal
washer. Note that as the
washer is heated, all
dimensions increase. (The
expansion is exaggerated
in this figure.)
 Steel

Brass

Room temperature Higher temperature

(a)

Bimetallic strip

On 25 C Off 30 C
(b)
FIGURE 1.10 (a) A bimetallic strip bends as
the temperature changes because the two metals
have different expansion coefficients. (b) A
bimetallic strip used in a thermostat to make or
break electrical contact.

Steel Brass

0.010 m 0.030 m
5.0 mm

FIGURE 1.11 (Example 1.2) Two bolts attached to

different parts of an electrical device are almost touching when
the temperature is 27°C. As the temperature increases, the
ends of the bolts move toward each other.
 ρ (g/cm3) ρ (g/cm3)

1.00 1.000 0
0.99 0.999 9
0.98 0.999 8
0.97 0.999 7
0.96 0.999 6
0.95 0.999 5

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Temperature ( C) Temperature ( C)

FIGURE 1.12 The variation of density with temperature for water at atmospheric pressure. The inset at the right shows
that the maximum density of water occurs at 4°C.
(© Peter Turnley/Corbis)

FIGURE 1.13 (Left) Lake Nyos, in Cameroon, after an explosive outpouring of carbon dioxide. (Right) The carbon
dioxide caused many deaths, both of humans and animals, such as the cattle shown here.
 Gas

Figure 1.14
An ideal gas confined to a
cylinder whose volume can be
varied with a movable piston.
 y

vi

d m0
vxi

z x
d d

FIGURE 1.15 A cubical

box with sides of length d
containing an ideal gas. The
molecule shown moves with
velocity :
vi.

vi vyi

vxi

vyi vi

vxi

Figure 1.16
A molecule makes an elastic
collision with the wall of the
container. Its x component of
momentum is reversed whereas
its y component remains
unchanged. In this construction,
we assume that the molecule
moves in the xy plane.
 Nv
vmp v

vrms

Nv

v
dv

Figure 1.17
The speed distribution of gas
molecules at some temperature.
The number of molecules having
speeds in the range v to v + dv is
equal to the area of the shaded
rectangle, Nv dv. The function Nv
200 appro aches zero as v approaches
Nv , number of molecules per unit

T = 300 K infinity.
speed interval (molecules/m/s)

160 Curves calculated for

N = 105 nitrogen molecules
vmp
120 vv
rms

80 Figure 1.18
T = 900 K
The speed distribution function for 10 5 nitrogen
40 molecules at 300 K and 900 K. The total area
under either curve is equal to the total number of
molecules, which in this case equals 10 5. Note that
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1 600
v rms > v > v mp.
v (m/s)
 Rock
Trapped air Ocean level
at high tide

Water
Ocean level
at low tide

(a) (b)
Figure Q1.10

(Courtesy of Central Scientific Company)

Figure Q1.11
 L

Figure P1.6
 Figure P1.18
Figure P1.8