Chapter 14

Superposition and Standing

Waves
(a)
y1 y2
Figure 14.1
( Left) Two pulses traveling on a
stretched string in opposite direction s
(b) pass through each other. When the
y1+ y2 pulses overlap, as in (b) and (c), the
net displacement of each element of
r, Newton, MA)
the string equals the sum of the
displacements produced by each pulse.
(Education Development Cente

Because each pulse produces positive

(c) displacements of the string, we refer to
y1+ y2
their superposition as constructive
interference. ( Right) Photograph of the
superposition of two equal and
(d) symmetric pulses traveling in opposite
y2 y1 (e ) directions on a stretched spring .

y2
(a)
y1

y2
(b)
Figure 14.2 y1
( Left) Two pulses traveling in
opposite directions with
r, Newton, MA)

displacements that are inverted

relative to each other. When the
(c)
(Education Development Cente

two overlap as in (c), their y 1 + y2

displacements subtract from each
other. ( Right) Photograph of the
superposition of two symmetric
pulses traveling in opposite y2
directions, where one is inverted (d)
y1
relative to the othe r. (e )
 y y1 and y2 are identical
y

x
φ = 0°

(a)
y1 y2
y y

φ = 180°
(b)
y y
y1
y2

φ = 60°
(c )

Figure 14.3

The superposition of two identical waves y1 and y2.

(a) When the two waves are in phase, the result is
constructive interference. (b) When the two waves
are rad out of phase, the result is destructive
interference. (c) When the phase angle has a value
other than 0 or rad, the resultant wave y falls
somewhere between the extremes shown in (a) and
(b).

r2

P R
Receiver
r1
.
Speaker

F I G U R E 14.4 An acoustical system for

demonstrating interference of sound waves.
Sound waves from the speaker propagate into
the tube and the energy splits into two parts at
point P. The waves from the two paths, which
combine at the opposite side, are detected at
the receiver R. The upper path length r 2 can
be varied by sliding the upper section.
 r1
1.15 m 0.350 m
P
8.00 m
3.00 m
O
r2 1.85 m

8.00 m

F I G U R E 14.5 (Example 14.1) Two speakers create a minimum in

the sound intensity at point P.

F I G U R E 14.6
Two speakers emit
sound waves toward each other.
Between the speakers, identical
waves traveling in opposite
directions combine to form
standing waves.
F I G U R E 14.7
Multiflash photograph
of a standing wave on a string. The
vertical displacement from

(© 1991 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs)

Antinode Antinode
equilibrium of an individual Node
element of the string is proportional
Node
to cos t. That is, each element
vibrates at an angular frequency .
The amplitude of the vertical
oscillation of any element on the
string depends on the horizontal
position of the element. Each 2A sin kx
element vibrates within the confines
of the envelope function 2A sin kx.
 y1 y1 y1
Figure 14.8

Standing wave patterns at various

y2 y2 y2 times produced by two waves of
equal amplitude traveling in
A A A A
opposite directions. For the
y y y resultant wave y, the nodes (N) are
N N N N N N N N N N
points of zero displacement and
A A A A the antinodes (A) are points of
(a) t = 0 (b) t = T/4 (c) t = T/2 maximum displacement.
 A A
L N N N
f2

n=2 L = λ2
Figure 14.9 (a) (c)

(a) A string of length L fixed at both A

A A A
ends. The normal modes of vibration
form a harmonic series. In each case, N N N N N N
the shape of the string is shown at f1 f3
several instants within one period:
(b) the fundamental frequency, or
first harmonic; (c) the second
L = –1 λ1
harmonic; and (d) the third
n=1 2 n=3 L = –3 λ3
(b) (d)
2
harmonic.
 L

λ1 = 2L
A N A v =—v First harmonic
f1 = —
λ1 2L

λ2 = L
A N A N A v = 2f Second harmonic
f2 = — 1
L

2
A N A N A NA
λ3 = — L
3 F I G U R E 14.10 Motion of elements
Third harmonic
3v
f3 = — = 3f1 of air in standing longitudinal
2L
waves in an air column, along with
(a) Open at both ends graphical representations of the
displacements of the elements.
(a) In an air column open at both
λ1 = 4L ends, the harmonic series created
A N v =—v First harmonic
f1 = — consists of all integer multiples of
λ1 4L
the fundamental frequency: f 1,
4
λ3 = — L 2f 1, 3f 1, . . . . (b) In an air column
A N A N 3 Third harmonic
3v = 3f
f3 = — closed at one end and open at the
1
4L
other, the harmonic series consists
4
λ5 = — L of only odd-integer multiples of
5 Fifth harmonic
A N A N A N
f5 = —5v = 5f the fundamental frequency: f 1,
1
4L
3f 1, 5f 1, . . . .
(b) Closed at one end, open at the other
 f=?
λ/4 3λ/4
5λ/4
L First
resonance

Second
resonance
Water (third
harmonic) Third
(a) resonance
(fifth
harmonic)
(b)

F I G U R E 14.11 (Example 14.5) (a) Apparatus for

demonstrating the resonance of sound waves in a tube
closed at one end. The length L of the air column is
varied by moving the tube vertically while it is partially
submerged in water. (b) The first three normal modes
of the system shown in (a).
 y

(a) t Figure 14.12

Beats are formed by the
combination of two waves of
y
slightly different frequencies.
(a) The blue and black curves
(b) t represent the individual waves.
(b) The combined wave has an
amplitude (broken line) that
oscillates in time.
(a) t

Tuning fork

(b) t

Flute

(c) t

Clarinet

F I G U R E 14.13
Waveforms of sound
produced by (a) a tuning fork, (b) a
flute, and (c) a clarinet, each at
approximately the same frequency.
 Tuning Clarinet
fork Flute
Relative intensity

Relative intensity

Relative intensity
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Harmonics Harmonics Harmonics
(a) (b) (c)

F I G U R E 14.14 Harmonics of the waveforms shown in Figure 14.13. Note the variations in intensity of the various
harmonics.

f
f + 3f

3f

(a)

f
f + 3f + 5f

5f

3f

(b)

f + 3f + 5f + 7f + 9f

Square wave
f + 3f + 5f + 7f + 9f + ...

(c)

Figure 14.15

Fourier synthesis of a square wave represented by the sum of odd multiples of the first harmonic, which has frequency f.
(a) Waves of frequency f and 3f are added. (b) One more odd frequency of 5f is added. (c) The synthesis curve approaches
the square wave when odd frequencies up to 9f are combined.
 y (cm)
2.00 cm/s

4 –2.00 cm/s

2 A
B
x (cm)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Figure P14.2
 L d

Figure P14.10

(x, y)

A
x

9.00 m
10.0 m

Figure P14.11
Vibrator L

P
µ

Figure P14.20
T is vibrating at its fundamental frequency. What
 θ
L

Figure P14.25
 f

Figure P14.34 Figure P14.44