Long Answer Questions

Sketch a stress-strain curve and describe the events that occur

when a specimen undergoes a tensile test.
2. Discuss the properties determined from the tensile test.
I.

Two Marks
Questions and Answers

Explain how the flexural strength of brittle materials determined

by using bend test.
Describe how the torsion test is conducted and what are the
properties determined from this test?

3.

5.
6.

Explain the testing procedure for Brinell hardness test and give
the advantages and limitations of this test.

Explain the method of testing the materials for fatigue and how
are the fatigue data presented.

Define an alloy.
An alloy is defined as a combination of two or more elements,
of which o n e of the element should be a metal in major
proportion. The other may be a metal or non-metal e.g. Brass
(Cu-Zn) and Steel (Fe-C).

Explain the testing procedure for Vickers hardness test and mention
the advantages and limitations.

7. Explain the testlng procedure for Rockwell hardness test and list
the advantages and limitations.
8. Describe the procedure of Charpy impact testing and the
properties obtained from it.
9.

1.

2.

What is a solid solution?

Solid solution is an alloy in which solute atoms are distributed in
the solvent matrix and has the same structure of solvent.

3.

10. Draw a typical creep curve and explain the various stages of
creep.

Differentiate substitutional and interstitial solid solution with

examples?
In a su6stitutiona1solid solution, the atoms ofthe solvent metal
are replaced in the crystal lattice by atoms o f t h e solute. E.g. In
A!-Cu,
the Cu atoms replace the Au atoms.
In an interstitial solid solution, the atoms ofthe solute fit into
the interstitial spaces ofthe solvent, e.g. Fe-C. The carbon atoms
fit into the interstitial spaces of iron.

4.

What are the effects of crystal structure and atomic radii on

formation of solid solution between two metallic elements?
If two metals are of same c y s t a l lattice, it is possible for
complete solid solubility to ocbur over the whole composition
range. If the atomic ratio of Solute and solvent differ by less
than IS%, conditions are favourable for the formation of solid
solution. Ifthe difference exceeds 1 S%, solid solution formation
is extremely limited.

TWO M A R K S Q u ~ s r c o ~
AND
s ANSWERS

What are intermediate phases or compounds?

5.

6.

Cooling

Intermediate phases o r chemical compounds are formed

-between two dissimilar elements having widely divergent
electrochemical properties. The crystal structure of a compound
is different from those of the parent metals.

Liquid + Solid l
I I.

Define the term phase.

12.

Solid 1 <

(temperature, pressure o r composition) that can be

changed independently without changing the number of
phases existing in the system.

13.

What is a binary isomorphous alloy systems?

Liquid

Coolin

14.
,:

Solid 1 +Solid 2

Cooling
tleat~ng

Solid 2 +Solid 3

Define a-ferrite.

Define austenite.
This is an interstitial solid solution o f carbon in FCC gamma
iron. The solid solubility of carbon in austenite i s a maximum of
2.08% at 1147C and decreases to 0.8% at 7 2 3 ' ~ . It is a soft,
ductile and malleable phase.

'

i.
i

15.
Solid 1 + Solid 2

COOll"

This is an interstitial solid solution ofcarbon in BCC alpha iron.

The maximum solubiliv of carbon in ferrite is 0.02% at 7 2 3 * ~ .
It is relatively a soft and ductile phase.

- Number of components in the system.

Eutectic reaction

Solid 3

In eutectoid transformation, the phases involved are solids, i.e.,

either solid solutions or intermediate phases.

F - Degree o f freedom, i.e, t h e number of variables

Write the equation for eutectic and peritectic reactions.

Cooling

Distinguish eutectic and eutectoid transformations.

Liquid

P - Number of phases existing in asystem under consideration.

10.

In eutectic transformation, the liquid is transformed into solid

solutions or intermediate phases.

P+F=C+2

An alloy system, which consists of two components that are

completely soluble both in the liquid and solid states, is called
binary isomorphous alloy system. In this system, only a single
type of crystal structure exists for all the compositions of
components and therefore it is called isomorphous system.

Solid 2 + solid 3

Heating

Hcstlng

Write the equation for Gibbs phase rule and define each of the
term.

Cooling

Solid 1 + Solid 2

Gibbs phase rule is given by

9.

' Solid 2

Peritectoid reaction

A phase diagram is a graphical representation of phases present

in a system at various temperature, pressure and composition.

Heating

Write the equation for eutectoid and peritectoid reactions.

Eutectoid reaction
Solid I

A phase is a chemically and structurally homogeneous portion

of the microstructure.

8.

417

Peritectic reaction

. .

Define cementite.
The intermetallic compound iron carbide is called cementite.
. is an
This compound has a fixed carbon content o f 6 . 6 7 % ~ It
extremely hard and brittle compound.

T W O M A R K S QUESTIONS

What feature in the iron-iron carbide diagram is used to

distinguish between steels and cast irons?

16.

The carbon content is used to distinguish between steels and

cast irons in iron-iron carbide diagram. The alloys containing
solid phases with less than 2% carbon are known as steels and
those containing more than 2% carbon are known ascast irons.

22.

23.

Steels containing less than 0.8%C are known as hypoeutectoid

steels and the phases present a r e ferritk and pearlite. Steels
-containing more than 0.8%C are known as hypereutectoid steels
and the phases present are cementite and pearlite.

24.

25.

20.

21.

26.

Mention few applications ofthe (a) Low carbon steel (b) Medium
carbpn steel (c) High carbon steel.
~6w"carbon&eel->hain, wires, ~ i l s sc;ews,
,
structural steels
like plates, rods. Medium carbon kteel>onnecting rods, shafts,
axles, gears, laminated springs. High carbon steel-screw
drivers, saws, chisels, files, reamers, wood working tools.

For eutectoid steel, what is the temperature range of pearlite

transformation from austenite?

What is Bainite and for eutectoid steel what temperature range it

is generally formed?

What is' martensite?

The transformation product of austenite at low temperatures is
known as martensite. It is a supersaturated solid solution of
iron and carbon, with body centered tetragonal structure.

Distinguish between hypoeutectic and hypereutectic cast irons.

Cast irons that contain less than4.3%C are termed as hypoeutectic
and those that contain more than 4.3%C are termed as
hypereutectic.

What are the important parameters which affect the heat

treatment process?

Bainite is a fine mixture of ferrite and cementite. It is the

transformation product of austenite at a temperature range
between 550C and 250C.

What is the euteiric in the iron-iron carbide system called and

'what is its carbon content?
The eutectic in the iron-iron carbidesystem is called as ledaburite,
a fine mixturepf austenite and cementite. Its carbon content is
4.3%.

Define heat treatment.

For eutectoid steel, the temperature range of pearlite transformation

from austenite is between 723OC and about 550C.

-I

19.

419

The parameters affecting the heat treatment process are heat

treatment temperature, holding time and the rate of heating and
cooling.

Distinguish between hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels.

18.

ANSWERS

Heat treatment is defined as a combination of operations involving

the heating of the metal or alloy in solid state and cooling it at a
suitable rate so as to obtain the desired properties.

17. 'What is the eitectoid in the iron-iron carbide system called?

What is its structure and carbon content?
The eutectoid in the iron-iron carbide system is called as pearlite.
It contains alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. Its carbon
content is 0.8%.

AND

27.

What is meant by M,and M, temperatures in T T T diagram?

M, and M, temperatures represent the temperatures at which
the martensite formation begins and ends respectively.

28.

Which type of transformation diagram (TTT or CCT) is more

important industrially and why?
TTT diagrams give informations on isothermal transformation
of austenite. But in industrial heat treatments, the steel is cooled
continuously rather than isothermally. Since CCT diagrams can
give informations on continuous cooling, they are more important
industrially.

29.

Define annealing.
Annealing is a heat treatment process and it involves heating the
steel to a predetermined temperature, holding at that temperature
for a period of time, and then cooling at a very slow rate(fumace
cooling).

30.

What is the purpose of spheroidising annealing? On what classes

of steei, it is normally used?

35.

The factors affecting the hardening process are (i) Hardening

temperature (ii) Holding time (iii) Quenching medium (iv) Cooling
rate (v) Size and shape of steel parts and (vi) Surface condition.
36.

Mention the applications of stress relief annealing.

37.

The residual stresses have been induced in steel duringdifferent

operations like solidification of castings, forming, machining,
welding and grinding. Steel is subjected to stress relief annealing
to eliminate or reduce the residual stresses.
32.

33.

Define normalising.
Normalising is a heat treatment process and it involves heating
the steel to about 40-50C above the upper critical temperature
(A, or Acm),holding at this temperature for a period of time, and
then cooled in still or slightly agitated air to room temperature.

38.

What is the purpose of normalising?

39.

Why is low carbon steel in the normalised condition stronger

than the same steel in the annealed condition?
T h e amount o f pearlite formed is more in the normalised
condition than in the annealed condition. Morever, the ferritecementite lamellae in pearlite is finer in the case of nomalised
steel. These makes the steel stronger in normalised condition.

Whether austempering and martempering are tempering process,

what is the purpose of these processes?
Austempering and martempering are hardening process. The
purpose of austempering is either to reduce the distortion and
cracking during conventional quenching or to improve ductility
and toughness while maintaining hardness.
Define hardenability.
~ a r d e n g b i l i t yis defined as the relative ability of steel to be
hardened by quenchingand it determines the depth and distribution
of hardness across the cross-section.

The purpose of normalising is to refine the grain structure, obtain

a homogeneous structure, decrease the residual stresses and to
improve machinability of steel.
34.

Why hardening of steel is always followed by tempering?

Hardening of steel enhances the properties such as hardness
and wear resistance. At the same time, it affects the properties
such as ductility and toughness. Hence in hardened conditions,
steel is very brittle. Moreover, high residual stresses are developed.
So tempering treatment is done after hardening to relieve residual
stresses, to improve ductility and toughness of the steel.

T h e purpose of spheroidising annealing is to improve the

machinability and ductility of high carbon steels and air hardening
alloy steels. In this process, the lamellar cementite structure is
converted into tiny spheroids.
3 1.

What are the factors affecting the hardening process?

Distinguish between hardness and hardenability,

Hardness is a mechanical property and for a quenched steel it is
maximum at the surface and varies across the cross-section.
Hardenability of a steel determines the depth and distribution of
hardness across the cross-section.

40.

Defi ne carburising.
Carburising is a case hardening process, in which the carbon is
diffused into the surface of steel to increase its hardness.

T w o M A R K S Q UESTIONS

1.

What are three methods of carburising commonly employed?

47.

42.

Solid or pack carburising

Liquid carburising
Gas carburising
substances are commonly used as solid carburisers?

48.

What is the carburising medium used in liquid carburising?

49.

Why is it necessary to harden and temper the components after

carburising?

50.

After carburising, excess cementite occurs as a network in the

case and induces brittleness. Moreover, a case containing 1%
or more carbon may be soft at the surface after quenching due
to retention of austenite. So to break thecementite network and
achieve higher hardness at the surface, it is necessary to harden
and temper the components after carburising.
5.

5.

What is carbonitriding process?

Carbonitriding is a case hardening process and involves the
diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into the steel surface.

What is the purpose of cyaniding process?

What is nitriding and what class o f steel is commonly nitrided?

m a t is the purpose of flame hardening process and what are

the parameters to be controlled to obtain a particular depth of
hardening?
Flame hardening is used t o harden the selective areas o f a
component. The depth of the hardening can be varied by varying
the following parameters
Distance bemeen the gas flame and the component surface
(i)
(ii) Gas pressures and ratios
(ii,i) Rate of travel of flame head or component
(iv) Type, volume and application of quench

Why is case carburising heat treatment not generally carried out

for medium carbon steels?
Case carburising involves diffusion of carbon into the surface
of the steel. The rate at w h ~ c hdiffusion occurs depends on the
concentration gradient between steel and carburising med~um.
If the steel has 0.2% carbon, the concentration gradient is enough
for diffusion. In the medium carbon steels, the concentration
gradient is not sufficient for diffusion to take place. So, case
carburising heat treatment is not generally carried out for medium
carbon steels.

What advantages does carbonitriding have over carburising?

Nitriding is a case hardening process, by diffusing nitrogen into

the surface of the steel. This process is commonly employed
for alloy steels containingaluminium, chromium, vanadium and
molybdenum.

The carburising medium, is a fused salt bath composed of sodium.

cyanide, sodium chloride and barium chloride.
14.

423

The purpose of cyaniding process is to case harden low carbon

steels (0.2%C) and this process involves the diffusion of both
carbon and nitrogen into the steel surface.

The solid carburising medium consists of mixture o f charcoal

with coke (80%) and barium carbonate (20%).
3

A N SWERS

The advantages of carbonitriding over carburising are lower

heat treating temperatures and a less drastic quench. The use of
a less drastic quench significantly reduces distortion.

The three methods of carburising commonly employed are

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
What

AN D

51.

In induction hardening, what is the parameter to be controlled

to obtain a particular depth of hardening?
In induction hardening, the depth of hardening is controlled by
the frequency of the supplied alternating current and is given by

52.

Specify the effect of manganese on the properties

Manganese dissolves in ferrite and hasaconsiderable strengthening

effect. It lowers the critical temperature and stabilises austenite.
It forms stable carbides and has a moderate effect on hardenability

T w o M ARK S QUESTIONS

53.

What is the effect ofadditions of chromium on the characteristics

of steel?

59.

What is the effect of the additions of molybaenum on the

characteristics of steel?
Molybdenum is a strong carbide former and forms complex
carbides. It inhibits graingrowth and has a strong effect on
hardenability.

55.

56.

57.

6 1.

Which type of stainless steels is hardenable by quenching? Give

some typical applications of this type of steels?
As martensitic stainless steels remain austenite at high temperature,
they are hardenable by quenching. They are used to make ball
bearings, valves, springs, surgical instruments and cutlery

62.

Is it possible to harden austenitic steels by heat treatment. Why?

It is not possible to harden austcnitic stccls by heat treatment as
austenitic stainless steels contain 8-20% nickel along with
chromium. Since nickcl is an austenite stabiliser and austenite is
the stable structure even at room temperature, there is no phase
transformation with temperature.

63.

What are tool steels?

'The steels used especially for the shaping of metals by cutting,
shearing, drawing, extruding, die-casting or rolling are called
tool steels.

What are stainless steels? Why are thesezsteek stainless?

Stainless steels are high alloy steels ~ontainingmore than 11.5%
cluomium. Chromium f o m s astmngly adherent chromium oxide
film on the ,surface of the steel. This film prevents corrosion
and gives a pIeasing appearance. S o these steels are called
stainless.

What type of stainless steels are referred to as ferritic stainless

steels? Why?
Stainless steels containing 11.5-27% chromium and low carbon,
remain ferrite at all temperatures below solidification because
chromium is a ferrite stabiliser. So they are referred to as ferritic
stainless steels.

For what purposes, tungsten is used in steel?

Tungsten has a high affinity for carbon and it forms extremely
hard, stable carbides,i~incethe carbides are s o hard, tungsten
is commonly used in tool steels. It is used in heat resisting steels
to increase the high temperature strength.

58.

60.

What is the primary advantage of usingvanadium as an alloying

element in steel?
Vawadium is an important grain refiner in steels. The primary
advantage of using vanadium is that it induces resistance to
softening at high temperature. It improves the fatigue and creep
resistance of steels.

Classify the stainless steels.

(i)
Ferritic stainless steels
(ii) Martensitic stainless steels
(iii) Austenitic stainless steels
(iv) Duplex stainless steels
(v) Precipitation Hardening(PH) stainless steels

How is silicon useful as an alloying element in steel?

Silicon increases the strength and hardness o f steel. It increases
the high temperature corrosion resistance, magnetic permeability
and decreases the hysteresis losses.

425

Stainless steels are classified into five types. They are

In t h e presence of sufficient carbon, chromium forms hard

carbides ar,d they increase the hardness and wear resistance of
steel. Additionof chromium increaseshardenability ofsteel. Higher
additionsof chromium increase the corrosion resistance of steel.
54.

A N D A N SWERS

64.

What are the general requirements of tool steels?

T h e general requirements of tool steels are high strength,
toughness, hardness and wear resistance at room and elevated
t'emperatures.

\!

"t"

T W O M A R K S QUE~TIONS A N D

72.
What are the advantages and limitations of water hardening tool
+steels?

65

73.

What elements are included in shock resisting tool steels?

What is meant by 'non-deforming' tool steels?

In cold work tool steels, the chemical composition and hardening

heat treatment are adjusted to minimise the distortion after heat
treatment. S o these steels are termed as non-deforming tool steels.
68.

74.

What are the three types of hot work tool steels?

75.

76.

Give the composition of 18-4-1 high speed steel.

77.

For what puaose, white cast iron is used?

What is grey cast iron and why is it called so?

In this cast iron, most o f t h e cagbon presentis in free form as
graphiteflakes. The fracturedsurface. appears: grey :because of
the presence of graphite flakes and hence i t is called grey cast
iron.

Define HSLA steels.

HSLA steels are defined as a group of steels with chem~cal
composition specially developed to impart higher mechanical
properties and in certain these steels have materially pester
resistance to atmospheric corrosion than is obtainable from
conventional carbon steels.

What is the dominant mechanical property of white cast iron?

White cast iron is used in mills for grinding balls, liners for
cement mixers, drawing dies and extrusion nozzles.

18-4-1 high s p e e d steel c o n t a i n s a b o u t 0.7%carbon,

18%tungsten, 4%chromium and l%vanadiurn.
7 1.

What is white cast iron and why is it called so?

White cast iron has high hardness and wear resistance. It is

extremely brittle and difficult to machine.

What are high speed steels and name the two types?
High speed steels are the steels used to make cutting tools,
employed in high cutting speeds. The two types are tungsten
base an4molybdenum base.

70.

Compare the martensite that is formed in maraging steels with

the martensite that is formed in carbon steels.

In white cast i r ~ nall

, the carbon is in combined form i.e., in the
form of cementite and there is no free carbon. The fractured
surface of this type of casting appears 'white' because of the
absence of free graphite and hence it is called white cast iron.

Depending upon the principal alloying element, hot work tool

steels are classified a ~ h r o m i u m
type, tungsten type and
molybdenum type.
69.

What are the various mechanisms used in HSLA steels to achieve

high strength levels?

The martensite formed in carbon steels has Body Centered

Tetragonal (BCT) structure and it is very hard and brittle. The
martensite i n m a r a g i n g steels is carbon free and has Body
Centered Cubic (BCC) structure. It is much softer and tougher
than ordinary martensite.

Shock resisting steels contain a low carbon content, ranging

from 0.5-0.6%. The principal alloying elementsare silicon,
chromium, molybdenum and tungsten.
67/'

427

The various mechanisms used in HSLA steels to achieve high

strength levels are grain refinement, precipitation of carbides,
solid solution strengthening of ferrite, inclusions shape control,
deoxidation and controlled rolling.
-

The advantages are their high hardness, good machinability and

low cost. These steels must be quenched in water to attain high
hardness and therefore considerable distortion of the tool may
occur. Moreover, they cannot withstand severe conditions.
66.

A N SWE R S

78.

How are the properties of grey cast iron varied?

By changing the composition and cooling rate the properties of
grey cast iron are varied.

428

E N G ~ N E E R IM
N AGT E R I A L S

AND

79; ,what are the effects of graphite flakes on grey cast iron?
The graphite flakes interrupt the continuity of matrix and they
act as voids in the structure. Because of this, the grey cast irons
are weak in tension. Moreover, the sharp edges of the flakes act
as notches and make the material brittle in nature.
80.

, Mention

T w o M ARKS

M ET ALLU RGY

86.

The graphite flakes in grey cast iron are formed during the
solidification of castings. But in malleable cast iron, the irregular
nodules of graphite are formed during the malleabilisation heat
treatment of white cast iron.
82.

83.

84.

What is gilding metal and what are some of its applications?

Gilding metal is an a-brass. It contains 95%Cu and 5%Zn. It is
used for makingwins, medals and jewellary base for gold plating.

85.

88.

What is cartridge brass and what are its applications?

It is a yellow a-brass. It contains 70%Cu and 30Ydn. It is used
to make cartridge cases, radiator cores and tanks, flash light
shells and lamp fixtures.

What is muntz metal and what are its applications?

How does naval brass differ from muntz metal?

Muntz metal contains 60%Cu and 40%Zn and naval brass
contains 60%Cu, 39%Zn and I%Sn. The tin addition irhproves
the resistance to salt water corrosion. So this alloy is suitable
for marine environments.

89. What is the purpose of adding lead to brass?

The addition of lead in brass improves the machinability of brass.

90.

Classify.bronzes.
Bronzes are classified as

Why nodular cast iron is called 'ductile' cast iron?

The spheroids in the nodular cast iron interrupt the matrix much
lesser than the flake graphite in grey cast iron. This improves
mechanical properties such as ductility and toughness. Due to
this, nodular cast iron is called as ductile cast iron.

429

The yellow brasses are susceptible to corrosion in marine

environments called dezincification. Aluminium is added to yellow
brasses for preventing dezincification. When the yellow brass
containing aluminium contacts with sea water, a film forms
over the surface of brass and it prevents dezincification.

How is nodular cast iron produced?

The nodular cast iron is produced by adding small amounts of
magnesium or cerium to the molten metal just before casting.

A N S W ER S

87. . What is the purpose of adding aluminium to yellow brasses?

some of the applications of grey cast iron.

Distinguish between the method of formation of graphite in grey

cast iron and malleable cast iron.

AND

It is an a-p brass. It contains 60%Cu and 40%Zn. It is used to

make condenser tubes, valve stems, brazing rods and architectural
work.

Grey cast irons are the most commonly used materials for
machine tool bases. They are used t o make pump housings,
engine frames, enclosures for electrical machinery, cylinders
and pistons of IC engines and fly wheels.
8 1.

QUEST IO N S

(i)
Tin bronzes
(ii) Aluminium bronzes
(iii) Silicon bronzes
(iv) Beryllium bronzes

9 1.

What benefits are derived by adding zinc and lead to tin bronze?
When adding zinc to tin bronze, it acts as a deoxidiser and
cheapens the alloy. The lead addition improves machinabiliw.

92.

What is the general composition of aluminium bronze? List its

properties.
Aluminium bronzes contain copper and aluminium (4-1 i%Al).
The properties of these alloys are high strength, good working
properties. resistance to corrosion and wear, high fatigue
resistance and fine golden colour.

30 E N G I N EERI N G

M AT ER IA L S

AND

M E T A LL U R G Y

93.

Name some applications of beryllium bronzes.

94.

Beryllium bronzes are used to make gears, diaphragms, flexible

bellows, bourdon tubes, bearings and non-sparking tools.
What are cupronickels? What is its range o f composition?

95.

Cu~ronickelsare copper-nickel alloys containing nickel Upto 30%.

Indicate the properties o f constantan and mention its uses.

T w o M ARKS QUESTIONS

102. What is the objective of precipitation hardening treatment?

The objective ofprecipitation hardening treatment is to create a
dense and fine dispersion of precipitated particles (second phase)
in the metal matrix.
103. What are babbit metals and how are they suited for bearing
application?

List some of the applications of silicon bronzes.

Babbit metals are tin base bearing alloys. Antimony is the

important alloying element and its c o n t e n t ranges from
3.5-15%. The microstructure contalns large cubes o f SnSb
compound in a ductile eutectic matrix. The hard SnSb cubes
provide excellent wear resistance to bearing.

104. Name four ethenic polymers(polymers that have the basic

monomer structure of ethylene)?

The common alloying elements in aluminium alloys are copper,

manganese, silicon, magnesium, zinc, nickel and iron.

(i)
Polyethylene
(ii) Polypropylene
(iii) Polyvinyl chloride
(iv) Polystyrene

What is dwalumin and mention its applications?

Dumlumin is a heat treatable aluminium-copper alloy. These alloys
are mainly used in aircraA and highly stressed parts due to its
good mechanical properties and shock resistance.

99.

105. Write the applications of polypropylene.

What are the effects of adding lithium to aluminium?

The applications o f PP are housewares, packaging, tanks and

battery cases. PP is also used as carpet fibres, ropes, bags and
over wrap films.

The addition of lithium reduces the overall weight and increases

the stiffness.
100. What is Y alloy and mention its applications?
This is an aluminium-copper casting alloy. It contains 4%Cu,
2%Ni and I .5%Mg. This is a heattreatable alloy and it is mainly
used in high duty piston and cylinder heads o f internal
combustion engines.

431

The main strengthening mechanism in high strength aluminium

alloys is precipitation hardening or age hardening.

Silicon bmnzes are used in chemical plant construction, high

strength bolts, rivets, springs and hydraulic pressure lines.
97. What are the common alloying elements in commercial aluminium
alloys?

98.

ANSWERS

101. What is the main strengthening mechanism in high strength

aluminium alloys?

Constantan is a copper-nickel alloy containing 45% Ni. It has a

very high resistivity. It is largely used as resistors and thermocouple
wires.

96.

AN D

P/
1

106. How is the processability of rigid PVC improved?

The processability ofrigid PVC is improved by blending rubbery
resins. They improve the melt flow and mouldabilitv nf P V P
, - - .. -.
107. What d o you mean by plasticised PVC?
The plasticisers are added to PVC to induce softness and
flexibility. This PVC is called as plasticised PVC.

TWOMARKS Q UEST IONS

0 8 . Mention some of the applications of polystyrene.
Polystyrenes are widely used in disposal food containers,
(i)
trays and the like.
(ii)

They are made into rigid foams and these foams are used
for thermal insulation.

09. What are acrylics? Mention their applications.

The polymers based on polymethyl methacrylate are known a s
acrylics.
They are used as low cost lenses in cameras, flash lights,
(i)
safety glasses, window glazing and advertising signs.
(ii) They are used in industry as weather-proof coatings.
110. Write the applications o f PET polymer.
(i) . The general applications of PET are films for photography
and packaging, fibre for clothing and tire reinforcement
and beverage bottles.
(ii) Industrial uses are auto parts, gears, cams and water meter
chambers.
111. Mention some applications of polycarbonates
The applications of polycarbonates are helmets, face shields,
window glazing, cams, gears, automobile parts, boat propellers,
housing for hand-held tools and electrical connectors.
112. What is the general name for polyamide
thermoplastics?
.
The generai name for polyamide thermoplastics is nylon.
113. In the designation nylon 6/12, what does 6/12 stand for?
Nylons are produced by condensation reaction between a diamine
And organic acid. In the designation, the first number represents
number of carbon atoms in the reacting amine and second number
represents number of carbon atoms in the organic acid.

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114. What are the desirable and undesirable properties o f nylon a s a n

engineering polymer?
The desirable properties are high strength, high heat deflection
properties, good electrical resistance, high lubricity, low surface
friction and good abrasion resistance. The undesirable property
is their moisture absorption.
115. What are the mon0mer.s present in ABS terpolymer and what is
the property contribution by each o f the components?
T h e monomers present in ABS terpolymer are acrylonitrile,
butadiene and styrene. Acrylonitrile contributes heat and chemical
resistance, butadiene provides impact strength and styrene
provides rigidity and processability.
116.. What part o f the PPS structure provides high resistance to
chemicals?
The presence of sulphur atoms in the PPS structure provides
high resistance to chemicals.

I 17. Why is PTFE used as a bearing material?

PTFE h a s very low coefficient o f friction which gives
self-lubricating and non-sticking properties. S o it is used as a
bearing material.
1 18. How is synthetic aluminagroduced?
Synthetic alumina is obtained by the fusion oCmolten bauxite,
iron fillings and coke in electric furnaces. The cooled product is
f crushed and then graded into various sizes.
119. How is synthetic silicon carbide produced?
Synthetic silicon carbide is made from silica sand, coke, small
amounts o f sodium chloride and saw dust. When the mixture is
fired at a high temperature in an electric arc furnace for a long
time, the carbon from coke diffuses into the' sand and silicon
carbide is formed.

Two M A R K S QUESTIONS

120. What are the important uses of alumina and silicon nitride?
Uses of alumina
Alumina is used as a refractory material for high temperature
(i)
applications.
(ii) Alumina based ceramic tools are used for cutting cast
irons and steels.
(iii) It is used as an abrasive material in grinding wheels.
Uses of silicon nitride
Silicon nitride is used as cutting tool material.
(i)
(ii) It is suitable for high temperature structural applications
such as components in automotive engines and gas
turbines.

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435

1 2 4 . Mention the functions of matrix and fibre in fibre reinforced

composites.
The fibre are the primary load carrying members. The matrix
binds and supports the fibre. It distributes the stress to fibre
and protects them from environmental damage.

125. What are the main types of fibre used in fibre reinforced
composites?
The types of fibres are (i) Polymer fibres (ii) Metal fibres
(iii) Ceramic fibres (iv) Glass fibres and (v) Carbon fibres.
126. What is Kevlar fibre and what are its properties? .
Kevlar is an aramid polymer fibre. Kevlar fibres have lowest
density and highest strength-to-weight ratio.

121. Give some applications of silicon carbide.

Silicon carbide is used for grinding applications.
(i)
(ii) It is used as a wear resistant coating for metals.
(iii) It is used as resistors and heating elements for electric
furnaces.

127. What properties make carbon fibres important for reinforced

composites?

122. What are the important properties of PSZ and mention its
applications.

128. What are the applications of glass fibre reinforced polymers?

The important properties of PSZ are its high strength, exceptional

and low friction coefficient.
toughness, low thermal conductivity-Applications
(i)
(ii)

PSZ is used as die material for hot extrusion.

It is used in heat engine components such as cylinder
liners and valve bushings.

123. What are the attractive properties of sialon?

The attractive properties of sialon are its high hardness, high
strength and light weight. It has an excellent dimensional stability
with low coefficient ofthermal expansion It has good resistance
to corrosion, wear and thermal shock.

The properties of carbon fibres are their exceptional tensile

strength-to-weight ratios, high elastic modulus-to-weight ratios,
.very low coefficient ofthermal expansion and high fatigue strength.
The applications of GFRP are in automotive and marine bodies,
leaf springs, pipes, storage containers and industrial floorings.
129. Which type of fibre reinforced composite can be used for
elevated temperature applications?
Carbon-carbon composites can be used for elevated temperature
applications because they can operate at temperatures upto
3000C.
130. List the important factors that determine the properties of a
fibre reinforced composite.
The factors determining the properties o f a fibre reinforced
composite are
(i) the a s p e d ratio of fibres
(ii) volume fraction of fibres
(iii) orientation of the fibres

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(iv) properties of the fibres

(v) proportion of matrix
(vi) d e g e e o f bonding between the fibre and the matrix.
131. What are the factors affecting the strength o f a particulate
composite?
The factors affecting the strength o f a paaiculate composite
are (i) the diameter of the particles (ii) interparticle spacing and
(iii) the volume fraction o f particles.
132 What are cemets?
Cermets are one type o f particulate reinforced composites. They
consist o f ceramic particles of carbides, oxides or borides
dispersed in a refractory metal matrix such a s cobalt or nickel.
133 List few applications of aluminium-silicon carbide particulate
composite.
This composite is used in automobile applications like piston,
bonnecting rod, cylinder liner and brake disc.
134. Name the mechanisms o f plastic deformation in metals.
Plastic deformation in metatstakes place by two mechanismsslip and twinning.
135. Define slip.

During plastic d e f o m a t i o ~&e

, atoms on certain crystallographic
planes glide over the other. ->is muses apermanent displacement
of one pan of crystal related m the other. This phenomenon is
called slip.
136. What are slip systems?
Slip occurs in some spec~ficplanes (high densiy planes) and
specific direct-s
Chi& density directions). This combination
of planes and d i r e c t i m are referred to as slip systems.

Q U EST I O N S

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437

137. Why are aluminium and its alloys more ductile than magnesium
and its alloys?
Plastic deformation depends on number of slip systems present
in a metal. As aluminium and its alloys have more slip systems
than magnesium and its alloys, they are more ductile.
138. Define twinning.
Twinning is an important plastic deformation mechanism. In
twinning, the shear force produces atomic displacements such
that the deformed lattice forms a mirror image o f the undeformed
lattice. The crystaflographic plane of symmetry between the
deformed and underfonned parts of the metal lattice is called
the twinning plane.
139. Define fracture and classify the fracture modes.
Fracture is defined as the separation of a solid body into two or
more ~ i e c e sin response to the applied stress. Fracture modes
are classified into two. categories--(i) ductile fracture and
(ii) brittle fracture.
140. Distinguish between ductile and brittle fractIlfe
Ductile fracture exhibits large amount of plastic deformation
with high' energy absorption before fracture. Brittle fracture
involves little or no plastic deformation with no energy absorption.
14 1. What are the stages o f ductile fracture?
The stages o f ductile fracture are--+) initial necking (ii) fine
cavity formation (iii) crack formatinn (iv) crack propagation
and (v) final fracture.
142. Why ductile fracture is more preferred than brittle fracture?
Brittle fracture occurs suddenly without any warning. But in
ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives
warning and the failure is much more predictable. So preventive
measures can be taken. Hence ductile fracture is preferred.

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T w o MARKS
QUESTIONS

1.43'. Define fatigue.

*

When the components and structures are subjected to repetitive

or fluctuating loads, they fail at much lower stress t h a n t h a t
they can withstand underthe application of single static load.
Such a mode of failure is referred to as fatigue.
144. List the steps of fatigue failure in metals.
Fatigue failure in metals develops in four steps-(i) crack
nucleation (ii) crack growth-stage 1 (iii) crack growthstage ll (iv) final fracture.

..

145. What two distinct regions ofsurface areas are usually recognised
on a fatigue failure surface?
O n e is a smooth region with t w o types of markingsmacroscopic beach marks and microscopic striations. Other
region is rough and granular.
146. Where do fatigue failures originate on a metal section?

Fat~guefailures originate from stress raisers such as scratches,

sharp fillets, keyways, screw threads o r sharp changes in
cross-section.
147. Define creep of metals.
Creep is defined as the time dependent permanent deformation
o f materials when subjected to a constant load. Creep is
appreciable only at high temperatures.
148. Name few mechanisms whereby creep deformation occurs.

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150. What properties are determined from tension testing of metallic

products?
(i)

Yielding properties-Proportional limit, elastic limit, yield

strength, proof stress
(ii) Strength properties-Ultimate tensile strength, breaking
stress
(iii) Elastic properties-Modulus of elasticity, resilience
(iv) Ductility--Percent elongation, percent reduction
(v) Toughness
15 1. Distinguish between proportional limit and elastic limit.
Proportional limit is the highest stress upto which the stress is
directly proportional to strain. Elastic limit is the highest stress
upto which the deformation is elastic. Elastic limit is slightly
higher than the propa~tionallimit.
152. Define proof stress or offset yield strength.
In some materials, the yield strength is determined by drawing a
parallel line to the elastic part of the curve, offset by a specified
strain. The stress corresponding to the intersection of the line
with the stress-strain curve gives the offset yield strength.
153. Define ultimate tensile strength and lnodulus of elasticity based
on stress-strain curve.
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximium stress on the engineering
stress-strain curve. Modulus of elasticity is the slope of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region.

The mechanisms of creep deformation are-xi) dislocation glide

( ~ idislocation
)
climb (iii) diffusion creep (iv) grain boundary sliding.

154. What important information is obtained from the percent

reduction o r percent elongation?

149. Suggest few methods to improve the creep resistance in alloys.

The ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without

fracture is known as ductility. This is measured by percent
reduction or percent elongation.

Dispersion strengthening and reduction of grain boundaries by

single grain solidification are few methods to improve the creep
resistance in alloys.

155. Distinguish betwcen resilience and toughness.

Resilience is the strain energy absbrbed by the material in the
elastic reikon per unit volume. It is the area contained under the
elastic portion of the stress-strain curve.

I
!

Toughness is the total energy absorbed by the material per

unit volume prior to its fracture. It is the total area under the
stress-strain curve.

. What are the different indentation hardness tests?

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Brinell hardness test

Rockwell hardness test
Vickers hardness test

158. What are the types of indenters and major loads used in Brinell
hardness test?
The types of indenters are hardened steel ball or tungsten carbide
ball of lOmm diameter. The major load is either 3000kg for hard
metals or 500kg f ~ soft
r metals.
159. What is the type of indenter and the range of load used in Vickers
hardness test?
The indcnter used in Vickers hardness test is a square base
diamond pyramid indenter. The loads used in this test vary from
1 to 120 kg.
160. State the advantage and limitation of Rockwell hardness test
over the Brine11 and Vickers hardness tests.
Advantage
Since both the types of indenters (ball and diamond indenters)
are used, it combines both the advantages of Brinell and Vickers
hardness tests.

161. What are the properties determined from impact test?

The propenies obtained from the impact test are impact energy,
transition temperature and notch sensitivity
162. Why are Charpy and Izod test results not useful in design?

156. Cast irons,are generally tested under compression-Reason out.

Since cast irons are good in compression than in tension, they
are used in components subjected to compressive loads. Due to
this, cast irons are generally iested under compression.

Limitation
The test is coarse and accuracy achieved by this test is not
comparable to either Brinell or Vickers hardness tests.

The Charpy and lzod test results are affected by number of

variables. As these variables cannot be controlled, the test results
are arbitrary and difftcult to use in design.

163. What is a fatigue test S-N curve?

164. Define endurancc limit in fatigue test.

In fatigue test, the stress level (S) and number of cycles to

failure (N) are plotted a s a graph. Such a plot is referred to as
S-N curve.
Endurance limit is defined as the maximum stress that can be
appJied for infinite number of times without failure of the
material.
165. What is the minimum creep rate with respect to crcep curvc
and how is it expressed?
The slope of the second stage of creep curve is constant and is
the minimum creep rate. It is expressed in units of percent strair,
in a period of time, for example 1 percentllOOO0 hours. It is the
most important design parameter derived from the creep curve.