Production of Materials Summary

2014

Claudia Cox

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Sunflowers are pretty.

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Fossil fuels provide both energy

and raw materials such as
ethylene, for the production of
other substances
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking
of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum
Cracking allows oil refineries to increase the output of high-demand products
such as ethylene by breaking high molecular weight petroleum fractions into
lower molecular weight substances.
Steam cracking

Catalytic cracking

Used for longer chains

Shorter chains (15-24 Cs)

Higher temperatures (900C)

Lower temperatures (500C)

Anaerobic

Anaerobic

Uses hot metal coils with steam and

CO2 as an inert dilatant

Uses zeolite (crystalline porous

aluminosilicates) catalysts

Lower pressure

Higher pressure

C11H24(g) 4C2H4(g) + C3H6(g) + H2(g)

C15H32(g) C10H22(g) +C2H4(g) + C3H6(g)

Petroleum is a complex mixture of natural gas and crude oil, containing both
alkanes and alkenes.

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its

double bond, is readily transformed into many useful
products
Ethene is the most versatile and widely-used raw materials used in the
petrochemical industry, due to the high electron density associated in the
double bond which allows it to be transformed into many useful products. This
makes ethylene more unstable than alkanes, and allows it to react readily with
electronegative elements such as chlorine and other halogens.
Ethylene can be hydrated to form ethanol or oxidised with an Ag catalyst to
form ethylene oxide and then reacted with dilute acid to form ethylene glycol
(antifreeze). Ethylene can be converted with a CuCl 2 catalyst to form
chloroethene (the monomer for PVC) or polymerised into polyethylene.

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Structure and Properties of Ethylene

Member of alkene homologous
group
Simplest
unsaturated
hydrocarbon
Low melting point/boiling point
(gas at 25C) due to nonpolarity and low molecular
weight (only weak dispersion
forces present)
Insoluble in water

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which

polymers are made
A monomer is a small unit, which can be combined with other monomers to
form polymers. Polymers are long chains of macro-molecules (usually of high
molecular weight) consisting of repeating sub-units called monomers.
In order to form a polymer, a monomer requires either a double bond or a
reactive functional group at both ends.

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the

meaning of this term
An addition polymer is a polymer formed without the loss of a small molecule,
by opening up of a double bond.
Polyethylene is an addition polymer, as the double bond in ethylene opens up
and joins to other monomers.

Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an

example of a commercially and industrially important
polymer
Used this table when referring to the industrial manufacture of
polyethylene
LDPE

HDPE

High pressure (2000 ATM)

Few pressure (20 ATM)

High temperature (300C)

Low temperature (60C)

Organic Peroxide Initiator

Ziegler-Natta process (TiCl3/(CH3CH2)3Al catalyst)

Loose filmy structure

Crystalline/rigid structure

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Used in clingwrap & plastic bags

Significant chain
branching and air
holes as several
alkyl
groups
branch of during
polymerisation

Used in garbage bins, plastic

utensils & toys
Orderly array

There are three stages in the polymerisation of ethylene to form polyethylene:

initiation, propagation and termination. As the ethylene is heated in the
presence of a catalyst (such as an organic peroxide initiator for LDPE or TiCl 3/
(CH3-CH2)3Al for HDPE) the double bonds are broken: Ra + CH2=CH2 Ra-CH2CH2. As the reaction proceeds, the polyethylene chain lengthens (propagation):
Ra-CH2-CH2 + (CH2=CH2)x Ra-(CH2-CH2)x+1. Finally two activated chains
randomly collide to form a stable polyethylene polymer: Ra-(CH 2-CH2)x + Ra(CH2-CH2)y Ra-(CH2-CH2)x+y-Ra.
Since, the termination stage is completely random polyethylene polymer chains
come in varying lengths and molecular weights, although there is an average
molecular weight of 46 000.

Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

-vinyl chloride
-styrene
by both their systematic and common names
PVC

Polystyrene

Monomer: chloroethene

Monomer: ethyl benzene

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above

monomers in terms of their properties
2004 17b)

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Polystyrene is made from the monomer styrene (ethyl benzene). It is widely

used in jewel CD cases and tool handles, as polystyrene is transparent and very
rigid as the large benzene ring impedes movement (chain stiffening). When air
is bubbled through to form polystyrene foam, the result is light-weight and a
good insulator of heat making it ideal for use in disposable drink cups.
Polyvinyl chloride (or PVC) is made from the monomer chloroethene. As PVC is
rigid (due to chain stiffening), waterproof and relatively cheap it is suitable for
use in drainage popes and household guttering. However, since PVC is
vulnerable to UV light, it can only be used outside if a UV inhibitor is added. PVC
can also be used in electrical wiring insulators, as it is cheap, a good electrical
and thermal insulator as well as can be made softer with additives.

Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer

simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to
model the polymerisation process
Benefits:
Allows easy visualisation and understanding of the process
Allows 3D visualisation
Physical representation of the structure of the molecule
Drawbacks:
Relative sizes of and distances between atoms are unrealistic
The bonds between molecules are not static, as implied by the model
Oversimplication of the process

Some scientists research the

extraction of materials from
biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds
presently obtained from the petrochemical industry

Biomass is organic matter produced from plants.

As petrochemicals is currently made using non-renewable crude oil, which
experts predict may last for less than fifty years, current petroleum consumption
is unsustainable. Crude oil also causes several environmental effects such as
the greenhouse effect and acid rain.
With ever depleting fossil duel reserves, the demand for renewable alternative
such as Biopol will increase.

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Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

A condensation polymer is a compound formed when monomer molecules join
together, former and polymer, and releasing a small molecule such as water.
However, not all molecules condensed out is not always water.

Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer

is formed
During a condensation polymerisation reaction, two functional groups, one on
each end, combine to eliminate an molecule and to form a linking functional
group between the two monomers. In the example of cellulose, the two hydroxyl
groups combine to form an ester and a water molecule, This occurs between
every glucose monomers.

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an

example of a condensation polymer found as a major
component of biomass
Cellulose typically possesses between 2000-8000 -glucose monomers in a long
chain. There are strong covalent bonds, due to the -1,4-glycosidic bonds
between each monomer, within a chain and hydrogen bonding between the
bonds. Thus, cellulose is rigid, strong, linear and resistant to chemical attack.
Cellulose is also insoluble due to the strong intermolecular and hydrogen
bonding which cant be overcome by the water molecule.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain

structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its
potential as a raw material
Question 20
The primary component of biomass is cellulose, a renewable resource that is the
starting point of many useful substances.
Bioethanol can be produced from the fermentation of glucose using yeast:
C6H12O6(l) (yeast, 37C) C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g). As the glucose is obtained from
breaking down sugar can and bio waste, the CO 2 produced is minimal provided
new crops are planted. However, this process is expensive, requires energy for
transport and distillation, as well as necessitating large quantities of land to
grow ethanol crops which takes away from land grown to produce food, leading
to starvation.
The cellulose present in biomass can also be the source of many useful
biopolymers such as rayon. Most importantly, ethylene can be produced from
the dehydration of bioethanol: C2H5OH(l) (conc. H2SO4, 180C) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)).
The ethylene can be used to make many products such as polyethylene and
PVC. However, the strong intermolecular forces present in cellulose means that
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it is expensive and difficult to break cellulose down into glucose that requires
vast quantities of energy. Therefore makes the process not cost-effective.
However, using bioethanol bypasses traditional sources of petrochemicals,
humanitys need for crude oil substantially and this would hugely benefit the
environment. Therefore, despite the high costs involved, the ever depleting
fossil fuel reserves will mean that eventually cellulose-based products will
become cost-effective. Cellulose will eventually become a potentially suitable
future source of energy and materials.

Use available evidence to gather and present data from

secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent
development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to
synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use of potential
use of the polymer produced related to its properties

Biopolymers are naturally-occurring polymers made using renewable resources,

usually plants and micro-organisms.
With ever depleting fossil fuel reserves, the demand for renewable alternatives
such as Biopol will increase.
Production: Biopol is a biopolymer formed from the monomers 3-hydroxybutyrate
(3-HB) and 3-hydroxyvalerate (3-HV) by fostering the growth of the bacteria
alcaligenes eutrophus in a high-glucose, high valeric acid environment and creating
a nutrient deficiency. The bacterium begins to store carbon in the 3-HB/3-HV copolymer form. The polymer can then be extracted through hot trichloromethane.
Uses:
Biopol is suitable for many uses as it is biodegrable, biocompatible, renewable and
chemically similar to polypropylene. Biopol is used as:

Nappy linings
Surgical pins
Replacement to polypropylene plastics
Developments & Impact:
The production of Biopol is currently very expensive compared to petroleum-based
polymer, and also produces pungent waste that is difficult to dispose of. These
factors severely limit the use of Biopol.
However, efforts are being made by companies such as Metabolix in order to
develop ways to produce Biopol in transgenic plants and genetically modified E.
Coli bacteria. Despite its current cost of production and impracticality, further
developments such as those being made by Metbolix may see biopolymers such as
Biopol become as extensively used as current petroleum polymers.

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Other resources, such as

ethanol, are readily available
from renewable resources such
as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify
the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
C2H5OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)
Catalyst: The reaction must occur at 180C, in the presence of concentrated H 2SO4.The
acid is extremely hydrophilic, and sucks the water out of the compound.

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the

production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used
C2H4(g) + H2O(l C2H5OH(l)
Catalyst: Dilute H2SO4 breaks the bonds within the water molecule. The catalyst is
needed to speed up the reaction to a profitable level, as the H 2SO4 reduces the activation
energy by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction.

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a

solvent for polar and non-polar substances

Ethanol possesses both a hydrophilic polar hydroxyl group and a non-polar

hydrophobic alkyl chain. Ethanols capacity for hydrogen bonding allows it to
dissolve polar substances and be miscible in water for all proportions. The nonpolar alkyl chain can form dispersion forces with non-polar substances such as
iodine and hydrocarbons. Ethanols solvent abilities are why it is used in:
perfumes, food colourings/flavorings, cleaning agents.

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Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be

called a renewable resource
As with all alcohols, ethanol can be combusted:
C2H5OH(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Describe conditions under which the fermentation of sugars

is promoted
There are several reaction conditions for optimal ethanol production
1. 37C is the optimum temperature for the zymase enzyme in the yeast. Fermentation
is a exothermic process, so the temperature of the system must be monitored.
2. Neutral pH
3. Yeast (for zymase enzyme) and a suitable carbohydrate source
4. Dilute C6H12O6 solution (if [C2H5OH] > 15%, the yeast die)
5. Anaerobic environment yeast reacts with oxygen to form CO2 and H2O, but not
alcohol
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6H2O(g) +6CO2(g)

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

The zymase enzyme present in yeast breaks down the glucose molecule into
ethanol and carbon dioxide. This is called glycolysis. The process is complicated,
comprising of several reactions in sequence. When the solution reaches a 15%
concentration, the process halts as the yeast begin to die of alcohol poisoning.
C6H12O6(aq) 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and

calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data
The molar heat of combustion (H) is the heat released when one mole of a fuel
is burned completely, with all reactants and products in the standard states at
SLC (1 atm, 25C). It is a positive quantity.
The molar heat of combustion for ethanol is 1360 kJ/mol.

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Advantages:
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 Renewable
Burns clearly, as it already possesses oxygen atoms
Technically CO2 neutral however, high energy cost for distillation
Can easily be added as a petrol extender (10%) without modifying engines
Increasing scarcity of petroleum
Lower ignition temperature
Higher flash point
Disadvantages:
Would need large quantities of agricultural land in order to grow corn or sugar cane
this would lead to starvation as well as environmental issues such as erosion and
deforestation
More expensive than oil
Hard to distil
Not as energy efficient engines would have to be 50% bigger to travel the same
distance
Assessment: While ethanol provides a renewable way to extend petrol, it
would require too much arable land to replace petrol completely. If however,
ethanol could be produced from biowaste, it would be an economically and
environmentally viable alternative.

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the

processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from
sugar cane

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Process information from secondary sources to summarise the

use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success
of current usage
Despite the efforts of governments to encourage increased ethanol
consumption, public uptake has been slow. The Australian government has
subsidized ethanol in order to make 10% ethanol blends (E-10) more accessible.
However, car manufacturers currently have little incentive to produce car
engines that can run higher blends or even 100% ethanol.
Since the 1970s, the Brazilian government has subsidized ethanol in an attempt
to reduce Brazils dependence on foreign countries for oil. However, vast
quantities of land were needed to grow ethanol crops, which was an economic
failure. Today, now that the Brazilian economy restabilised, the conversion to
ethanol has been a success with around 50% of cars running of pure ethanol
and the rest on at least a 20% blend.
Although it is unlikely that the world will follow in the footsteps of Brazil, ethanol
is proving to be a successful petrol extender in low concentrations.

Present information from secondary sources by writing secondary

sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of
glucose to ethanol
C6H12O6(aq) 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

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Oxidation-reduction reactions
are increasingly important as a
source of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of
transfer of electrons
When metals enter solution, they lose electrons to become positively charged
cations and are oxidised eg: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2eWhen metals are displaced out of solution, they gain elections to become
neutral metals and are reduced eg: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Electrons are transferred between a metal and an metal ion.

Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions

in solution by other meals to the relative activity of metals
A more active metal displaces a less active metal out of solution (ie; it
is oxidised and loses electrons).
Activity Series:
Li K Ba Sr Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Ni Sn Pb H2 Sb Cu Hg Ag Pd Pt Au
Increasing reactivity
For example, if a piece of zinc metal is placed in a copper solution, the zinc
displaces the copper out of solution as zinc is the more active metal. The zinc
goes into solution and is oxidised: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-. The Cu2+ cations are
reduced and forms a red-brown Cu metal deposit on the zinc (the blue colour of
the solution will also decrease in intensity as the Cu 2+ ions are removed): Cu 2+(aq)
+ 2e- Cu(s). The overall equation is Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s).
A(s) + BC(aq) AC(aq) + B (s)

Account for the changes in the oxidation state of species in

terms of their loss or gain of elections
O

xidation

oss

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ig

ain

Oxidation is the loss of electrons and corresponds to an increase in the

oxidation state.
Reduction is the gain of electrons and corresponds to a decrease in the
oxidation state.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of

oxidation/reduction reactions
Galvanic cells consist of two compartments, the anode and the cathode,
connected by an external and internal circuit.
Oxidation occurs at the anode.
Reduction occurs at the cathode.
The reaction at the anode releases electrons which are pushed through the
external circuit to the cathode. The movement of the electrons provides an emf
and voltage, as chemical energy is converted into a electrical energy.

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the

direction of electron flow

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Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte

to describe galvanic cells
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation occurs.
Cathode: The electrode at which reduction occurs.
Electrode: A conductor connected to the external circuit, through which
electrons pass through to create emf.
Electrolyte: A substance that contains free cations and anions, and allows the
transfer of which in order to maintain electrical neutrality and complete the
circuit.

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the

potential requirement of named electrochemical processes
using tables of standard potentials and half-equations
ANODE
CATHODE

The emf in a galvanic cell must always be positive. The oxidation reaction must
be reversed, and the sign of the emf in the table must be flipped.

Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a lead acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
-Button cell
In terms of:
-chemistry
-cost and practicality
-impact of society
-environmental impact
Dry Cell

Diagram

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Silver Oxide Button Cell

Chemistry

Anode: outer zinc casing

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2eCathode:
Inert
graphite
electrode,
surrounded
by
NH4Cl/MnO2 paste
2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2e-
Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l) + NH3(aq)
Overall:
Zn(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s)
Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l) +
2NH3(g)
Electrolyte: NH4Cl/ZnCl2 paste

Anode: Zinc
Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2eCathode: Ag2O
Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s) +
2OH-(aq)
Overall:
Zn(s) + Ag2O(l 2Ag(s) + OH- (aq)
Electrolyte: KOH
Voltage: 1.5 V
The cell delivers a very constant
velocity because there is no
change in the concentration of
electrodes and electrolytes. The
electrolyte is a porous barrier,
which prevents the direct contact
between the two electrodes and
allows ions to migrate, thereby
completing the circuit.

Cost and
Advantages:
Advantages:
Practicality
Extremely cheap
Practical small/portable
Easy to transport due to
Steady
voltage
as
paste electrolyte not
concentrations of electrodes
liquid
and electrolytes are fixed
Useful when only small
currents are needed
Disadvantages:
Small
(easy
to
Non-rechargeable
store/use)
Relatively expensive for a
Maintains
steady
small battery
voltage
Disadvantages:
Non-rechargeable
Short life-span
Cannot provide high
currents
Battery may leak due to
outer
casing
being
dissolved
Impact on
Society

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Stimulated interest in
batteries
and
widespread use
Used
in
common
appliances (esp torches)

Allowed the miniaturisation

of electronics and has been
important in specialized
areas such as hearing aids

Environmen
tal Impact

Small amounts of zinc is

harmless;
however,
large build-up must be
prevented as zinc is a
heavy metal
Manganese
poses
a
similar problem
Electrolyte
paste
is
harmless

No highly toxic metals that

can harm the environment.

Remember if a question asked for a direct comparison, include one by linking

the two sections.

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Nuclear chemistry provides a

range of materials
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and
describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
Nuclei are unstable whenever they are outside of the zone of stability where
the ratio of neutrons to protons (at most, n:p=1.5:1) is too high or the atomic
number is greater than 83 (bismuth) as no stable isotopes exist beyond that.

Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Z>92
Transuranic elements are all synthetic and all are formed by neutron
bombardment of heavy elements. To produce elements with higher atomic
numbers, transuranic elements are bombarded with small high speed carbon or
helium nuclei.
eg;
The electron emitted results from the beta-decay of a neutron:
To accelerate particles to very high speeds, linear accelerators or cyclotrons are
used. Linear accelerators use a series of +ve/-ve currents to accelerate a
charged positive particle. Cyclotrons not only use a series of alternating currents
but also a strong magnetic field to constrain the positive particle into a spiral
path. They are much more compact and can be found in major hospitals.

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Technetium-99m is produced from the neutron bombardment of Molybdenum98:
This process is used in the Lucas Heights nuclear reactor, which supplies Sydney
hospitals with Techetium-99m.

Identify instruments and processes that can be used to

detect radiation
Factor

raditation

radiation

radiation

Structure

Particles

Particles

EM Radiation

Consist of

Helium nucleus

Electron
e-

High frequency
radiation

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Charge

+2

-1

Nil

Ionization ability

Good

Fair

Poor

Penetration

Poor (2-10cm in
air)

Fair (5m in air,

2mm in
aluminium)

Very good (several

cm in lead)

Deflection in
electric field

Towards negative
plate

Towards positive
plate

Nil

Radiation can be detected in many ways:

Photographic Film
Film darkens when in contact
Radiation reacts with silver halide crystals
Used in radiation badges for safety purposes
Cloud chamber:
Chamber with super saturated water/alcohol particles
Radiation ionizes air particles, leaving a path
: straight, dense tracks; : faint zig-zag path, : very faint tracks
Geiger-Muller tube:
Radiation ionizes electrons, creating an electric current
Makes clicking sounds when a current runs

Identify one use of a named radioisotope in

and in medicine

industry

Medicine- Technetium-99m
Industry Na-24

Describe the way in which the above names industrial and

medical radioisotopes
Medicine:
Technetium-99m is widely used in medicine in order to diagnose heart damage
and over-active thyroid glands. It is highly suited to this purpose as it possesses
a short half-life of 6hrs. This reduces the patients exposure, minimizing risk.
Technetium-99m also emits only highly penetrative but low energy gamma

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radiation, which is useful as it allows clear images with little danger of tissue
damage..
Industry:
Sodium-24 can be used to detect leaks in water pipes. If the radioisotope is
flowing with the water in the pipe, no radiation can be detected. If there is a
leak, the Na-24 escapes with the water and radiation can be detected and the
leak found. Na-24s short half-life of 15 hours allows the scene to be quickly
decontaminated and the water safe. Na-24s low cost has also led to its widespread use.

Process information from secondary sources to describe recent

discoveries of elements
Transuranic elements with an atomic number greater than 95 are produced by
the bombardment of a heavy nucleus with a small nucleus such as carbon.
Extremely heavy elements often have very short half-lives (only a few
microseconds), making their presence hard to verify.
An element discovered very recently is darmstadtium, with an atomic number of
110. It is produced using Lead-208 and Nickel-64:
Darmstadtium decays almost immediately to Darmstadtium-281 (half-life 11
seconds).

Use available evidence to describe benefits and problems

associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified
industries and medicine
Benefits:
Imaging radioisotopes such as Tc-99m reduce the cost and increase the
effectiveness of diagnosis
Radioisotopes with varying half-lives can be used for different purposes
Industrially, radioisotopes reduce cost and can effectively detect structural failings.
Co-60 can measure the thickness of metals.
Problems:
Radiation risk can cause serious tissue damage, and is carcinogenic
Long-term risks of using radioisotopes (such as irradiating food) are not yet known
Short half-lives cause transportation issues
Some radioisotopes are expensive
Potential environmental risks

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