STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1001
__________________________________________________________________________

STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
APPLIED STABILITY

Lecture 6.4: General Methods for

Assessing Critical Loads
OBJECTIVE
To explain the energy methods for assessing critical loads for cases where it is not
possible to get a closed-form solution to differential equilibrium equations.
PREREQUISITES
Beam theory
Lecture 6.1: Concepts of Stable and Unstable Elastic Equilibrium
Lecture 6.2: General Criteria for Elastic Stability
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 6.5: Iterative Methods for Solving Stability Problems
SUMMARY
When certain assumptions are made about the nature of the deformation of an elastic
system during the change of configuration associated with the buckling mode, the elastic
system may be approximated by one involving suitable and adjustable parameters which
are determined in order that the neutral equilibrium conditions are fulfilled. Using this
concept practical approximate methods can be derived which are very useful to the design
engineer; some of the best known of these methods are presented in this lecture, i.e. the
Rayleigh coefficient, the Rayleigh-Ritz method, and the Galerkin method. An outline of
some numerical methods, such as the Euler finite difference method and the finite element
method, is also given.

1. INTRODUCTION
Critical stability loads may be determined using either of the following methods:

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1002
__________________________________________________________________________

by direct solution of the differential equilibrium equations with exact values of

critical loads as a result.
by using approximate methods, which are, for the most part, based on energy
methods, and which lead to approximate solutions of buckling problems.

The solution of differential equilibrium equations to satisfy prescribed boundary

conditions presents many difficulties and can only be achieved for simple buckling
problems for structures with low degrees of freedom; such basic problems are presented
and solved, in this way, in Lecture 6.3. This approach, however, will not be considered
further in this lecture which instead concentrates on the alternative energy methods
mentioned above. It should be noted that powerful iterative methods can also be used to
solve stability problems; some of these methods are presented in Lecture 6.5.
When certain assumptions are made about the nature of the deformation of an elastic
system during the change of configuration associated with neutral equilibrium (buckling
mode), this elastic system may be approximated by one involving suitable and adjustable
parameters or generalised coordinates which are to be determined in order that the neutral
equilibrium conditions are fulfilled. This idea provides approximate methods which are
very useful to the practical engineer; the best known of these methods are presented in this
lecture, i.e. the Rayleigh coefficient, the Rayleigh-Ritz method, and the Galerkin method.
An outline of some numerical methods, such as the Euler finite difference method and the
finite element method, is also given.
If the adjustable parameters mentioned above are judiciously chosen and of adequate
number (in the case of an approximation of a continuous system), these approximate
methods will give results very close to the exact solution, at the expense of an increased
design effort.

2. GENERAL ENERGY METHODS APPLIED TO

ELASTIC SYSTEMS
The energy methods for the solution of elastic stability problems are based on the principle
of existence of a relative minimum of the total potential energy at neutral equilibrium (see
Lecture 6.1 and Lecture 6.2).
It is stated that: considering the change V, of total energy V of a system, from a starting
equilibrium configuration to an adjoining configuration defined by an infinitesimally small
and kinematically admissible virtual displacement, then the condition of neutral
equilibrium is governed by the second variation 2V of the increment V, that is:
2V = 0 = minimum

(1)

Generally, when considering steel structures, the stability of a structural system under a set
of external loads is studied by considering a buckling deformation, f, from a starting
configuration, and performing calculations, according to Equation (1), either to check the
stability of this starting configuration, or to determine critical values of external loads
leading to instability. The deformation f is expressed as a function of one or more
independent variables (generally cartesian coordinates); for example, f(x) as the deflection

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1003
__________________________________________________________________________
of a beam or f(x,y) as the deflection of a plate. The change of deformation of a system at
neutral equilibrium - the buckling deformation or buckling mode - will hereafter be
denoted f(X), where X is the coordinate field of the reference system used (one, two or
three dimensions). The function f can be continuous if the system is continuous, or can be
defined by intervals if the system is discrete.
Solving Equation (1) requires evaluation of the potential function 2V with respect to the
function f, inside a domain of integration noted D (length for a beam, area for a plate, for
example). Generally 2V involves quadratic and homogeneous quantities with respect to
the buckling deformation f(X) and its derivatives, and is a linear function of the external
applied loads.
Introducing a common load multiplier, , for all loading components and defining a
reference loading S1 (corresponding to = 1), the loads at any time of a proportional
loading history are equal to:
S = S1

(2)

Thus, generally, the function 2V can be evaluated by:

2V(f) =

F (, X, f, f, f ) dD = 0

(3)

where the function F also involves geometrical and material characteristics of the domain.
Solving Equation (3) with respect to f will lead to determining the values of the loads (via
the load multiplier ) at neutral equilibrium, i.e. critical values of loads above which the
starting configuration becomes unstable.

3. RAYLEIGH COEFFICIENT
The method of calculation of critical loads by Rayleigh coefficient is derived directly from
Equation (1); the second variation 2V of the total potential energy may be expressed as
follows:
2V(f) = 2U(f) + 2 (f,S)
where:

(4)

2U - is the second variation of strain energy (a quadratic and homogeneous

function of f); it represents the strain energy corresponding to the
buckling mode;
2 - is the second variation of potential energy of external loads S (a linear
function of S and a quadratic and homogeneous function of f). It represents
the opposite to the work of the external loads corresponding to the buckling
mode.

At neutral equilibrium, (see Equation (2)) takes the particular value cr which is the
critical load multiplier above which instability occurs. Equations (1), (2) and (4) yield:

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1004
__________________________________________________________________________
2V(f) = 2U(f) + cr . 2 (f,S1) = 0 = minimum

(5)

If the buckling deformation f is known, the critical load multiplier may be obtained from
Equation (4); that is:

cr = -

(6)

Considering now an approximation f1 of f (f1 different from f), cr being known. Then,
because of the minimum condition:
2V(f1) = 2U(f1) + cr . 2 (f1,S1) > 0

(7)

Equations (5) and (7) yield:

cr = -

that is

cr < min

whatever f1 f

whatever f1 f

(8)

(9)

This defines the Rayleigh Principle which states that the critical load multiplier cr,
calculated using Equation (6) with any kinematically admissible displacement different to
the true buckling deformation, will give a value of cr greater than the exact value.
Assuming f1 = f + f2, where f2 is any kinematically admissible displacement and is a
constant, this gives:

cr1 = -

+ 0(2) = cr + 0(2)

(10)

where 0(2) is a quantity in 2. This implies that a first order error in the choice of f gives a
second order error in the value of cr. If calculations are performed, using Equation (6)
with a good approximating function f, simply required to satisfy the boundary conditions,
a precise value of cr may be obtained, with an excess error.

4. THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD

The Rayleigh-Ritz method assumes that the exact solution f(X) of the variational problem
described by Equation (3) can be approximated by a linear combination of suitably chosen
"coordinate functions" 1(X), 2(X), ... n(X). That is:
fn(X) = q11(X) + q22(X) + ... + qn n(X)

(11)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1005
__________________________________________________________________________
where the q's are constants to be determined, and are to be regarded as generalised
coordinates (degrees of freedom) of the system.
When f(X) is approximated by fn(X) in this way, the function 2V, which is to be
evaluated, becomes a quadratic and homogeneous function of the q's; Equation (3) can,
therefore, be written as:
2V = {q}t [a] {q} = 0

(12)

where {q} - is the vector of the q's and [a] is a matrix whose coefficients aij are:

aij =

(13)

The coefficients aij are functions of the load multiplier and the properties of the system.
Considering the case of non-trivial configurations, {q} 0, Equation (12) for neutral
equilibrium requires [a] to be a singular matrix, that is to say that the determinant of [a]
must be zero. This condition provides an equation in , of degree n, whose smallest
positive solution is to be regarded as the critical load multiplier cr.
The functions i are chosen in advance, depending on the knowledge and assumptions
made about the nature of the deformation. They are not unknown and, provided they
satisfy the forced (or geometric) boundary conditions for any value of the q's, the choice
of "shapes" is arbitrary. It should be noted, however, that the efficiency of the method
does depend on a judicious choice for the 's and that it is an advantage to satisfy all the
boundary conditions: in practical applications, one will have some idea of the general
nature of the true solution f(X) so that the question of using "outrageous" shapes for the
's rarely occurs. If the functions are judiciously chosen, very good accuracy can be
attained with relatively few functions. The efficiency of the Rayleigh-Ritz process may be
considerably enhanced if, in addition to the forced (or geometric) boundary conditions
(concerning translations or rotations at supports, i.e. f and f), the natural (or mechanical)
boundary conditions (concerning curvature, i.e. f ) are also satisfied.
To get an idea of the accuracy of the results, a more elaborate procedure is used to obtain a
sequence of successive approximations; thus, the following may be taken as a first
approximation:
f1(X) = q11(X)

(14)

and as a second approximation:

f2(X) = q1 1(X) + q2 2(X)
and successive approximations in a similar way.

(15)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1006
__________________________________________________________________________
Comparison of successive solutions then gives some indication of how accurate the
current solution is. It is worth noting that the solution fi + 1(X) will always be better, or at
least no worse, than the preceding solution fi(X).

5. THE GALERKIN METHOD

In contrast to the Rayleigh-Ritz method which gives a solution after forming the
variational problem, the Galerkin method provides approximate solutions to the
differential equations directly, and is applicable whether the transformation into a
variational problem is possible or not. It therefore seems to have wider scope than the
Rayleigh-Ritz technique and is more attractive in practice since there is no need to
evaluate the potential function. It can be demonstrated, however, that the two methods are
closely related. The Galerkin method proceeds as follows.
Generally, the governing differential equation of a buckling problem can be written as
follows:
L[f(X)] = 0

(16)

where f(X) is the buckling deformation and L stands for a linear and homogeneous
differential operator.
Suppose that the exact solution f(X) of Equation (16), is expressible in the form of a
complete series of functions:

f(X) =

qj j(X)

(17)

satisfying all the required boundary conditions; the "exactness" of this solution can be
expressed by the statement that the left hand side of Equation (16) is orthogonal to every
term in the series of Equation (17); that is:
L[f(X)]j(X) dD = 0 j=1,2,...

(18)

Suppose the series of Equation (17) is truncated to a finite number of terms, n, then using
the above idea, n conditions of orthogonality may be imposed, as follows:

i=1,2,...n

(19)

This can be written as follows because L is a linear operator:

L[j(X)]i(X) dD = 0

i=1,2,...n

(19)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1007
__________________________________________________________________________
This provides an averaging basis for evaluating the n unknown q's such that:

fn(X) =

qj j(X)

(20)

which constitutes an approximate solution to the differential equation.

The left hand side of Equation (19), which involves properties of the system and external
loads via the load multiplier , is quadratic and homogeneous in q's; this equation can be
written in the form of Equation (11) and then treated in the same manner as for the
Rayleigh-Ritz method to find the critical loads.

6. NUMERICAL METHODS
Numerical methods that require the use of a computer may be used to determine the
critical loading. An outline of the Euler finite difference method and the Finite Element
Method is now given.
Euler Finite Difference Method
In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, it is required that the admissible functions be continuously
differentiable throughout the region of integration. The admissible range may be extended
by admitting functions having piecewise continuous derivatives. Therefore, the basis of
Euler's method of finite differences is to divide the region of integration into a certain
number of sub-regions or intervals, assuming linear functions within each one. If fi
denotes the value of the function f at the frontier between intervals i and i+1, derivatives
of f may be expressed as functions of the f's, and the sum of the second variation of energy
over all the intervals is also a function of f's. Here, the f's are to be regarded as the q's in
the Rayleigh-Ritz method; Figure 1a illustrates this approach.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1008
__________________________________________________________________________

Finite Element Method

This method is used especially for solving stability problems for plate and shell structures.
The solution of plate-buckling problems by means of Finite Element theory has been
increasing in popularity because it makes use of a matrix formulation suitable for
computing. The Finite Element Method has the character of a "piecewise" Rayleigh-Ritz
technique; the plate is 'cut' into a number of flat elements joined only at specified nodes,
and continuity and equilibrium are established at these nodes. A large number of small
elements gives a virtually continuous structure, the behaviour of which is similar to a
complete plate. Mixed boundary conditions and varying flexural rigidity can be examined
without difficulty. Complete structures may be analysed and post-critical behaviour may
also be investigated. An example of a plate mesh is shown in Figure 1b.

7. SOME TYPICAL STRAIN ENERGIES

Strain energy expressions are needed to perform calculations using the various energy
methods. Given below are some useful typical strain energy expressions for structural
elements, such as members and plates. These expressions denote the change of strain
energy corresponding to the buckling deformation.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1009
__________________________________________________________________________
Members
Notation
L member length
E Young's modulus
G shear modulus
A cross-section area
Av cross-section shear area
I second moment of area
Iw warping constant
It torsion constant
x abscissa along the member (origin at the beginning of the member)
u(x) axial elongation in member at x

w(x) lateral deflection in member at x

} components of

(x) slope due to curvature alone in member at x } buckling

(x) shearing angle (dw/dx - (x)) in member at x } deformation
(x) torsion angle in member at x

Strain energy

Elongation..... 2U =

(21)

Bending......... 2U =

(22)

Torsion......... 2U =

(23)

Shear........... 2U =

(24)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1010
__________________________________________________________________________

Warping........ 2U =

(25)

Thin Plates
Notation
a plate dimension along x axis
b plate dimension along y axis
t plate thickness
x,y cartesian coordinates of any point (origin at a corner of the plate)
w(x,y) deflection
D plate stiffness = Et3/(12(1-2))
Poisson coefficient
Strain Energy
Bending:

2U =

(26)

8. EXAMPLE USING THE DIFFERENT METHODS

Flexural buckling of a compression member is investigated; the critical load is determined
using Rayleigh coefficient, Rayleigh-Ritz and Galerkin methods.
The studied compression member is shown in Figure 2: it is pin-ended and the ends are
laterally restrained; L, I and E denote the member length, the second moment of area of
the section and Young's modulus respectively; the load P acts vertically downwards; the
critical value Pcr of P is to be determined; the buckling deformation of the member is
shown in Figure 3.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1011
__________________________________________________________________________

Rayleigh Coefficient Method

The following expression is chosen as an approximation of the buckling deflection w(x):
w(x) = a (x2 - xL)

where a = any non zero constant

(27)

which satisfies the boundary conditions w = 0 at x = 0 and x = L. The derivatives are:

dw/dx = 2ax d2w/dx2 = 2a

(28)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1012
__________________________________________________________________________
Performing the integration according to Equation (22), the change of strain energy for the
buckling deformation is:
2U = 2a2EIL

(29)

The change in the potential energy of P is the opposite of the work done by P for the
buckling deformation. The vertical displacement of the point of application of P due to
bending deformation is expressed by:

(30)

and the change of potential energy of external load yields after integration of Equation
(30):
2 = - P = - P a2L3/6

(31)

The critical load multiplier is obtained by Equation (6), that is:

cr =

(32)

and, from Equation (2), the critical value Pcr is as follows:

Pcr = 12

(33)

This value is to be compared with the exact value obtained from the exact buckling
deflection:
w(x) = a sin x/L
that is:

Pcr = 2

= 9,8696

(34)

This shows that a parabolic buckling deflection is not a very good approximation of the
exact buckling mode. If as an approximation the deflection of a simply supported beam
under a uniformly distributed load is chosen, that is:
w(a) = a (x4 - 2x3L + xL3)
the above calculations give:

(35)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1013
__________________________________________________________________________

Pcr = 9,88

(36)

which is very close to the exact value given in Equation (34).

Rayleigh-Ritz Method
To simplify calculations, the origin of the abscissa is set at mid-length of the member (see
Figure 4). A buckling deflection is chosen which is a linear combination of the two
following coordinate functions:

1(x) = x2 - L2/4

(37)

2(x) = x4 - L4/16

(38)

which both satisfy the boundary conditions w = 0 at x = -L/2 and x = L/2.

Therefore the expression for the buckling deflection is:
w(x) = a 1(x) + b2(x) = a (x2 - L2/4) + b(x4 - L4/16)

(39)

The derivatives are:

dw/dx = 2ax + 4bx3 d2w/dx2 = 2a + 12bx2

(40)

The change in strain energy is expressed by:

2U = 2.

dx = EI (2 a2L +

b2L5 + 2 abL3)

(41)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1014
__________________________________________________________________________
The change in the potential energy of the compression load is expressed by:

2 = -2 .

dx = - P

(42)

2V = a2 (2EIL - PL3/6) + b2 (9EIL5/10 - PL7/56) + ab (2EIL3 - PL5/10)

(43)

and Equations (4), (41) and (42) give:

The required derivatives are:

(44)
and the matrix [a] of Equation (22) is:

[a] =

(45)

Its determinant is given by:

Det [a] = (4EIL - PL3/3) (9EIL5/5 - PL7/28) - (2EIL3 - PL5/10)2

(46)

The smallest positive solution of Det [a] = 0 is:

Pcr = 9,875

(47)

which is to be compared to the exact value given in Equation (34). Although the
coordinate functions (37) and (38) are individually not really good approximations of the
exact buckling mode, their combination (2 degrees of freedom) gives satisfactory results.
Galerkin method
The same approximation of the buckling deformation and co-ordinate sign convention as
for the Rayleigh-Ritz method is chosen:

where

w(x) = a1(x) + b2(x)

(39)

1(x) = x2 - L2/4

(37)

2(x) = x4 - L4/16

(38)

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1015
__________________________________________________________________________
which both satisfy the required boundary conditions which are w = 0 at x = -L/2 and x =
L/2 (no imposed condition for the end rotations).
It has been seen in Lecture 6.3 that the differential equation governing flexural buckling of
a compression member is:

EI

+ Pw = 0

(48)

The set of equations obtained from Equation (19) is:

(49)

The required derivatives are:

d21/dx2 = 2

d22/dx2 = 12x2

After integration, the following set of equations is obtained:

a.[PL5/30 - EIL3/3] + b.[PL7/105 - EIL5/10] = 0

(50)

a.[PL7/105 - EIL5/10] + b.[PL9/360 - EIL7/28] = 0

A non-trivial solution exists if the determinant of Equation (50) is equal to zero; that is:
(PL5/30 - EIL3/3) (PL9/360 - EIL7/28) - (PL7/105 - EIL5/10)2 = 0

(51)

whose smallest solution is:

Pcr = 9,8697

(52)

which is nearly equal to the exact value given in Equation (34).

9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Approximate energy methods provide the engineer with practical means to

determine critical loadings for most engineering stability problems; these methods
make assumptions about the nature of the buckling deformation of the elastic

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED STABILITY

1016
__________________________________________________________________________

system, involving adjustable parameters which are determined in order to fulfil the
neutral equilibrium conditions.
The Rayleigh coefficient, the Rayleigh-Ritz method and the Galerkin method
presented herein are well known methods which generally can be manually applied
to simple buckling problems of isolated structural elements under basic loadings.
As the number of degrees of freedom increases these methods generally require
computer analysis as do the Euler finite difference and finite element methods.
Several other methods of analysis are given in the technical literature; one of these,
involving iterative procedures, is described in Lecture 6.5.

10. ADDITIONAL READING

1. Richards T.H., "Energy Methods in Stress Analysis", Rainbow Bridge Book
Company, 1977.
2. Mason J., "Variational, Incremental and Energy Methods in Solid Mechanics and
Shell Theory", Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, New
York, 1980.
3. Langhaar H.L., "Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics", JohnWiley & Sons, New
York, London, 1962.
4. Timoshenko S., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw Hill Book Company, New
York, 1960.
5. Massonnet C., "Rsistance des Matriaux" - Volume 2, Dunod, Paris, 1963.
6. Bleich, F., "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1952.