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source: Woud
Chapter 3
R := c1 v s
physics
PE := R
R v s
PE = effective_power
(3.1)
(3.2)
defined
(3.3)
PE c1 v s
substitution
( )
c1 := y c0 v s
physics
(3.4)
(3.5)
R
1
defined
CT = non_dimensional_total_resistance
Asv s
As (ship surface area) not readily available, so use volume proportionality ...
PE
CE :=
Vol v s
= Vol
since
PE
CE :=
Ro :=
CE:=
2
3
v 3
s
vs
g Le
k
9/7/2005
(3.8)
3
(3.9)
(3.11)
Fr = froude_number
defined
(3.10)
Ro = non_dimensional_roughness
Len
PE
v s
Re = reynolds_number
Fr :=
(3.7)
PE
Vol
Vol v s
Re :=
Vol :=
CE
As ~ Vol^2/3
defined
CE = specific_resistance
(3.6)
PE c1 v s
c1 :=
1
PE
3
vs
(3.12)
PE := v s C
CE
1
c1 :=
PE
c1 CE
vs
(3.13)
PE := v s C
CE
e.g. if CE and v s are assumed constant ... a change in from nominal changes effective power
2
3
P
PE :=
E_nom
nom
3.4.2 Propulsion
(3.14)
PE := R
R v s
(3.2)
defined
PT = thrust_power
(3.15)
TR
T
=>
R := (1 t) T
T :=
defined
R
1t
(3.16)
"The term thrust deduction was chosen because only part of the thrust produced by the propellers is
used to overcome the pure towing resistance of the ship, the remaining part has to overcome the added
resistance: so going from thrust T to resistance R there is a deduction. The term is somewhat
misleading since starting from restance R the actual thrust T is increased." page 55
Wake fraction
propeller generally in boundary layer of ship where velocity is reduced; v A is then < vs
w :=
vs vA
v s
w = wake_fraction
defined
(3.17)
w = difference_between_ship_speed_and_advance_velocity_in_front_of_propeller_relative_to_v s
"(Note that as a result of the suction of the propeller, the actual water velocity at the propeller entrance is much
higher than the ship's speed: the advance velocity, however is equal to the water velocity at the propeller disc
area if the propeller would not be present In other words it is the far field velocity that is felt by the propeller
located in the boundary layer of the hull.)" page 56
thus ...
9/7/2005
v A := (1 w) v s
Hull efficiency
redefine
with these two factors the thrust power does not equal
T :=
v A := (1 w) v s
1t
Propeller efficiency
Po := Q p
since ...
o :=
H :=
H :=
R vs
R
T v A
PE
(3.18)
PT
1t
(3.19)
1w
to deliver the required thrust at a certain ship's speed, power must be delivered to
defined
p := 2nn p
PT
defined
Po
o
(3.20)
Po = open_water_power
Po := Q
p
Po 2 Q n p
o = open_water_efficiency
1
2
vA
(3.21)
Qn p
"In reality, i.e. behind the ship, the torque Mp and thus the power delivered Pp actually delivered to the propeller
are slightly different as a result of the non-uniform velocity field in front of the propeller." page 58
PNA vol II page 135 says: " Behind the hull, at the same effective speed of advance V A, the thrust T and revolutions
T
T
VA
(34)
n will be associated with some different torque Q, and the efficiency behind the hull will be B :=
2nQ
The ratio of behind to open efficiencies under these conditions is called the relative rotative efficiency, being given
by
B :=
T
T VA
o :=
2nQ
T VA
T
R :=
2nQo
B
o
Q
Q
o
(35)
(3.22)
Pp 2 M p n p
and ... the ratio between open water power and actually delivered power is
Po
o
Q
R :=
R
Pp
Mp
Propulsive efficiency
D :=
PE
PD
(3.23)
defined
rewriting ...
D
=
D =
effective_power
power_delivered
PE
for kp = 1
(3.24)
Pp
PE PT Po
PE PT Po
Pp PT Po
PT Po Pp
PE
PT
1 t
1w
o :=
PT
Po
R :=
Po
D := H o R
Pp
(3.25)
9/7/2005
D :=
1t
1 w
o R
(3.26)
Actuator Disk
VA, p0, D0
stream tube
assume: propeller is a disk with
diameter D and area A
VA+v, D1
p0
frictionless
no rotation - upstream or downstream
model propeller as thin "actuator disk"
causing instantaneous increase in
pressure
actuator disk A
pressure in
stream tube
A1 , D1 , VA + v
D , A, V
(10.1)
Thrust = T = Ap
continuity ...
m_dot
VA = constant
= VAA0 = V A = VA + v A1
V
2
2
D0 =
D
VA
D0 :=
V
VA
D1 =
D1 :=
VA + v
T :=
D1
T simplify
VA + v
V D v
D0
(10.3a)
(10.4)
VA
p+
(10.2)
(10.3)
)2 A0VA2
VA + v
T = A1 VA + v
VA D0 = V D = VA + v D1
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9/8/2006
D0 , A0 , VA
1
2
(10.5)
2
v = constant
p+
ahead ...
1
2
2
V = p 0 + VA
2
2
p =
1
2
VA + v
A :=
T := A p
T :=
D v 2 VA + v
2 VA + v
p :=
1
4
1
2
v 2 VA + v
)
v
V := VA +
2
D VA +
(10.6)
V D v
so ....
1
2
2
V = p 0 + VA + v
2
2
)2 VA2 = 2 v (2 VA + v)
result ...
(10.5)
p + p +
aft ...
v v
T :=
D
D VA +
v
2
(10.9)
CT :=
T
1
D VA
2
4
Given
CT 2 VA +
substitute (10.9)
CT = 2 VA +
1
2
Find( v )
V 2
A
VA
1
2
a quadratic in v
V 2
A
(10.10)
1
1
2
2
( 1 ) + ( 1 + CT)
( 1 ) ( 1 + CT)
VA
I = ideal_efficiency =
I :=
with ...
9/8/2006
9/8/2006
T VA
T V
= ( 1 ) + 1 + CT
)2
useful_work_from_disk
work_done_on_fluid_by_thrust_per_unit_time
VA
VA + v
PT
Padded
T VA
T V
(10.11)
v := VA ( 1 ) + ( 1 + CT)
I :=
1+
1 v
2 VA
(10.12)
simplify
1 + 1 + CT
0
1
CT := 2
3
i := 0 .. 4
I :=
i
0.828
I = 0.732
0.667
0.618
2
1+
1 + CT
i
as shown in PNA
0.5
CT
3)
9/8/2006
9/8/2006
I :=
1
1 v
1+
2 VA
=>
less efficient
1
4
D VA +
2
1
2
v v
Propeller Testing
Screw propeller replaced paddle wheel ~1845 in Great Britain (vessel) - Brunel
In test;
independent variables are
velocity of advance
VA
shaft rotation speed
n (rev/sec), N (rev/min)
dependent variables are:
torque
Q
thrust
T
i.e. we build a propeller, rotate it a a given speed in a given flow and measure thrust and torque
(at this point - conceptually - not practical at full scale)
are considering propeller in general, no ship present, => open water
velocities relative to blade:
VA
VR
2**n*r=*n*d
VA
*n*d
test at given n, vary VA, measure thrust (T), torque (Q) and calculate efficiency ( )
Q
T
o
Q
T
o
typical performance curve at
given rotaion speed, note zero
efficiency at VA = 0 and T = 0
VA
Obviously, testing at full scale impractical, hence use model scale and apply to geopmetrically similar propeller.
Expect performance to depend on:
VA velocity of advance
D diameter of propeller
n rotational speed
fluid density
9/8/2006
KT :=
Thrust
KQ :=
Torque
J :=
advance_velocity
T
2
n D
Q
2
VA
n D
ReD :=
N :=
DVA
p pv
1
VA
2
n D
KT = f J , ReD , N
KQ = f J , ReD , N
KQ = f( J)
substituting the above coefficients ...
o :=
T VA
2n Qo
1
2
KT
J
KQ
o :=
KT
2 KQ
so now we test a model scale propeller ~ 12 inches diameter measuring thrust and torque and plotting
non-dimensionally: (10 * K Q is used for similar scales, K Q has extra D when non-dimensionalized)
10*KQ 10*KQ
K T KT
J=VA/(n*D)
9/8/2006
NSMB = Netherlands Ship Model Basin; now MARIN Maritime Research Institute Netherlands
Propeller pitch
Pitch = distance moved along axis of propeller by an imaginary line parallel to the blade chord line for
one rotation of the blade
- unyielding fluid - chord defined as line between nose and tip
P/(2)
tan( ) =
usually non-dimensionalized by D
P
2 r
P
D
r
typically use at r =0.7*R if variable
D = D( r) = D( radius)
B series is family of curves of open water performance at model scale for numbers of blades and area ratio
Blade area ratio AE/A0
Number of
blades Z
.
.
.
.
2 0.30 .
3 . 0.35 .
. 0.5 .
. 0.40 .
. 0.55
4 .
5 .
.
. 0.45 .
.
6 .
.
.
. 0.5 .
.
.
.
. 0.55
7 .
0.65
0.80
0.70
0.6
0.75
0.65
0.80
0.7
0.85 .
above performance curve (K T, KQ, vs. J shown for particular number of blades, P/D A E/A0
B series
5 blades
flatten helix
9/8/2006
0.85 . 1.0
.
1.05
sum expanded section over radius = expanded area of blade * number of blades Z =
expanded area
EAR (Expanded area ratio) = Expanded area / disk area
EAR =
Expanded_area
disk_area
AE
D
later Oosterveld and Van Oossanen published a set of curves based on an empirical curve fit
ref: "Further Compiuter - Analyzed Data of the Wageningen B-Screw Series", International Shipbuilding
Progress, Volume 22
P AE
t
KT = f1 J, ,
, Z, Rn ,
c
D A0
P AE
t
KQ = f2 J, ,
, Z, Rn ,
c
D A0
and ....
the coefficients for Re = 2*10^6 without t/c in the fit are listed in Table 17 page 191 of PNA
P_over_D := 0.6
Kt( J , P_over_D) :=
n= 0
EAR := 0.75
a JsKtnP_over_DtKtnEARuKtnzvKtn
n
46
Kq( J , P_over_D) :=
n=0
(J ,
P_over_D) :=
Kt( J , P_over_D)
2
trust_power
propeller_power
J
Kq( J , P_over_D)
T VA
Q 2 n
n =
revolutions
second
1 n 2D4D
2
VA
Kt J
T
=
Q
1
Q 2 n
2 4
2n
2 Kq
n D D
T
VA
9/8/2006
z := 5
b JsKqnP_over_DtKqnEARuKqnzvKqn
n
we have some data problem with polynomials as they calculate some values beyond real data (K T <0)
(J , P_over_D) := if ( Kt( J , P_over_D) > 0 , ( J , P_over_D) , 0 )
Kt(J , P_over_D) := if ( Kt( J , P_over_D) > 0 , Kt( J , P_over_D) , 0)
plotting constructs
EAR := 0.75
z := 3
P_over_D := 1.2
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.5 0.63 0.75 0.88 1 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.5 1.63 1.75 1.88 2
9/8/2006
Plot for P/D = 1.4, 1.2, 1.0, 0.8, 0.6 calculated using regression relationships
z := 3
B_series
EAR := 0.75
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
9/8/2006
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
we have seen in general the development of the Wageningen B series. The performance curves are available either in chart form or can be generated from
polynomials:
regression coeff. Re=2*10^6
polynomial representation
use in design
A typical design problem calls for designing a propeller that will provide the required thrust at a given speed of advance. These parameters result
from applying thrust deduction and wake fraction to resistance and ship velocity respectively. Design will imply selecting a P/D from a B-series
For now we will arbitrarily pick a number of blades and expanded area ratio. Later we will address the criteria in their selection. Reviewing the
non-dimensional forms of the parameters associated with thrust and speed:
VA
T
we have independent variables n and D. Normally one of these is determined by other criteria, e.g. maximum diameter
KT =
J=
2 4
n D
by hull form, or n by the propulsion train design, so we will look at two cases, one in which D is fixed - determine n,
n D
and the other where n is fixed determine D
case 1
VA , T, D
given:
T
2
n D
n D
D VA
VA
Kt_over_J_sq :=
T
2
D VA
this says that propeller (full scale and model) must match this ratio which is a constant determined by T,
VA, D and
we can plot a curve of KT vs J2 and determine the points (values of J) for which K T vs J for a given P/D
match.
the design point for a particular propeller (B.n.nn) i.e. n is determined from the value of J that satisfies:
9/12/2006
Kt( J) = constant J
Kt_over_J_sq := 0.544
what n i.e. J will satisfy the relationship for a B 5.75 propeller with P/D -1.0
Kt_design ( J) := Kt_over_J_sq J
z := 5
EAR := 0.75
P_over_D := 1.0
determine intersection
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Kt
10 * Kq
efficiency
Kt = constant*J^2
intersection
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
intersection occurs at
9/12/2006
JJ = 0.64
so ...
n=
VA
JJ D
1.4
1.5
1.6
selection of the optimum n for this B z.EAR propeller is a matter of comparing similar curves for a range of
P/D and choosing the maximum open water efficiency o
z=5
B series
say ....
EAR = 0.75
1.4
1.2
P_over_D := 1.0
0.8
0.6
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
busy plot of Kt, Kq, o and Kt = constant * J^2. see breakdown below. P/D not labeled but ~ J at Kt = 0
9/12/2006
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
intersection solution
plot with only Kt but vertical lines at J for Kt/J^2 = Kt to show points which satisfy the design requirements
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Kt, efficiency
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
P/D = 0.6
9/12/2006
P/D = 0.8
P/D = 1.0
P/D = 1.2
P/D = 1.4
note the o at each J intersection and select the maximum (P/D curves not well labeled, P/D ~ = J at K T=0. left to right lowest to highest
1
0.9
0.8
Kt, efficiency
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
so ...
9/12/2006
n=
VA
J_ans D
J_ans = 0.64
P_over_D_ans = 1
case 2
VA , T, n
given:
T
2
n D
n D
VA
Kt_over_J_4 :=
this says that propeller (full scale and model) must match this ratio which is a constant determined by T,
VA, n and
VA
T
2
we can plot a curve of KT vs J4 and determine the points (values of J) for which K T vs J for a given P/D
D VA
for example, let
match.
Kt_over_J_4 := 0.544
Kt_design( J) := Kt_over_J_4 J
z := 5
EAR := 0.75
the design point for a particular propeller (B.n.nn) i.e. n is determined from the value of J that satisfies:
since the process is identical to case 1, only the final result is shown
intersection solution
9/12/2006
Kt( J) = constant J
note the o at each J intersection and select the maximum (P/D curves not well labeled, P/D ~ = J at K T=0. left to right lowest to highest)
1
0.9
0.8
Kt, efficiency
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
and ...
9/12/2006
D=
VA
J_ans n
J_ans = 0.74
P_over_D_ans = 1
The procedure in using these charts depends on the nature of the problem to be solved; that is, on which
data are known and which are unknown. In general, propeller design problems belong to one of the
following categories:
1. Preliminary Design.
a. Given: The designed speed of the ship, the corresponding ehp and the propeller diameter .Required:
b. Given: The designed speed of the ship the corresponding ehp and the engine rpm. Required: The
2. Final Design.
Given: The ehp curve as a function of the ship speed, the propeller diameter, and the power output of
Required: The propeller pitch, the efficiency and the ship speed obtainable under the given conditions.
3. Analysis.
Given: The propeller dimensions, the ship speed, power, thrust and rpm.
The KT vs J2 (J4 ) design approach we have done to date is directed at 1. Preliminary Design. At this stage,
the power required is determined based on a reasonable first estimate of propeller efficiency determined with
this approach. The propulsion plant is then sized accordingly. The propulsion plant may have discrete
incremental sizes and thus may not exactly match the first estimate exactly. The ship design proceeds,
perhaps a new resistance (close to preliminary design) etc, is obtained and then Final Design takes place. At
this point, PD (power delivered) to the propeller is known. It may not match (exactly), the preliminary estimate,
hence the V s
may be different.
Taylor selected two parameters for plotting information for design work:
and ..
These are not non-dimensional but Taylor thought that was ok "since propellers work in water of practically
constant density, which will be taken care of by the constants used". S&P page 100
This motivated NSMB to present the data on plots of P/D vs K Q^1/4*J^(-5/4) = B P^1/2* constant which can be
shown to be equivalent as follows:
1
KQ J
9/13/2006
see B_series_units_US.mcd
1
= 0.17279 BP
P in hp
n in RPM
VA in kts
similarly, not
developed here...
KQ J
= 1.75 BP
P in hpUK
D in ft
VA in kts
1
5
1
4
KQ J
Q VA
=
2 5 n D
n D
4
PD = Q 2 n
lbf ft
PDhp550
2
hp s
2 min
=
rpm
2
5
2
sec
ft
sec
60
in lbf
ft
BP =
2.5
VA
1
5
1
4
KQ J
2
=
rpm
( V kt) 5
PDhp
removing units
:= 1.99
P n2
D
550
5
sec
V
5 2
2 lbf
A
1.688 60
4
ft
1
4
= BP
= 0.1728
5 2
2 1.688 60
550
1
2
PD n
=
5
V 2
A
B_series_units_conversion.xmcd
form of plot shown in PNA: P/D vs Kq1/4*J -5/4. Curves are constant and
1/J. These are derived from the same data as our previous K T KQ curves.
EAR 0.40
z4
1.4
1.2
P/D
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Kq^1/4*J^-5/4
9/13/2006
0.5
2n
n PD
PD
Q =
sec
1.2
1.4
constant
efficiencies
2
absi , j
bp1 :=
i, j
0.17279
158.871
1
= 601.6889
139.697
J
= 124.652 nn =
112.533
102.562
EAR = 0.4
z=4
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
higher to right
= 0.7
1.2
= 0.65
1
P/D
= 0.6
= 103
= 0.55
0.8
= 112
= 0.5
= 125
0.6
= 140
= 159
0.4
10
100
BP1
BP1 :=
VA
PD := 16000hp
100
min
VA := 16knot
0.5
2.5
BP1 = 12.353
0.5
hp
BP_ans := BP1
2.5
min knot
9/13/2006
n :=
we will plot that vertical line on the curves and determine the maximum efficiency, P/D and
= 0.7
1.2
= 0.65
P/D
= 103
0.8
= 112
= 125
= 0.6
= 0.55
0.6
= 140
= 0.5
= 159
0.4
10
100
BP1
0 := 140
0 := 0.67
P_over_D0 := 0.98
approximately
n D
VA
ft
D :=
min knot
0 VA
n
ft
min knot
D = 22.4 ft
D1 := 20ft
V A
1 :=
ft
min knot
1 = 125
1 := 0.65
P_over_D1 := 1.25
approximately
N.B. The shape of the developed curves is generally OK. I'm not completely confident in the exact values. The
validation is not as close as I would like.
9/13/2006
B S E R I E S PROPELLERS
Definition:'
Series
No.
E x p a n d e d Area: R a t i o ,
Percent
o f Blades
Notation:
P/D = Pitch/Diameter
T = Thrust,
Ibf
Q = Torque,
I b f ft.
p = Mass d e n s i t y ,
1.9905 l b f s /ft
n = R o t a t i o n a l speed,
revs/s
D = Maximum d i a m e t e r ,
ft.
VA = V e l o c i t y o f advance,
ft/s
Cavitation Notes
p 0 = uniform_stream_total_pressure
p 1 = pressure_at_arbitrary_point
V0 = uniform_stream_velocity
V1 = velocity_at_arbitrary_point
q=
V0 = dynamic_or_stagnation_or_ram_pressure
p0 +
V0 = constant
2
p 0 := constant
1
2
V0
Bernoulli
p 1 := constant
1
2
V1
p 0 = p a + gh gr
h = shaft_centerline_immersion
gr
V0 estimated as (VA^2+(*r)^2)0.5
L = local_cavitation_number =
define:
p a + gh gr p v
2 2
2
V + r
2 A
early criteria (Barnaby) suggested limiting average thrust per unit area to certain values (76.7
kN/m2 = 10.8 psi) for tip immersion of 11 in increasing by 0.35 psi (unit conversions don't
match up)
76.7
kN
2
= 11.124 psi
can calculate pressure distributions around blade so can calculate local cavitation situation
early in propeller design, want blade area to avoid cavitation (more blade area, less pressure
Burrill ((1943) "Developments in Propeller Design and Manufacture for Merchant Ships",
Trans. Institute of Marine Engineers, London, Vol. 55) proposed guidance as follows:
limit thrust (coefficient) to a certain value depending on cavitation number at the 0.7 radius
c = coefficient_expressing_mean_loading_on_blades
T = thrust
c =
= water_density
AP
1
2
AP = projected_area
VR
VR = relative_velocity_of_water_at_0_7_radius
AP
AD
= 1.067 0.229
P
D
T=
PE
( 1 t) V
PE
D = quasi_propulsive_coefficient =
PD
:= 1.0259 10
= 1.99057
0.7 =
VA + ( 0.7 n D)
2
(1 t) V
VA + 4.836( n D)
PE = effective_power
PE = RTV
H =
m
VA =
sec
188.2 + 19.62 h
2
D=m
C :=
c + 0.3064 0.523
0.0305
0.2
0.2
n = sec
C = cavitation %
0.0174
example numbers
0.2
:= 0.4 c := 0.2
C :=
c( C , ) := C 0.0305
0.2
0.2
c as above
at 0.7 radius as
above (centerline
immersion)
c + 0.3064 0.523
0.0305
or ...
h=m
in US units
Carmichael correlation
:= 0.1 , 0.11 .. 2
1t
1w
2026 + 64.4
0.7 =
RT = T( 1 t)
= H R o
VA + 4.836 ( n D)
PD = delivered_power
slug
ft
p 0 + gh p v
1
PD D
0.7
3 kg
3
C = 8.88
% cavitation
0.0174
0.0174 + 0.523
0.2
0.3064
c =
1
2
AP =
1
VR C 0.0305
2
2
T
0.2
AP
VR
= C 0.0305
0.0174 + 0.523
0.2
0.3064
0.2
0.0174 + 0.523
0.2
0.3064
Ap = minimum_area_for_specified_cavitation
c(30, )
c(20, )
c(10, )
c(5, )
c(2, )
0.1
0.1
Carmichael correlation valid only for C <= 25 %. 30 % shown to indicate over estimates
compared with fig 45 page 182 of PNA
for example from prop_design_notes
T := 278000lbf
derived above
VA := 14kt
rpm := min
kt := 1.688
p 0 = 14.696 psi
n := 218rpm
ft
s
p v = 0.694 psi
D := 15ft
P_over_D := 0.8
0.7 r =
p 0 + gh p v
1
2
:=
h := 10ft
VA + ( 0.7nD)
188.2 + 19.62 h
2
VA + 4.836(n D)
2
2
VA + ( 0.7nD)
D=m
h=m
m
VA = 7.203
D = 4.572 m
s
p 0 + gh p v
1
m
VA =
sec
= 0.179
0.5
h = 3.048 m n = 3.633
= 0.179 using SI
approximation
VR := VA + ( 0.7n D)
n = sec
m
VR = 37.234
s
1
s
AP( C) :=
1
2
AP
0.2
0.2
VR C 0.0305
0.0174 + 0.523
0.3064
2
AD
= 1.067 0.229
P
D
assume AD ~ AE
AP( C)
AE( C) :=
1.067 0.229 P_over_D
cavitation %
C =
AE( C) =
=
2
D
23.045 2
m
4
18.48
AP( C) =
20.367
5
10
15
20
25
16.333
13.632
15.425
1.404
11.698
13.236
1.126
10.245
11.592
0.94
0.806
0.706
D = 4.572 m
m
VA = 7.203
s
n = 218
m
VA := 10
s
0.7 r =
2
2
VA + ( 0.7nD)
:=
c( C , ) := C 0.0305
0.2
0.7nD = 167.573
p 0 + gh p v
1
2
0.7nD = 36.531
min
n := 1000rpm
p 0 + gh p v
1
VA + ( 0.7nD)
m
s
m
s
= 8.8 10
C := 25
0.0174 + 0.523
0.2
0.3064
c( C , ) = 0.243
Waterjet
VA
velocity inlet
w
Vs
Vj
wake fraction
ship velocity
nozzle (outlet) velocity
Vj
VA := Vs(1 w)
T = m_dot VJ VA
m_dot = mass_flow_rate
VA
p local = p atmos + g d
1
1
2
2
p oin = p local + VA = p atmos + gd + VA
2
2
1
2
p op = p oin g(d + h) = p atmos gh + VA
2
1
2
p oj = p atmos + Vj
2
1
1
2
2 1
2
2
p oj p op = p atmos + Vj p atmos + gh VA = Vj VA + gh
2
2
2
p oj p op
i =
i =
PTi
D =
Ppi
PTi
Ppi
T VA
Ppi
V VA
2 j
1
Ppi = m_dot
p oj p op
+ gh
1
2
2
= m_dot Vj VA + g h
effective_power
power_delivered
PE
Ppi
R Vs
PPi
m_dot VA VJ VA
1
2
2
m_dot Vj VA + g h
(1 t) T Vs
PPi
2 VA VJ VA
2
Vj VA + 2g h
1 t PTi
1 t T VA
1 t
1 w PPi
1 w Ppi
1 w
i
2 VA VJ VA
2
Vj VA + 2g h
VJ
2
=
VA
2
Vj
gh
V 1 + 2 2
A
V
VJ
if h = 0
VA
i =
Vj
1
VA
2
Vj
VA
+1
I :=
T VVA
T V
simplify 2
VVA
VVA + VVj
I =
1+
VVj
VVA
Tnet = T Draginlet
Cd =
CD =
Drag
1
2
T = m_dot Vj VA
v A
Drag
1
2
v A
Drag
1
2
VAAVA
Drag
1
2
m_dotVA
Vj
1
1
Tnet = T Draginlet = m_dot Vj VA CD m_dot VA = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA
2
net thrust
1
2 Vj
PT_net = TnetVA = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA
p in_loss
Kin =
1
2
VA
2
Kout =
p out_loss
1
2
Vj
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
p oj p op = Vj VA + gh + p loss = Vj VA + gh + Kin VA + Kout Vj
2
2
2
2
2
V 2
Vj
j
g h
p oj p op = VA
1 + 2
+ Kin + Kout
VA
2
2
VA
VA
Ppi = m_dot
p =
p oj p op
Ppi
2
V 2
Vj
g h
j
= m_dot VA
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
2
A
V
A
Pp = actual_pump_power
Pp
Vj
m_dot p oj p op
1 m_dot VA Vj
g h
Pp =
=
=
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
2
p
p
p
A
V
A
PPi
real =
PT_net
Pp
Vj
1
1 CD
2
VA
m_dot VA
=
Vj
g h
1 m_dot VA Vj
1
+
2
+
K
+
K
out V
in
VA
2
2
p
A
VA
Vj
1
1 CD
2
VA
2 p
real =
2 p
=
Vj
Vj
g h
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
VA
real =
VA
Vj
VA
1 VA
CD
Vj
2 Vj
VA
VA
g h
1
+ 2
+ Kin
+ Kout
2
Vj
Vj
Vj
1
2 p ( 1 )
CD
2
Kin 1 + 1 + Kout + 2
g h
Vj
1
2 p ( 1 )
CD
2
1 + Kout 1 Kin + 2
g h
Vj
1
1
2 p
1 CD
2 ( 1 )
CD
V
2
1t
1t
2
A
D =
=
2
2
2
g h
1w p
1w p
1 + Kout 1 Kin + 2
Vj
Vj
g h
2
V 1 + 2 2 + Kin + Kout V
Vj
VA
as from above ...
1
2 Vj
net thrust power
PT_net = TnetV = m_dot VA
1 CD
2
VA
first some comments to relate to previous lecture/notes version and Wrtsil paper
with Kout = 0 (N.B. this just means lumping all the pressure losses into a factor of 1/2* *VA^2 and
Vj
D =
1t
1w
1
1 CD
2
VA
2 p
p
Vj
g h
1 + 2 2
+ K
VA
VA
and ... with CD = 0 and assuming h = 0 (i.e. head loss is small compared to other terms ...
this is the form in the paper with
D =
1t
1w
2 ( 1 )
2
1 + Kout 1 Kin
Kout = = nozzle_loss_coefficient
at this point, assuming K, C D, and p are constant, could differentiate wrt V j/VA (or
) and determine V j/VA for max propulsive coefficient, but minimum weight usually
example
p out_loss
1
2
Kin = = inlet_loss_coefficient
determines parameters.
Kout =
Vj
p in_loss
Kin =
1
2
VA
2
First Law
1 dQ = 1 dW
(5.2)
The net energy interaction between a system and its environment is zero for a cycle executed by the system.
pg 2 Cravalho and Smith
1 dQ 1 dW = 0
plot data
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
v
A process
B process
C process
1 dQ = 1 dW
1 dQ_WB = 1 dQ_WC
dE = Q W
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Q1_2
Q = dE + W
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2
E1
W1_2
(5.5)
dE = dU + dKE + dPE
Closed System
(5.4)
Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W
dU = Q W
m_dote = m_doti = 0
(W 2.3)
cycle may be considered a closed system; initial state and final state are identical, For example (detailed
discussion later)
pressure
volume
adiabatic compression
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection
closed (cycle)
d
U = 0 = Q_dot W_dot
dt
Q_dot = W_dot
Qcycle = Wcycle
(W 2.6)
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example 5.3
Sonntag example 5.3: vessel with volume 5 m 3 contains 0.05 m 3 of saturated liquid water and 4.95 m 3 of
saturated water vapor at 0.01 MPa. Heat is added until the vessel is filled with saturated vapor. Determine Q.
3
V := 5m
State 1:
Vvap := 4.95m
MPa := 10 Pa
Vliq := 0.05m
p := 0.1MPa
v f := 0.001043
steam tables at p =
0.1 MPa
v g := 1.694
State 2:
V2 = V
v = vg
u g := 2506.1
kg
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2
first law:
Vliq
vf
V = m v n
n
mass1_liq = 47.9386 kg
x 1 :=
x = quality( of_steam)
Vap H2O
page 616
kg Sonntag
kJ
u fg := 2088.7
kg
Q1_2 = U2 U1
kJ
kg
Liq
H2O
V = 0
z = 0
E=U
Vf
massf =
vf
mass1_vap :=
mass1_vap
Vvap
mass1_vap = 2.9221 kg
v g
x 1 = 0.0575
mass1_vap + mass1_liq
4
U1 := mass1_liqu f + mass1_vapu g
1 Q2
kJ
u = ug
W1_2 = 0
mass1_liq :=
u f := 417.36
kg
kJ := 10 J
U1 = 2.7331 10 kJ
x%1 := x 1 100
x%1 = 5.7453
u 1 = 537.3611
kJ
kg
U11 = 2.7331 10 kJ
u g = u f + u fg
mass1_liqu f + mass1_vapu g
u 1a =
mass1_liq + mass1_vap
mass1_liq u f + mass1_vap u f + u fg
mass1_liq + mass1_vap
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9/21/2006
u fg = 2.0887 10
3 kJ
kg
3 kJ
u g u f = 2.0887 10
substitute for u g
f + x 1 u fg
kg
is added.
v 2 = 0.0983
mass_total
kg
my_interp( x2 ,
x1, y2, y1, vx) := y1 +
vx x1
x2 x1
(y2 y1)
an interpolation statement
v is value between x1 and x 2
result is y at v
x is the value of the independent variable at which to interpolate a result. For best results, this
vg
ug
3
values at 1
values at 2
T1 := 210
v 1g := 0.10441
u 1g := 2599.5
kg
3
T2 := 215
v 2g := 0.09479
pg
kJ
u 2g := 2601.1
kg
p 1g := 1.9062MPa
kg
kJ
p 2g := 2.104MPa
kg
vx := v 2
interpolated values at
T2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , T2 , T1 , vx
p 2 = 2.0317 MPa
u 2 = 2.6005 10
p 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , p 2g , p 1g , vx
u 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , u 2g , u 1g , vx
total internal energy at state 2:
3 kJ
kg
5
U2 := mass_total u 2
Q1_2 := U2 U1
T2 = 213.1717
U2 = 1.3226 10 kJ
Q1_2 = 104933 kJ
ug
vg
3
values at 1
p 1g := 2.0MPa
v 1g := 0.09963
v 2g := 0.08875
kg
u 1g := 2600.3
kJ
u 2g := 2602.0
kJ
values at 2
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9/21/2006
p 2g := 2.25MPa
kg
kg
kg
vx x1
x2 x1
T
(y2 y1)
T1 := 212.42
T2 := 218.45
vx := v 2
interpolated values at
T2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , T2 , T1 , vx
T2 = 213.1529
p 2 = 2.0304 MPa
u 2 = 2.6005 10
p 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , p 2g , p 1g , vx
u 2 := my_interp v 2g , v 1g , u 2g , u 1g , vx
Q1_2 := U2 U1
kg
5
U2 := mass_total u 2
3 kJ
U2 = 1.3226 10 kJ
Q1_2 = 104933 kJ
example 5.3
divide by t
U
t
KE
t
PE
t
W
t
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Q = U + KE + PE + W = E + W
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
first law as a rate equation - for a control volume (Woud: system boundary)
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2
=>
Q
t
E2 E1
t
+ W
(5.38)
Et
Et_t
E1 := Et + eimi
E2 := Et_t + eeme
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9/21/2006
(5.39)
p iv imi
p ev eme
divide by t and substitute into first law ... (5.38) and combining and rearranging
Q
mi
t
Et_t Et
ei + p iv i =
e + p v = u + pv +
me
ee + p ev e +
Wc_v
E2 E1
t
H = U + p V
+ g z
+ W
(5.38)
(5.42)
+ g z = h +
(5.41)
W + p ev eme p iv imi
(5.43)
h = u + p v
enthalpy defined - is
a property (5.12)
therefore ...
2
2
E
W
Vi
Ve
me
t_t Et
c_v
+
hi +
+ g zi =
+
he +
+ g ze +
2
2
t
t
t
t
mi
mi
me
and
(5.44)
example 5.4
Sonntag example 5.4 a cylinder fitted with a piston has volume 0.1m3 and contains 0.5 kg steam at 0.4 MPa.
Heat is transferred until the temperature is 300 deg_C while pressure is constant
What are the heat and work for this process?
3
V1 := 0.1m
T2 := 300 deg_C
quality =
mtot := 0.5kg
p := 0.4MPa
mass_of_vapor
total_mass
v f := 0.001084
kg
v g := 0.4625
v 1 = v f + x v fg
constant pressure
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2
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1x=
an intensive property
=x
kg
x :=
v fg := v g v f
v1 vf
v fg = 0.4614
kg
x = 0.4311
v fg
W1_2 = p V2 V1 = p mtot v 2 v 1
E2 E1 = U2 U1
as V^2 and z = 0
mass_of_liquid
total_mass
E2 E1 = U2 U1 = mtot u 2 u 1
h f := 604.74
kJ
kg
h fg := 2133.8
Q1_2 := mtot h 2 h 1
kJ
kg
h 1 := h f + x h fg
h 1 = 1.5246 10
3 kJ
kg
Q1_2 = 771.0904 kJ
3
v 1 = 0.2
kg
W1_2 := p mtot v 2 v 1
W1_2 = 90.96 kJ
U := Q1_2 p mtot v 2 v 1
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9/21/2006
U = 680.1304 kJ
example 5.4
kJ
kg
v 2 := 0.6548
h 2 := 3066.8
kg
d
Qc_v +
dt
Vi
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
i i
i = Ec_v +
2
dt
Ve
(5.45)
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
e e
e + Wc_v
2
dt
system boundary
m_dote, ve, he
Q_dot
z = elevation
Q_dot = heat_flow
i = inlet
W_dot = work_flow
ze
e = exit
m_dot = mass_flow
v = velocity
m_doti, vi, hi
m, U
m = mass_system
h = specific_enthalpy
U = internal_energy_system
zi
First law: change of energy within the system equals the heat flow into the system, minus the work flow delivered
by the system, plus the difference in the enthalpy, H, kinetic energy E kin and potential energy Epot of the entering
and exiting mass flows.
assuming energy
E = U + Ekin + Epot
and ...
Ekin = Epot = 0
Ve
Vi
d
U = Q_dot W_dot + m_doti h i +
+ g zi m_dote h e +
+ g z e
2
2
dt
enthalpy = H = U + p V
enthalpy = h = U + p v
E=U
a defined property
steady state, steady flow process ... Woud: open systems steady state (stationary)
assumptions ...
1. control volume does not move relative to the coordinate frame
2. the mass in the control volume does not vary with time
3. the mass flux and the state of mass at each discrete area of flow on the control surface do not vary with time
and .. the rates at which heat and work cross the control surface remain constant.
d
mc_v = 0
dt
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d
Ec_v = 0
dt
m_dot = flow_rate
m_dotin = m_doten
n
d
Qc_v +
dt
(5.46)
Vi
m_dotin h i + 2 + g zi =
Ve
d
m_doten he + 2 + g ze + dt Wc_v
2
2
Vi Ve
W_dot = Q_dot + m_dot h i h e +
+ g ( zi ze)
2
q=
d
Qc_v
dt
w=
m_dot
(5.47)
Wc_v
dt
m_dot
Vi
q + hi +
+ g zi = h e +
2
Ve
+ g ze
+ w
(5.50)
m_doten m_dotin = 0
d
mc_v +
dt
d m
dt = m2_c_v m1_c_v
dt c_v
m_doti dt =
n
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9/21/2006
mi
n
m_doten dt = men
n
m2_c_v m1_c_v +
men min = 0
n
(5.53)
d
Qc_v +
dt
Vi
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
z
i i
i = Ec_v +
2
dt
Ve
(5.45)
d
m_dot
h
+
g
z
+
+ Wc_v
e e
e
2
dt
2
2
Vi
Vc_v
d
=
m_dot
h
+
+
g
z
m
u
+
+
g
c_v
i i
i
c_v ...
2
2
dt
Ve
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
z
+
e e
e + Wc_v
2
dt
d Q
dt = Qc_v
dt c_v
Vi
m_doti h i + 2 + g zi dt =
Vi
mi hi + 2 + g zi
2
2
2
V2
Vc_v
V1
d m u
dt
m
u
+
+
g
z
=
+
+
g
u
+
+
g
z
2 2
c_v
2
1 1
1
dt c_v
2
2
2
Ve
m_dote h e + 2 + g ze dt =
Ve
me he + 2 + g ze
d W
dt = Wc_v
dt c_v
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9/21/2006
Vi
min h i + 2 + g zi =
Ve
men h e + 2 + g ze ...
2
2
V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v
2
2
10
(5.54)
Summary of Thermo
from: first_law_rev_2005.mcd,
second_law_rev_2005.mcd,
availability.mcd
ref: van Wylen & Sonntag (eqn
#s) Woud (W nn.nn)
First Law
1 dQ = 1 dW
Q1_2
Q1_2 = E2 E1 + W1_2
E1
(5.2)
W1_2
(5.5)
Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W
Closed System
d
U = Q_dot W_dot
dt
dU = Q W
(5.4)
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Q = U + KE + PE + W = E + W
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
H = U + p V
Vi
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
i i
i = Ec_v +
2
dt
E = U + Ekin + Epot
Ve
d
m_dot
h
+
+
g
e e
e + Wc_v
2
dt
and ...
Ekin = Epot = 0
Vi
Ve
d
+ g zi m_dote h e +
+ g ze
U = Q_dot W_dot + m_doti h i +
2
2
dt
m_dotin = m_doten
n
d
Qc_v +
dt
Vi
m_dotin h i + 2 + g zi =
enthalpy defined - is
a property (5.12)
h = u + p v
d
Qc_v +
dt
(5.45)
E=U
Ve
d
m_doten he + 2 + g ze + dt Wc_v
(W 2.3)
m_dote = m_doti = 0
(5.47), (W2.8)
q + hi +
+ g zi = h e +
2
10/6/2005
Ve
2
+ g ze + w
(5.50)
Vi
min h i + 2 + g zi =
Ve
men h e + 2 + g ze ...
(5.54)
2
2
V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v
2
2
Second Law
Carnot cycle most efficient, and only function of temperature
Entropy
1 dQ = 0
Qrev
dS =
1
T
reversible ...
1
T
TL
TH
dQ 0
1 dQ 0
dQ = 0
(7.2)
dQrev. = S2 S1
thermal = 1
1
T
1
T
dQ < 0
dQ is
(7.3)
S2 S1
1
T
dQ
Q_dot c_v
(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)
n
c_v
d
Sc_v = 0
dt
(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)
n
(7.49)
= when reversible
(7.50)
Q_dot c_v
(7.51)
c_v
= when reversible
m2 s2 m1 s1 +
(
mese)
(
)
10/6/2005
Q_dot
c_v
mi si
dt
(7.56)
= when reversible
(7.7)
Availability
reversible work (maximum) of a control volume that exchanges heat with the
surroundings at To
2
2
Vi
Ve
...
Wrev =
min hi To si + 2 + g zi men h e Tose + 2 + g ze (8.7)
n
n
latter [..] is total for
2
2
V2
V1
c.v.
+ m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
2
V1
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
V2
u
T
s
+
+
g
z
2
o 2
2
2
(8.8)
W_dot rev =
2
Vi
T
s
+
+
g
z
in i
o i
i
2
Ve
T
s
+
+
g
z
en e
o e
e
2
(8.9)
Ve
= wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g ze
m_dot
2
2
Vi
W_dot rev
(8.10)
availablity
steady state, steady flow process ...(e.g. single flow ...availability (per unit mass flow)
Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2
Vi
(8.16)
reversible work between any two states = decrease in availablity between them
wrev = i e = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 To s1 h 2 + To s2 = h 1 h 2 To s1 s2
min in
men en
n
10/6/2005
(8.18)
(8.17) extended
) (
= u + p o v To s u o + p o v o To so = u u o + p o v v o To s so
(8.21)
wrev_1_2 = 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +
10/6/2005
V1 V2
2
+ g z1 z2
(8.22)
Availability
control volume in uniform state, uniform flow process USUF, irreversible Q c.v. and Wc.v.
what if process were reversible, how much work would have been done if the process had been reversible
Wrev = Wc_v_rev +
Wc
(8.1)
I = irreversibility = Wrev
Wcv
first law for uniform state, uniform process ... from first_law.mcd
9/27/2006
Vi
min hi + 2 + g zi =
Ve
men he + 2 + g ze ...
2
2
V2
V1
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 + Wc_v_rev
2
2
Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev
S = Sc_v_rev
Q_dot
c_v_rev
dt
Sc_v_rev =
Qo = To S
Q_dot
c_v_rev
=
dt
To
T
Qo
and
Q_dot
c_v_rev
dt
Qo = To
Q_dot
c_v_rev
dt Qc_v_rev
Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev = To
(8.4)
m2 s2 m1 s1 +
(
mese)
(
)
Q_dot
c_v
dt
mi si =
Wc = Qo Qc_v_rev = To m2 s2 m1 s1 +
so ... the bottom line, substitute (8.3) rearranged and (8.6) into (8.1)
(
mese)
(
misi) Qc_v_rev
n
Wrev = Wc_v_rev + Wc
2
2
Vi
Ve
Wrev = Qc_v_rev +
min h i + 2 + g zi men he + 2 + g ze ...
n
n
2
2
V1
V2
+ m2 u 2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 +
+ g z1 ...
2
2
+ To m2 s2 m1 s1 +
me se)
mi si) Qc_v_rev
(
n
n
(7.56) = when
reversible (8.5)
} (8.3)
} (8.6)
Qc_v_rev cancels and rearranging (moving T o and s terms into mass flow terms) ...
reversible work (maximum) of a control volume that exchanges heat with the
surroundings at To
2
2
Vi
Ve
Wrev =
min hi To si + 2 + g zi men h e To se + 2 + g ze ...
n
n
2
2
V
V2
1
+ m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
2
(8.7)
latter [..] is total for
c.v.
two special cases: a system (fixed mass) and steady-state, steady flow process for a control volume
9/27/2006
Vi
min h i Tosi + 2 + g zi = 0
Ve
men h e Tose + 2 + g ze = 0
m1 = m2 = m
V1
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1
2
V2
u 2 To s2 + 2 + g z2
(8.8)
V2
V1
m2 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2 m1 u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 = 0
2
2
2
Vi
min hi To si + 2 + g zi
Ve
men h e Tose + 2 + g ze
(8.9)
Ve
= wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g z e
2
2
m_dot
W_dot rev
Vi
(8.10)
Ve
wrev = h i To si +
+ g zi h e To se +
+ g z e
2
2
Vi
(8.10)
maximum when mass leaving c.v. is in equilibrium with environment. define = availability (per unit mass flow)
steady state, steady flow process ...(e.g. single flow ...availability (per unit mass flow)
2
Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2
(8.16)
reversible work between any two states = decrease in availablity between them
9/27/2006
W dotrev =
min in men en
n
(8.18)
2
2
V1
V2
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 u 2 To s2 +
+ g
z2
2
2
) (
wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 u 2 To s2
becomes ...
) (
wrev_max = u To s u o To so
(8.8)
(8.19)
availability per unit mass is then ... this maximum work - that done against the surroundings
Wsurr = p o Vo V = m p o v o v
(8.20)
) (
) (
= u + p o v To s u o + p o v o To so = u u o + p o v v o To s so
(8.21)
wrev_1_2 = 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +
V1 V2
2
+ g z1 z2
(8.22)
check ...
1 := u 1 u o + p o v 1 v o To s1 so
wrev_1_2 := 1 2 p o v 1 v 2 +
V1 V2
2
2 := u 2 u o + p o v 2 v o To s2 so
+ g z1 z2
1
2 1
2
wrev_1_2 simplify u 1 To s1 u 2 + To s2 + V1 V2 + g z1 g z2
2
2
matches ...
Wrev_1_2
m
9/27/2006
2
2
V1
V2
= wrev_1_2 = u 1 To s1 +
+ g z1 u 2 To s2 +
+ g z2
2
2
kPa := 10 Pa
kJ := 10 J
T1_C := 200
Vo
= h To s +
+ g z h o To so +
+ g zo
2
2
1 saturated
T1 := 273 + T1_C K
environment
(dead state)
p 0 := 10
5 N
2
(8.16)
T1 = 473 K p 1 := 1.5538MPa
T0_C := 30
h 1 := 852.45
kJ
kg
kJ
s1 := 2.3309
kg
K
p 0 = 100 kPa
water at this state is "compressed liquid" as pressure exceeds saturation pressure at 30 deg C
p sat_30 := 4.246kPa
v f_30 := 1.004 10
3
3m
h f_30 := 125.79
kg
kJ
kJ
sf_30 := 0.437
kg K
kg
limited values for compressed liquid are in Table A.1.4 well beyond this pressure
water is ~ incompessible
values for u, v and s can be estimated to be the saturation values at the T so... (see example validation below)
v 0 := v f_30
s0 := sf_30
h = u + p v
dh = du + p dv + v dp
1 dh = h 2 h 1 = 1 du + p dv
+ v dp
1 du = cv T2 T1
h 2 h 1 = v 1 dp = v f( T) p 2 p 1
:= h 1 T0 s1 h 0 T0 s0
9/27/2006
= 152.409
h 0 = 125.886
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
to show example of estimates u, v, and s of compressed liquid = saturation, but not h consider value in Table vs
stauration at T
i := 1 .. 4
Table A.1.1.1
saturation
t=40 deg C
Table A.1.1.4
p=10MPa
T=40 deg C
difference
(col 2 - col 3)
-------------------col2
data := u 166.35
167.56
167.57
h 176.38
s 0.5686
0.5725
data
i, 1
data
data
i, 2
100 =
i, 1
-0.5
-0.7
5
-0.7
h := data
kJ
3 , 2 kg
+ data
1 , 2 kg
data
data
0, 1
Pa data
kJ
3 , 1 kg
data
9/27/2006
kJ
Pa
3 , 1 kg
0, 2
100 = 0.716
h = 177.643
kJ
kg
Keenan Availabilty
Keenan's definition:
the maximum work which can result from interaction of system and medium when only cyclic changes occur in
external things except for the rise of a weight.
page 290
medium: environment, atmosphere of infinite extent in which system operates;
- in most stable state
- all parts at rest relative to each other
- homogeneous in temperature and composition
- uniform in pressure at any height in gravitational field
to be shown:
) (
Availability = E + p o V To S Eo + p o Vo To So
po , To pressure and temperature of medium (and of system at dead state - no more possibility of obtaining work)
Q = heat_flow_TO_system
To T
Q
T
Wstate_change =
as ...
Qmed := To S
S
work := To T S
S
W > 0
+ if into, - if out of
Q := TS
S
S :=
Q
T
Q
work To T
T
not only work done by system ... volume can expand, etc
any change in volume dV is resisted by the medium with pressure p o therefore work done by
system - the amount of which can be received by things other then the medium is then ...
10/6/2005
W = all_work_done_by_system
and net work delivered is then ...
W p o dV
Wnet := W +
To T
T
W := Q dE
Q
Wnet collect , T dE p o dV + To
T
Q p o dV
dV
cancels
substitute
Q
Wnet = dE + To
p o dV
T
Q
= dS
Wnet = dE p o dV + To dS
it follows that the maximum amount of work that can be
delivered by each step is then the decrease in ...
maximum decrease is to the dead state
E + p o V To S
Availability_at_state = E + p o V To S Eo + p o Vo To So
E2 + p o V2 To S2 E1 + p o V1 To S1
[146]
which is negative unless work or heat is supplied TO the system from a source other than the medium
10/6/2005
[145]
Second Law
Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a cycle and produce no effect other than the
raising of a weight and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir.
Clausius: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no other effect than the
transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body.
Woud: used to: 1) predict the direction of processes
if it is impossible to have a heat engine with 100% efficiency, how high can it go??
define ideal process, termed reversible process: a process that, once having taken place, can be reversed
without changing either the system or surroundings
examples irreversible; piston expanding against stop
reversible; piston expanding by removing and replacing weights; excerpt from VW&S page 166 good
Carnot cycle
example steam power plant - working substance steam
boiler - heat transferred from high T (constant) reservoir to
steam - steam T only infinitesimally lower than reservoir
=> reversible isothermal heat transfer process. (phase
change fluid - vapor is such a process
turbine - reversible adiabatic (no heat transfer) T
decreases from T H to TL
condenser - heat rejected from working fluid to T L reservoir
(infinitesimal T) some steam condensed
pump - temperature raised to T H adiabaticly
can reverse and act as refrigerator
thermal =
W = energy_sought
QH = energy_that_costs
QH QL
QH
=1
QL
QH
QL
QH
= TL , TH
QH
QL
( ) TH
=
f( TL)
TL
f TH
proposed by
Lord Kelvin
thermal = 1
TL
TH
derive scale from non-Carnot heat engine operating at steam T H and ice temperature TL
th = 0.2680 = 1
TL := 200
initial values
9/25/2006
Given
0.2680 = 1
TL
TH
TL
T := 100
TH = TL + T
TH
most efficient
TH
:= Find( TH , TL)
TL
TH 373.134
=
TL
273.134
Entropy
inequality of Clausius ...
1
T
dQ 0
1 dQ = QH QL > 0
if ..
1
T
dQ =
QH
TH
1 dQ
QL
TL
=0
1 dQ 0
1
T
dQ = 0
dQ = 0
and ...
for both
1 dQ = QH QL_irrev > 0
and ...
1
T
dQ =
QH
TH
=>
QL_irrev
TL
<0
1 dQ = 0
1
T
dQ < 0
9/25/2006
1 dQ 0
1
T
dQ < 0
Clausius?
2
Boiler
1 dQ 0
dQ =
dQboiler +
Condenser
Pump
mass := 1kg
kJ
h fg := 2066.3
q 1_2 := h fg
q 1_2 = 2066.3
h f := 225.94
x 3 := 0.9
h 3 := h f + x 3 h fg
x 4 := 0.1
h 4 := h f + x 4 h fg
MPa := 10 Pa
p 1 := 0.7MPa
p condenser = p 3 = p 4 = 15kPa
kJ
kg
kg
T1 := 164.97
kJ
kg
h fg := 2373.1
q 3_4 := h 4 h 3
kJ
kg
kJ := 10 J
q 1_2
T1 + 273.15
q 3_4
T3 + 273.15
deg_C
q = h
T3 := 53.97
q 3_4 = 1898.48
int_dQ_over_T = 1.087
9/25/2006
kPa := 10 Pa
kJ
kg
1
1
1 dQboiler +
1 dQcondenser
dQcondenser =
Tcondenser
T
Tboiler
boiler ...
Turbine
kJ
kg
deg_K
is < 0
entropy
plot data
2.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
1
T
dQ = 0
A -B
dQ = 0 =
T
dQA +
TA
2.5
A process
B process
C process
reversible ...
1.5
1
TB
A-C
dQB
dQ = 0 =
T
dQA +
TA
1
TC
dQC
dQB =
TB
1
TC
dQC
1
T
dQ is independent of
Qrev
reversible ...
entropy is an extensive property and
entropy per unit mass is = S
1
T
dQrev. = S2 S1
(7.3)
9/25/2006
(7.2), W (2.13)
example Carnot
i := 1 .. 2
1 to 2
2
Q1_2
dQrev. = S2 S1 =
TH
T
1
2 to 3 - adiabatic
i := 2 .. 3
3
1
T
dQrev. = 0 = S3 S2
S3 = S2
3 to 4
i := 3 .. 4
Q3_4
dQrev. = S2 S1 =
TL
T
1
4 to 1 - adiabatic
1
T
dQrev. = 0 = S1 S4
S1 = S4
i := 4 .. 5
i := 1 .. 5
9/25/2006
reversible ...
W = p dV
substitute ...
T dS = dU + p d
since ...
H = U + p
substitute ...
T dS = dH V dp
QED
Q = dE + W
(5.4)
Q = dU + W
W = F d = p Ads = p dV
(7.5)
dH = dU + p dV + V dp
QED
(7.6)
T ds = du + p v
on a per unit
mass ...
(7.7)
T ds = dh v dp
applicable to BOTH reversible and irreversible processes as they are relationships between state variables
2.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
2.5
A process reversible
B process reversible
C process irreversible
A - B reversible ...
1.5
dQ = 0 =
T
dQA +
TA
1
TB
dQB
A - C irreversible
dQ =
T
dQA +
TA
1
TC
dQC < 0
dQA +
TA
9/25/2006
1
dQB
dQA +
TB
TA
1
1
TC
dQC > 0
inequality of Clausius
dQB
TB
1
TC
dQC > 0
dQB >
TB
1
TC
dQC
TB_rev
2
2
1
1 dSC >
1
TC
dQC
or in general ... dS
S2 S1
Q
T
(W 2.14)
dSsystem
dSsurr =
T0
Q
1
Q
1
dSnet = dSsystem + dSsurr
= Q
T
T0
T T0
thus ...
0
T0
dSisolated_system 0
9/25/2006
Q
T
LW
T
S2 S1
1 Q
1 LW
+
t T
t T
(7.43)
St = entropy_in_c_v_at_time_t
St_t = entropy_in_c_v_at_time_t_plus_t
S1 = St + s mi = entropy_of_system_at_time_t
i
S2 = St_t + s me = entropy_of_system_at_time_t_plus_t
e
S2 S1 = St_t St + s me s mi
e
i
etc .....
(m_dotese) (m_dotisi)
n
Q_dot c_v
(m_dotese) (m_dotisi)
9/25/2006
= when reversible
c_v
d
Sc_v = 0
dt
(7.49)
(7.50)
Q_dot c_v
(7.51)
c_v
= when reversible
(7.44)
d
(m s)
+
c_v
dt
(
m_dotese)
(
m_dotisi)
n
Q_dot c_v
(7.54)
= when reversible
c_v
d (m s)
dt = m2 s2 m1 s1
c_v
dt
in control volume
(
m_dotese)
dt = (
mese)
(m_dotisi)
dt = (
misi)
m2 s2 m1 s1 +
Q_dot c_v
dt
mi si
T
c_v
(
mese)
(
)
n
(7.55)
= when reversible
since the temperature over the control volume is uniform at any instant of time
t
Q_dot
Q_dot c_v
1
c_v
d
=
dt
t
=
Q_dot
d
t
c_v
T
T
T
c_v
c_v
0
m2 s2 m1 s1 +
Q_dot
c_v
dt
mi si
(
mese)
(
)
(7.56)
= when reversible
time and .. the rates at which heat and work cross the control surface remain constant.
example: centrifugal air compressor, operating at constant mass rate of flow, constant rate of heat transfer to
the surroundings, and constant input power.
throughout the entire control volume - I define this as f(t) but not of space
3. the state of mass crossing each of the areas of flow on the control surface is constant with time
example: filling a closed tank with a gas or liquid, discharge from a closed vessel.
9/25/2006
10
B series z = 5
EAR = 0.75
Kt_over_J_sq = 1.111
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
P/D = 1.4
P/D = 1.2
P/D = 1.2
P/D = 1.4
P/D = 1.0
P/D = 1.0
P/D = 0.8
P/D = 0.8
P/D = 0.6
P/D = 0.6
UNITS (Propulsors)
Quantity
SI
U.S.
Mass, m
kg
slug
kg/s
slug/s
Thrust, T
N ( or kN)
lbf
Torque, Q
Nm (or kNm)
lbf ft
Density ,
kg/m3
slugs/ft3
lb s2/ft4
Velocity , V
m/s
ft/s
Rotational speed,n
rps
rps
Rankine cycle
kJ := 10 J
kN := 10 N
kPa := 10 Pa
MPa := 10 Pa
bar := 0.1MPa
Q_dotH
Boiler
Rankine
cycle
(Furnace
Reactor)
W-dotnet
Boiler
Q_dotH
Wt
Turbine
3 - superheated vapor
4 - vapor + liquid @ saturation
temperature and pressure
4 - vapor + liquid at
saturation temperature and pressure
2 - subcooled liquid at
boiler pressure
Condenser
Q_dotL
Pump
Wp
T1 := 40
p 1 := 7.384kPa
v f_1 := 0.0010078
kg
v 1 := v f_1
kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K
s1 := sf_1
10/24/2005
h f_1 := 167.57
h 1 := h f_1
kJ
kg
h fg_1 := 2406.7
kJ
kg
p 2 := 30bar
h 2 := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
wp := h 1 h 2
h 22 := 170.21
h 2 = 170.586
kg
using Cp
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
kJ
h 2 = 170.586
kg
kJ
wp = 3.016
kg
kJ
T22 := 40
kg
Cp := 4.184
kJ
kJ
kg
kg K
actual units
T2 := T22 +
h 2 h 22
Cp
T2 = 40.09
s = constant interpolation
h 2 = 170.586
kJ
kg
using
and then C p
T2 = 40.09
T2a = 40.096
h2 = h1 + v1 p2 p1
h 2c = 170.6
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
T2b = 40.093
T2c = 40.096
p 3 := p 2
T3 := 460
p 3 = 3 MPa
h 3 := 3366.7
kJ
kg
kJ
s3 := 7.114
kg K
interpolation
h 3a = 3366.5
kJ
s3a = 7.113
kg K
kg
isentropic expansion to 40 deg C
s4 := s3
determine h4 from x
s4 sf_1
=>
s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
x :=
x = 0.851
sfg_1
h 4 := h f_1 + h fg_1x
h 4 = 2216
kJ
wt = 1150
kg
wt := h 3 h 4
10/24/2005
kJ
kJ
kg
thermal efficiency
th =
th :=
work_net
QH
th_1 :=
QH + QL
QH
wt + wp
QH
th = 0.359
h3 h2
QH := h 3 h 2
QH + QL
QH
th :=
QL := h 1 h 4
th_1 = 0.359
10/24/2005
h3 h2
wt + wp
h3 h2
th = 0.359
T-s Plot
500
T degrees C
400
300
200
100
4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
h-s Plot
4000
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
10/24/2005
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
T degrees C
40.2
40
39.8
39.6
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.59
180
175
h enthalpy kJ/kg
170
165
160
155
150
0.54
10/24/2005
0.56
0.58
0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.62
0.64
Properties of Water
a k a Thermodynamic Properties of Working Fluids with Phase change
discussion of water properties, T s diagram, stauration, phase change, h - s diagram critical pressure
~ figure 3.3 VW & S
T temperature deg C
600
400
200
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
saturation - liquid
saturation - vapor
pressure = 50 MPa
pressure = 5 MPa
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
saturated - liquid
saturated - vapor
T = constant = 100 C
p = constant = 5 MPa
10/12/2005
10
h - s diagram
120 < T < 140
0.35 < s < 0.45
h - s diagram
whole range
2500
140
2000
enthalpy h
enthalpy h
135
130
125
120
0.36
0.38
0.4
entropy s
0.42
0.44
2
3
entropy s
p = 5 MPa
p = 20 MPa
saturated liquid
trace 4
32
T - s diagram
28 < T < 32
0.4 < s < 0.45
31
T temperature C
1000
500
p = 5 MPa
p = 20 MPa
saturated liquid
trace 4
30
29
28
0.4
0.41
0.42
0.43
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.44
p = 5 MPa
p = 10 MPa
p = 20 MPa
saturated liquid
trace 5
10/12/2005
1500
kN := 10 N kPa := 10 Pa
MPa := 10 Pa
kJ := 10 J bar := 0.1MPa
We have seen the calculation of a Rankine steam cycle in rankine_class_example.mcd Repeating these
calculations for various combinations of boiler pressure and temperature allows us to investigate pressure and
temperature on ideal thermal efficiency. the calculations are done in the area by doing a matrix of combinations:
30
60
p 2 :=
bar
90
120
233.90
275.64
Tsat :=
303.4
324.75
Tsat
T3 := 460
540
(
Tsat
460 560
233.90
275.64
TT3 :=
303.4
324.75
efficiency calculations
460 560
30
460 560 60
bar
460 560
90
460 560
120
0.45
0.44
efficiency (reversible)
0.42
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.3
30
39
48
57
66
75
84
pressure bars
93
102
111
saturated
460 deg C superheat
560 deg C superheat
This plot shows the ideal efficiency at various combinations of pressure and temperature.
data for saturation curve
10/14/2005
120
select_pressure :=
ip := select_pressure 1
p2
select_temperature :=
30
60
90
120
ip
= 6 MPa
saturated
superheat to 460 deg C
superheat to 560 deg C
iT := select_temperature 1
TT3
ip , iT
T-s Plot
500
400
T degrees C
300
200
100
4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
h-s Plot
4000
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
10/14/2005
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
10
= 460
46
T degrees C
44
42
40
38
0.5
0.55
0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.65
180
175
h enthalpy kJ/kg
170
165
160
155
150
0.54
10/14/2005
0.56
0.58
0.6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.62
0.64
=1
using this approach let's calculate the thermal efficiency and compare with above
T_bar_H
2804.2
2784.3
h3 =
2742.1
2684.9
3366.6 3591.7
3326.1 3564.2 kJ
3283.1 3535.7
kg
3237.2 3506.2
i := 0 .. 3
170.586
173.609
kJ
h2 =
K
176.633
kg K
179.656
6.187
5.889
s3 =
5.677
5.492
7.114 7.402
6.753 7.057 kJ
6.521 6.844
kg K
6.34
6.684
kJ
s2 = 0.572
kg K
j := 0 .. 2
QL = h 1 h 4
QH = h 3 h 2
i, j
i, j
i
QL = h 1 h 4
T_bar_H
i, j
:=
h3
i, j
469.082
491.036
T_bar_H =
502.57
509.206
h2
i
s3 s2
i, j
488.545 500.917
510.095 522.852
K
522.253 535.608
530.17
544.309
entropy average low temperature ... is the constant condenser pressure - convert to K
T_bar_L := T1 + 273.15 K
i , j := 1
(
Tsat
T_bar_L
T_bar_H
i, j
460 560
10/14/2005
T1 = 40
(
Tsat
30
60 bar
90
120
460 560
30
60 bar
90
120
hp
Turbine
Boiler
Wt1
Q_dotH
Wt2
lp
Turbine
5
6
Feed
Pump
Condenser
Q_dotL
1
Wfp
10/26/2005
0.45
0.44
0.42
thermal efficiency
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.3
30
39
48
57
66
75
84
pressure bars
93
102
111
120
N.B. efficiency decreases at saturation reheat, and at 460 C reheat at 12 MPa. This is observable when looking at
the T - s plot below for saturation temperature. The effect is noticeable at all pressures, but most significant at 12
MPa. Recall the entropy average temperature concept and observe that the temperature where heat is being added
is lowered.
The benefit from reheat is the exhaust moisture in the turbine output (in the latter stages of the single turbine)
quality out of hp turbine
0.8615
0.8034
x4 =
0.7619
0.7258
1.0427 1.0989
0.972 1.0315
0.9267 0.9899
0.8913 0.9586
0.8773
0.8985
x6 =
0.9117
0.9214
0.9767 1.0124
0.9767 1.0124
0.9767 1.0124
0.9767 1.0124
0.731
0.692
x=
0.664
0.64
N.B. values of x > 1 are bogus and actual x = 1, i.e. steam is superheated vapor
10/26/2005
0.851 0.889
0.804 0.844
0.774 0.816
0.75
0.795
select_pressure :=
ip := select_pressure 1
p2
select_temperature :=
30
60
90
120
ip
= 12 MPa
saturated
superheat to 460 deg C
superheat to 560 deg C
iT := select_temperature 1
TT3
T-s Plot
400
T degrees C
300
200
100
4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
h-s Plot
4000
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
10/26/2005
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
ip , iT
= 324.75
kN := 10 N
6
MPa := 10 Pa
kJ := 10 J
3
kPa := 10 Pa
bar := 0.1MPa
differences/assumptions:
Boiler
Q_dotH
Wt
Turbine
4 - vapor + liquid at
saturation temperature and pressure
2 - subcooled liquid at
boiler pressure
Condenser
Q_dotL
Pump
Wp
same as reversible
3
T1 := 40
kJ
sf_1 := 0.5725
kg K
p 1 := 7.384kPa
kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K
s1 := sf_1
v f_1 := 0.0010078
h f_1 := 167.57
kJ
kg
kg
v 1 := v f_1
h fg_1 := 2406.7
h 1 := h f_1
properties p =3 Mpa
s2s := s1
kJ
kg
p 2 := 30bar
h 2s := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
kJ
wps = 3.016
kg
wps := h 1 h 2s
calc of T in earlier version
incorrect see VW&S 5.18
with C = 4.184 kJ/(kg*K)
Table A.7
@ T = 40 C
p = 3 MPa
using Cp
Cp := 4.184
kJ
h 2s = 170.586
kg
T2 := T1 +
v1 p2 p1
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
actual units
h 2s h 22s
T2s := T22 +
T2s = 40.09
Cp
as above ...
h 1 h 2s
h 2s = h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
h1 h2
h 2 = 170.921
kJ
kg
wp := h 1 h 2
p := 0.9
kJ
wp = 3.351
kg
T2 = 40.801
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
h 2 = 170.921
kg
kJ
pressure same
actual_h
@ T = 40 C
p = 3 MPa
h 22 := 170.21
Cp
kg K
T22 := 40
p
h 2 h 1
kJ
kg
reversible_h
p =
kJ
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
h 2 := h 1 +
h 2s = 170.586
h 22s := 170.21
kJ
T22 := 40
kg
T2 := T22 +
h 2 h 22
Cp
T2 = 40.17
T
data =
40 0.571 170.21
80 1.073 337.26
irreversible ...
1 kJ
s2 = 0.573
K kg
h 2s = 170.586
h 2 = 170.921
w/o units
input = h 2
T3 := 460
kJ
kg
kJ
input = 170.921
T_int = 40.17
1 kJ
s2s = 0.572
K kg
T2s = 40.09
kg
1 kJ
s2 = 0.573
K kg
T2 = 40.17
kJ
wp = 3.351
kg
same as reversible
p 3 = 3 MPa
h 3 := 3366.5
kJ
kg
kJ
s3 := 7.113
kg K
kJ
wps = 3.016
kg
s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
h 4s := h f_1 + h fg_1xs
kJ
h 4s = 2216
actual_enthalpy_change
reversible_enthalpy_change
h 4 := h 3 t h 3 h 4s
kg
s4 := sf_1 + x sfg_1
summary ..
reversible ...
T4s := 40
T4 := 40
t := 0.9
kJ
kg
kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg
kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg
wt := h 3 h 4
or ...
h 4 = h f_1 + h fg_1x
h 4 h f_1
x :=
h fg_1
x = 0.899
1 kJ
s4 = 7.48
K kg
h 4s = 2215.982
h 4 = 2331.034
irreversible ...
ths :=
kJ
wts = 1151
kg
h 4 = h 3 t h 3
h 4s
h 4 = 2331.034
xs = 0.851
sfg_1
same temperature
h 3 h 4s
s4s sf_1
wts := h 3 h 4s
h3 h4
wt := wts p
work of turbine
xs :=
=>
s4s := s3
QHs := h 3 h 2s
kJ
1 kJ
s4s = 7.113
K kg
T4s = 40
kg
kJ
1 kJ
s4 = 7.48
K kg
T4 = 40
kg
th =
work_net
QH
QH + QL
QH
ths = 0.359
QLs := h 1 h 4s
wt + wp
QH
ths :=
th_1s :=
h 3 h 2s
QHs
kJ
wt = 1035.466
kg
wts + wps
QHs + QLs
kJ
wts = 1150.518
kg
h3 h2
ths = 0.359
th_1s = 0.359
QH := h 3 h 2
th = 0.323
th :=
QL := h 1 h 4
th_1 :=
10/24/2005
wt + wp
h3 h2
QH + QL
QH
th = 0.323
th_1 = 0.323
T-s Plot
500
T degrees C
400
300
200
100
4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
irreversible cycle
reversible cycle
saturated liquid
saturated vapor
h-s Plot
4000
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
irreversible cycle
reversible cycle
saturated liquid
saturated vapor
10/24/2005
10
T degrees C
40.2
40
39.8
39.6
0.57
0.572
0.574
0.576
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.578
174
h enthalpy kJ/kg
172
170
168
166
0.56
10/24/2005
0.57
0.58
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
0.59
kPa := 10 Pa
MPa := 10 Pa
kJ := 10 J bar := 0.1MPa
kN := 10 N
same as reference
3
T1 := 40
s1 := sf_1
p 1 := 7.384kPa
kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K
v f_1 := 0.0010078
h f_1 := 167.57
kJ
v 1 := v f_1
kg
h fg_1 := 2406.7
kg
kJ
h 1 := h f_1
kg
p 2 := 30bar
s2 := s1
wp := h 1 h 2
Cp := 4.184
using Cp
kJ
wp = 3.016
kg
p 3 := p 2
h 2 := h 1 + v 1 p 2 p 1
kJ
kJ
kg
kg K
h 2 = 170.586
T2 := T1 +
h2 h1
Cp
interpolation
h 3 = 3366.5
h 4 = 2216
kJ
th =
work_net
QH
QH + QL
QH
wt + wp
QH
th = 0.359
kJ
s3 = 7.113
kg K
kJ
wt = 1150
kg
th :=
QL := h 1 h 4
th_1 :=
10/17/2005
kg
wt := h 3 h 4
kg
thermal efficiency
th :=
kJ
determine h4 from x
s4 sf_1
=>
s4 = sf_1 + x sfg_1
x :=
x = 0.851
sfg_1
h 4 := h f_1 + h fg_1x
kg
T2 = 40.721
p 3 = 3 MPa
kJ
actual units
h 2 h 1 = Cp T2 T1
T3 := 460
wt + wp
h3 h2
QH + QL
QH
th = 0.359
th_1 = 0.359
T=40 C
Wt
Turbine
Boiler
Q_dotH
Feed
Pump
Condenser
Regenerative
3 feed heater 2
Q_dotL
Wfp
Wcp
Condensate Pump
the state values are identical to the reference, however the fraction
of total mass flow is less = 1-m 1
T1 := 40
s1 := sf_1
s2 := s1
h 2 := h f_1 + v f_1 p 2 p 1
kJ
wcp = 0.396
kg
kJ
kg
h fg_1 := 2406.7
kg
kJ
kg
h 1 := h f_1
T2 := T1 +
h 2 = 167.966
h2 h1
Cp
kJ
kg
T2 = 40.095
p 2 = 400 kPa
v 3 := 1.0836 10
10/17/2005
h f_1 := 167.57
wcp := h f_1 h 2
p 3 := p 2
kJ
sfg_1 := 7.6845
kg K
v f_1 := 0.0010078
state 2: condensate
pump outlet (1-m1)
p 2 := 4bar
p 1 := 7.384kPa
h 3 := 604.74
3
3m
kJ
kg
h fg_3 := 2133.9
kg
kJ
s3 := 1.7766
kg K
kJ
kg
kJ
sfg_3 := 5.1193
kg K
h 4 := h 3 + v 3 p 4 p 3
kJ
wfp = 2.817
kg
wfp := h 3 h 4
p 4 := 3MPa
T5 := 460
h 5 := 3366.6
h4 h3
x 6 :=
s6 s3
kJ
s4 := s3
kg
kJ
s5 := 7.1144
kg K
kg
x 6 = 1.043
sfg_3
T6 := T3
1 kJ
s6 = 7.114
K kg
kJ
T4 = 144.303
Cp
=>
p = 4bar = 400kPa
h 4 = 607.557
p 5 = 3 MPa
s6 = s3 + x 6 sfg_3
T4 := T3 +
p 6 := p 3
s6 := s5
interpolation
h 6 := 2834.491
kJ
T6 := 187.702
kg
x 7 :=
=>
h 7 := h 1 + h fg_1x 7
s7 s1
T7 := T1
x 7 = 0.851
sfg_1
h 7 = 2216.42
s7 := s5
kJ
kg
now we can do the turbine flow through 6 = m1 treat like x; combination of m 1 at h6 and (1-m1) at h2 = h3
for heat balance out of feed heater
m1 h 6 + 1 m1 h 2 = h 3
h3 h2
m1 =
h6 h2
h3 h2
m1 :=
h6 h2
)(
wt := h 5 h 6 + 1 m1 h 6 h 7
thermal efficiency
th :=
kJ
wt = 1048.94
kg
)
(
wt + wcp 1 m1 + wfp
h 5 h 4
wfp = 2817.36 Sv
th = 0.379
th_1 = 0.359
10/17/2005
m1 = 0.164
kJ
h 4 = 607.557
kg
kJ
s6 = 7.114
kg K
kJ
T1 = 40
kg
kJ
s4 = 1.777
kg K
1 kJ
s1 = 0.572
K
kg
th =
QH QL
QH
=1
QH = mH T ds
QL
QH
T_barH =
and ...
h5 h4
T_barH :=
s5 s4
QL = mL T ds
T constant
( ) = hH
mH ( sH)
mH ( sH)
sH
T_barHmH ( sH) = QH
QH
mH h H
T_barH = 516.888 K
T_barL := T1 + 273.15 K
mH := 1
T_barL = 313.15 K
( )
T_barLmL sL = QL
but ...
as ...
t_avg_1 := 1
)(
T_barL 1 m1 s7
s1
T_barH s6 s3
but ...
s5 = s6 = s7
th = 1
t_avg_1 = 0.379
QL
QH
=1
T_barL
T_barH
t_avg_2 = 0.394
precise T avg
estimated T avg
t_avg_1 = 0.379
t_avg_2 = 0.394
actual regenerative
th = 0.379
"perfect regeneration"
data for saturation curve
10/17/2005
( )
T_barHmH ( sH)
T_barLmL sL
matches as expected
suppose we didn't allow for the difference in s and mass flow and just said
t_avg_2 := 1
s4 s1
reference
th_1 = 0.359
T-s Plot
500
T degrees C
400
300
200
100
4
5
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
h-s Plot
4000
h enthalpy kJ/kg
3000
2000
1000
10/17/2005
4
6
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10
T - s plot
40
39
0.56
T - s plot
146
T degrees C
T degrees C
41
144
142
1.7
0.565
0.57
0.575
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
170
1.75
1.8
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
620
h enthalpy kJ/kg
h enthalpy kJ/kg
615
168
605
166
0.56
600
0.57
0.58
0.59
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
10/17/2005
610
1.76
1.78
s entropy kJ/(kg*K)
Combustion
kN := 10 N
6
MPa := 10 Pa
kPa := 10 Pa
3
kJ := 10 J
overkill in this case but general method represented by solution of simultaneous equations from elements involved
x := 1
Given
element:
C
z = 12
y := 1
z := 1
x 2 = y + 2 z
26 = 2 y
x
y := Find( x, y , z)
x 18.5
y = 13
z 12
so combustion equation is
37
C12H26 + x O2 = y H2O + z CO2 + heat C12H26 +
O = 13 H2O + 12 CO2 + heat
2 2
O2 comes with nitrogen: 21% by volume and 23.3% by weight in air (79% N2 by volume and 76.7% N2 by
weight - ~ 1% Ar lumped with N2) so ... need 79/21 atoms (volume) N2 for each O2
18.5
79
21
= 69.6
mw_O2 := 32
kg
kmol
mw_H2_O := (2 + 16)
kg
kmol
kg
kmol
mw_N2 := 28
kg
kmol
kg
kmol
1kmolC12H26 + 18.5 kmolO2 + 69.6 kmolN2 = 13 kmolH2O + 12kmol CO2 + 69.6kmol N2 + LHV
170
170
18.5 kmol.mw_O2
12kmol mw_C_O2
O2 ...
CO2 ...
+
+
170
170
69.6 kmolmw_N2
69.6kmol
mw_N2
+
N2
+
N2
170
170
10/11/2004
1kg C12 H26 + 3.48 kg O2 + 11.46 kg N2 = 1.38 kg H2O + 3.11 k C O2 + 11.46 kg N2 + heat
weight of air : weight of fuel = air-fuel ratio
air_fuel_ratio = 14.94
In order to insure complete combustion,air is usually supplied in excess, see example below. Products would
include air i.e. O2 and N2
to analyze combustion process use first law ...
Vi
m_doti hi +
+ g zi =
n
work, KE and PE = 0 ..
conservation of mass ...
Q_dotc_v
m_dotf
Ve
d
m_dote he +
+ g ze + Wc_v
n
dt
(5.47)
p = products
m_dota
m_dota
m_dota
hp hf +
ha = 1 +
hp hf +
h
m_dotf
m_dotf a
m_dotf
m_dotf
m_dotp
Qc_v = HP HR
R = reactants
To quantitatively calculate this equation the basic approach would include accounting for the enthalpy of formation
of each of the entities in the process. To avoid repeatedly accounting for the enthalpy of formation of various fuels
a calculation (measurement) is done at a standard condition and then specific processes need only account for
the deviation from this standard. The standard chosen was 25 deg C and atmospheric pressure (100 kPa) designated the zero (0) subscript. e.g. the enthalpy of formation of C -> CO2 such that 1 kmol C combines with 1
kmol O2 to yield 1 kmol CO2 gives off 393,522 kJ/kmol. This measurement for fuels is accomplished and the net
result is tabulated as the heating value. If the H2O in the products is liquid it is the higher heating value (HHV), if
the H2) is vapor - the heating value is the lower heating vaue (LHV). The difference is due to the heat of
vaporization being extracted as heat.
negative as heating value usually
expressed as positive negative Q in
first law indicates heat given off
10/11/2004
distillate
heavy_bunker
dodecane = diesel
octane = gasoline
kJ
kg
kg
that is ...
kJ
Qc_v_0_octane = HP0 HR0 = heating_value = 47893
kg
) (
m_dota
m_dota
= QB = hf hf0 +
ha ha0 1 +
hp hp0 + heating_value
m_dotf
m_dotf
m_dotf
Q_dotc_v
so ... in calculation of boiler process, need only to look up heating value for fuel - appropriate to its state as gas or
liquid and water product state as gas or liguid (HHV or LHV) then "correct" heat for deviation from standard state
m_dota
m_air_dot
HV + hf hf0 +
ha ha0 1 +
h hp0
Q_dotc_v
QB
m_dotf
m_fuel_dot
p
B =
=
=
m_dotfHHV
HHV
HHV
if for example, the fuel and air entering the boiler are at standard conditions (25 deg C, atmospheric pressure) and
the H2O in the exhaust is vapor, the boiler efficiency becomes ...
ha ha0 = 0
m_air_dot
LHV 1 +
( h hp0)
m_fuel_dot p
B =
HHV
hf hf0 = 0
As an example, let's consider the effect of exhaust (stack) temperature on efficiency ... the calculations are
straight-forward but extensive. We will specify combustion with 15 % excess air of dodecane ...
The calculation of enthelpy of the products is the challenge. Either it can be done by "unlumping" the participants
10/11/2004
example ... combustion of dodecane with 15 % excess air, fuel and air entering at
standard conditions, H2O exhaust as vapor, estimate efficiency of the combustion
process with exhaust temperature of 120, 230, and 340 deg C. An additional calculation
at 226.85 deg C will be done to check the calculations. Assume also 1.5 % heat loss to
environment.
from above ..result is ... combustion of C12H26 by weight ... adjusted for 15 % excess air ... and using the LHV
1kg C12H26 + 3.48 kgO2 + 11.46 kgN2 1.15 = 1.38 kgH2O + 3.11 kgCO2 + 11.46 kg
N2 ... + LHV
which is same as ... athough we will use elemental expression for enthalpy calculation - probably could use
air parameters
C12H26 + (3.48 + 11.46) 1.15air = 1.38 H2O + 3.1 C O2 + 11.46 N2 + (3.48 + 11.46) 0.15air + LHV
weighted average statement ....
where m_xx is mass of the
entity
hp hp0 =
m_H2_O + m_C_O2 + m_N2 + (m_O2 + m_N2) 0.15
to calculate enthalpies at non-standard conditions use constant-pressure specific heats from Table A.9 of Van
Wylen and Sonntag ...
O2
C_O2
N2
H2_O
120
230
+ 273.15 K T := T
T :=
340
100K
500 273.15
10/11/2004
1.5
178.57
0.5
1.5
+ 236.88
4.1034 + 0.024198
+ 1072.7
0.25
1.5
+ 82.751
3.93
5.03
T =
6.13
5
820.40
0.5
3.6989
kJ
T
100
kmol K
kJ
kmol K
given in
kJ/kmole*K so
divide by
molecular weight
to get kJ/kg*K
kJ
kmol K
kJ
kmol K
393.15
503.15
T=
K
613.15
500
T0 := (25 + 273.15)K
integrate
dh = CpdT
hH_2OT = h
h
H2O H2O0
i := 0 .. 3
H2_O
Ti
K 100
kJ
Cpo_H2_0( ) 100 d
kmol
T0
K 100
hH_2OT :=
i
mw_H2_O
C_O2
Ti
K 100
kJ
Cpo_C_O2( ) 100 d
kmol
T0
K 100
hC_O2T :=
i
mw_C_O2
178.81
390.4 kJ
hH_2OT =
609.19
kg
384.25
84.39
191.77 kJ
hC_O2T =
307.3
kg
188.57
N2
Ti
kJ
K 100
Cpo_N2( ) 100 d
kmol
T0
K 100
hN2T :=
i
mw_N2
99.01
214.22 kJ
hN2T =
331.66
kg
210.9
O2
Ti
kJ
K 100
Cpo_O2( ) 100 d
kmol
T0
K 100
hO2T :=
i
mw_O2
10/11/2004
88.02
193.2 kJ
hO2T =
302.34
kg
190.13
etc....
these data could also have been obtained from gas tables. as a check the values for the reference temperature
were obtained fromTable A.11 of VW &S - taken from the gas tables
kJ
hH_2OT mw_H2_O = 6916.45
3
kmol
kJ
hC_O2T mw_C_O2 = 8297.06
3
kmol
kJ
hN2T mw_N2 = 5905.1
3
kmol
kJ
hO2T mw_O2 = 6084.08
3
kmol
hprod :=
m_C_O2 := 3.1
102.26
223.16 kJ
hprod =
347.73 kg
219.65
LHV := 44109
LHV
B
=
HHV := 47470
kg
kJ
kg
1 + m_air_dot h h
(
p0)
m_fuel_dot
p
HHV
air_fuel_ratio =
in this case
B :=
kJ
m_air_dot
m_fuel_dot
in stochiometric combustion
= 14.94
0.985
0.877
0.831
B =
0.784
0.832
C12H26 + (3.48 + 11.46) 1.15air = 1.38 H2O + 3.1 CO2 + 11.46 N2 + (3.48 + 11.46) 0.15air + LHV
B :=
LHV 1.38 hH_2OT + 3.1 hC_O2T + 11.46 1.15 hN2T + 3.48 0.15 hO2T
10/11/2004
HHV
0.985
0.877
0.831
B =
0.784
0.832
m_air_dot
in stochiometric combustion
= 14.94
m_fuel_dot
0.1
exc_air := 0.15
0.25
m_H2_O := 1.38
j := 0 .. 2
m_C_O2 := 3.1
hprod :=
i, j
102.51
223.75
hprod =
348.71
220.23
in this case
i, j
i,0
:=
223.16 222.11 kJ
347.73 345.99 kg
219.65 218.62
102.26 101.82
0.878
0.834
0.985
B =
0.789
0.836
0.877 0.874
0.831 0.825
0.784 0.774
0.832 0.826
0.85
i,1
i,2
0.8
0.75
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Ti273.15
10/11/2004
260
280
300
320
340
kJ := 10 J
3
kmol := 10 mole
p v = RT
R_bar := 8.3144
R=
kJ
p V = m RT
or ...
p v = R T
(3.2)
(3.1)
kJ
kmol K
mw = molecular_weight
mw
R = universal_gas_constant
xxx = mole_basis
T1
mw =
p 2 v 2
kg_mol K
kg
kmol
[W 2.32, 2.33[
(3.5)
T2
if ...
p V = constant
2 1
2
V2
dV = p 1 V1 ln
W1_2 =
p dV = p 1 V1
V
V1
1
V
n=1
(4.5)
Q = dU + pV
cp =
10/23/2006
cv =
Q = dU + pV = H
1 Q
1 H
h
=
=
m T
m T
T
cp =
1
m
= specfic
constant volume
(5.4)
W = pV = 0
dKE = dPE = 0
1 Q
1 U
u
=
=
m T
m T
T
2) constant pressure
1 Q
m T
1 Q
m T
Q = dE + W = dU + dKE + dPE + W
cv =
cv =
c=
u
T
as ....
h
T
constant volume
(5.14)
[W 2.36]
dH = d ( U + p V) = dU + p dV + V dp dp = 0
constant pressure
(5.15)
[W 2.37]
p v = R T
ideal gas
cv =
also ...
experiment (Joule)
u = f( T)
du = cvodT
h = u + p v = u ( T) + R T = h ( T)
cp =
h
T
po
cpo = cvo + R
du
dT
+R
differentiate w.r.t T
(5.27)
p v = R T
and ...
dT
dv
ds = cvo
+ R
T
v
(7.19)
T ds = dh v dp
dh = cpodT
dp
T ds = du + p dv
(7.21)
=>
T
p = R
v
=>
(7.7)
p v = R T
=>
(5.29)
[W 2.38]
[W 2.18]
T
T ds = cvodT + R dv
v
T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvoln
+ R ln (7.24)
T1
v1
(7.7)
and ...
ds = cpo
R
T
p
10/23/2006
h 2 h 1 = cpo T2 T1
otherwise integrate if c(T) known or tables
with constant c
dT
dT
cpo cvo = R
or ...
(5.24)
h = u + pv = u + R T
(5.20)
dh = cpodT
=>
vo
cvo = constant
otherwise integrate or use
tables
[W 2.21]
=>
v = R
=>
T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpoln
R ln
T1
p1
T
T ds = cpodT R dp
p
(7.23)
cpo = constant
otherwise integrate or use
tables
cpo
cpo cvo = R
from above
(7.30)
cvo =
similarly ...
= ( T)
[W 2.44]
cvo
cpo cvo = R
c = c ( T)
cvo ( 1 ) = R
=>
(7.31)
cpo = R + cvo = R +
cpo = R
as ...
cpo
cpo 1
=>
= R = cpo
(7.31)
du + p dv = cvodT + p dv
p v = R T
=>
dT =
1
R
( p dv + v dp)
cvo
cvo
R 1
0 = cvodT + p dv =
(p dv + v dp) + p dv =
(p dv + v dp) + p dv =
( p dv + v dp) + p dv
R
R
1 R
( p dv + v dp) + p dv( 1 ) = v dp + pdv = 0
=>
integrating ...
p1 v1
T1
dv
v
or ...
dividing by pv
= 0
(7.32)
p v = constant
[W 2.49]
p2 v2
v1
=>
T2
v2
v 1 T1 p 2 T1 p 2
= =
=
p1
v 2 T2 p 1 T2 p 1
p2
v 1
p1
v 2
p2
rearranging ...
dp
=>
p 2 T1
T1 p 2
T2 p 1
T2 p 1
=>
p2
p1
=>
T1
=
T2
T1
=
p1
T2
p2
T2
T1
and ... for reversible adiabatic process constant specific heat (ideal gas)
p2
=
T1
p1
T2
10/23/2006
v 1
v 2
(7.35)
or ...
T p
T v
= T p
= constant
= constant
[W 2.47]
[W 2.48]
to explore the effect of temperature on the coefficients of specific heat the following is
provided
to calculate enthalpies at non-standard conditions one approach is to use constant-pressure specific heats from
Table A.9 of Van Wylen and Sonntag ... The applicable temperature range for these materials is 300 - 3500 deg K
with less than approximately 0.5 % maximum error to experimental values. see also figure 5.10 on page 103.
O2
C_O2
N2
H2_O
1.5
178.57
0.5
1.5
+ 236.88
4.1034 + 0.024198
+ 1072.7
0.25
1.5
+ 82.751
820.40
0.5
kJ
T
100
kmol K
given in
kJ/kmole*K so
divide by
molecular weight
to get kJ/kg*K
kJ
kmol K
kJ
kmol K
kJ
3.6989
kmol K
70
60
specific heat
specific heat
60
O2
CO2
N2
H2O
air
50
40
20
200
400
600
800
50
40
20
1000
1000
2000
Temperature deg K
Temperature deg K
10/23/2006
O2
CO2
N2
H2O
air
30
30
T in deg
K
3000
the next section was added Nov 2005 to organize plots for Brayton and dual (Seiliger) cycles
:= 1.4
kJ
cpo := 1.0035
cvo :=
kg
K
cpo
cvo = 0.717
Tinitial := 400
sinitial := 1
v initial :=
R Tinitial
v initial = 1.148
p initial100
p final
Tfinal := Tinitial
pinitial
p final := 10
pinitial
v final := v initial
p final
sfinal := sinitial
Tfinal = 772.279
v final = 0.222
sfinal = 1
p final p initial
20
p initial
v_plot( pp) := v initial
pp
Ts_plot :=
Tinitial sinitial
Tfinal sfinal
800
600
400
0.99
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
0.995
1
s
10/23/2006
400 1
772.279 1
10
0
0.2
Ts_plot =
1.005
Tinitial := 400
sinitial := 1
1
vinitial
Tfinal := Tinitial
v final
v final :=
10
Tfinal = 1.005 10
R Tinitial
p initial :=
p initial = 1.148
v initial100
vinitial
p final := p initial
v final
sfinal := sinitial
p final = 28.836
sfinal = 1
p final p initial
20
pinitial
pv_plot( pp) := v initial
pp
Ts_plot :=
Tinitial sinitial
Tfinal sfinal
Ts_plot =
1
400
1.005 10 1
40
1500
1000
20
500
0
0.99
0.2
0.4
0.6
or ....
1
s
0.8
v :=
v final v initial
20
vinitial
pv_plot( vv) := p initial
vv
0.995
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
v
10/23/2006
1.005
sinitial := 1
Tfinal := 500
p constant := 3 bar
v initial = 1
Tfinal
sfinal := sinitial + cpo ln
Tinitial
sfinal = 1.519
v final = 0.1
p - v is a straight line
needing only end
points to plot
pv_plot :=
p constant vinitial
p constant v final
pv_plot =
TT := Tinitial .. Tfinal
3 1
3 0.1
initial
TT
3.004
500
3.002
400
T
300
2.998
2.996
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
200
1.2
1.4
v
s
10/23/2006
1.6
Tinitial := 450
sinitial := 1
Tfinal := 298
v constant := 0.3
p initial :=
R Tinitial
p initial = 4.305
v constant100
Tfinal
sfinal := sinitial + cvo ln
Tinitial
sfinal = 0.705
p final :=
R Tfinal
p final = 2.851
v constant100
p - v is a straight line
needing only end
points to plot
pv_plot :=
p initial
pfinal
pv_plot =
TT := Tinitial .. Tfinal
v constant
4.305 0.3
2.851 0.3
4.5
450
400
3.5
T
initial
TT
350
3
300
2.5
0.2996
0.2998
0.3
0.3002
0.3004
250
0.7
0.8
0.9
s
10/23/2006
PROPERTIES OF GASES
Equation of State
For a perfect gas:
pv = RT
where p is pressure, N/m2, Pa, or kPa
v is specific volume, m3/kg
T is absolute temperature, K
R is the gas constant, J/kgK or kJ/kgK and R = R /M
where R is the Universal Gas Constant = 8.3144 kJ/kmole K
M is the molecular weight, e.g. for air Mair = 28.96 kg/kmol, Rair = 0.2871 kJ/kgK.
Other Properties
At moderate temperatures and pressures the properties internal energy and enthaply are assumed
to be independent of pressure.
u = u(T ,M) or for a particular gas u = u(T)
and
h = h(T ,M) or h = h(T)
specific heats:
cv = du/dT, cp = dh/dt, and cp / cv =
since h = u + pv = u + RT, then dh/dT = du/dT + R. Thus cp = cv + R and
cp - cv = R, or R = cp( -1)/ .
Second Law
Tds = dh -v dp
ds = dh/T -v dp/T = dh/T - R dp/p
for an isentropic process ds = 0
dh/T = R dp/p.
This expression may be integrated to give
T2 s
T1
p
dT
= R * ln 2
T
p1
For the special case where the specific heats remain constant this equation may be written as:
R
T2 s p 2 c p p 2
= =
T1 p1
p1
10/12/2004
kN := 10 N
The textbook Diesel cycle is represented by all heat addition at constant
pressure. The Otto cycle which is implemented by the spark ignition internal
combustion engine adds all heat at constant volume. We will model a combined
or dual (Seiliger) cycle with a portion of the heat added at constant volume, the
remainder at constant pressure. Setting some parameters to be defined = 1 will
reduce to either the Otto or Diesel cycle.
kPa := 10 Pa
3
MPa := 10 Pa kJ := 10 J
3
This model will use an ideal air standard cycle with air as an ideal gas with constant specific heats and reversible
processes to represent the behavior. The gas relationships are useful.
air-standard cycles ...
1. air as ideal gas is working fluid throughout cycle - no inlet or exhaust process
2. combustion process replaced by heat transfer process
3. cycle is completed by heat transfer to surroundings
4. all processes internally reversible
5. usually constant specific heat
(page 311)
Temperature (K)
pressure (bar)
volume (m^3/kg)
next we will put numbers on the plots => themodynamic analysis of dual (Seiliger) cycle
10/24/2006
The original notes are sourced from VanWylen and Sonntag. They could be revised to use the form of some of the
relationships from Woud, but at considerable effort. Rather what follows is the application of the equations developed
in the gas relationships lecture applied to the combined air-standard cycle deriving the relationships summarized in
Table 7.3 Analytical prediction of the Selinger process on page 245 of the text.
rc , a, b
v1
rc =
v2
a=
p3
b =
p2
v 4
v 3
stage 1-2
v initial v1
rc =
=
p final = p initial
= = rc
v final
v2
vfinal
v2
v initial
v1
v1
p final
= rc
v2
p initial
= rc
v initial
Tfinal = Tinitial
vfinal
Tfinal
Tinitial
= rc
v1
=
v 2
= rc
stage 2-3
p3
p2
=a
v1
p initial =
R Tinitial
v constant100
p3
=1
v2
p final =
R Tfinal
Tfinal
v constant100
Tinitial
Tfinal
=a
p2
Tinitial
p final
p initial
p3
p2
=a
= a
stage 3-4
b=
v4
v3
v final
v initial
v4
v3
v initial =
R Tinitial
p constant100
p4
=b
v final =
p3
R Tfinal
T4
p constant100
T4
=1
T3
T3
Tfinal
Tinitial
v final
v initial
=b
=b
stage 4-5
isentropic adiabatic compression (expansion) _______________________________
volume ratio known
v5
v4
v5 v3
v5 v3
v1 v3
rc
=
v3 v4
v3 v4
v2 v4
b
as v5 = v1 and v 2 = v3
v initial v 4
1
p final = p initial
= p 4 = p 4
vfinal
v 5
c
10/24/2006
=p
5
v initial
Tfinal = Tinitial
vfinal
v5
v4
v4
= T4
v5
1
= T4
r
c
= T5
rc
=
p 5
b
rc
p4
rc
=
T5
b
T4
stage 5-1
v5
v1
=1
p5
v1
v constant100
p4 = p3
=
p1
p4
p5
p1
v5
R Tinitial
p initial =
p final =
p5 p3 p2
=
p4 p2 p1
p5
=1
p1
= a b
R Tfinal
v constant100
rc
arc = a b
T5
T1
p initial
so ...
p final
Tinitial
Tfinal
p5
p1
T5
T1
= a b
Now, applying the gas relationships to the calculation of states around the air-standard
combined cycle
:= 1.4
constants ...
cv := 0.7165
kJ
cp := 1.0035
kg K
kJ
R := 0.287
kg K
kJ
kg K
T1 := 295K
p 1 := 1bar
R T1
v 1 = 0.847
p1
kg
p3
rp =
=a
p2
v 4
rc =
= b
v3
p2
=
T1
p1
T2
v1
=
v2
s2 := s1
v 2 :=
v1
rv
(7.35)
v1
T2 := T1
v2
p 2 :=
v 2 = 0.068
10/24/2006
kg
T2 = 810.188 K
p 2 = 34.33 bar
R T2
v2
v1
=
T1
v2
T2
v1
p2 = p1
v 2
later we will plot on T-s and p-v so the relationships for intermediate states is shown. Any state value can serve as
the plot parameter, but we will use temperature.
T1 T_plot T2
T2
T1
s = s1 = s2 = constant
v1
v2
T2
and ...
T1
p2
p1
so ...
T1
v_plot = v 1
T_plot
and ...
T_plot
p_plot = p 1
T1
2-3 constant volume heat addition using rp during constant volume portion of heat addition ...
v 3 := v 2
p 3 := p 2 rp
p v = R T
(3.2)
p 3 = 47.375 bar
p1 v1
T1
T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvo ln
+
R
ln
T1
v1
p2 v2
p3
(3.5)
T2
(7.21)
v2 = v3
need to calculate T3
T3
p3
T3 := T2
p2
p2
T2
T3
s3 := s2 + cv ln
K
T2
cvo = constant
T3 = 1.118 10 K
kJ
s3 = 1.231
kg
T_plot
s_plot = s2 + cv ln
K
T2
p_plot =
R T_plot
v2
p 4 := p 3
T4 :=
p4 v4
R
v 4 = 0.126
kg
p 4 = 47.375 bar
T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1
for later plotting
T3 T_plot T4
v5
=
T5
v4
cpo = constant
T_plot
s_plot = s3 + cp ln
K
T2
(7.23)
T4 = 2.08 10 K
v 5 := v 1
T4
s4 := s3 + cp ln
K
T3
s5 := s4
T5 = 970.553 K
p 5 :=
10/24/2006
decreasing ...
s = s4 = s5 = constant
v_plot =
kJ
s5 = 1.854
kg
v4
T5 := T4
v5
kJ
s4 = 1.854
kg
R T5
v5
p 5 = 3.29 bar
R T_plot
p2
T5
T4
v4
v5
T5
and ...
T4
p5
p4
so ...
T4
T_plot
v_plot = v 4
T1
s1 := s5 + cv ln
K
T5
T5 T_plot T1
T_plot
s_plot = s5 + cv ln
K
T5
295
810
1118 K
2080
971
295
s1
s2
s
3 =
s4
s5
s
1.231 kJ
1.854 kg
1.854
check
closure
of s1
p1
p2
p
3 =
p4
p5
p
34.33
47.375 bar
47.375
3.29
T_plot
T4
kJ
s1 = 1
kg
decreasing ...
T1
T2
T
3 =
T4
T5
T
p_plot = p 4
and ...
v1
v2
v
3 =
v4
v5
v
p_plot =
0.847
0.068
3
0.068 m
0.126 kg
0.847
0.847
now for plotting, including the intermediate values ... details in area below, relationships developed above
parameterization of T-s, p-v
Temperature (K)
3000
2000
1000
1.5
10/24/2006
40
20
0
0.5
volume (m^3/kg)
R T_plot
v2
r = compression ratio rv =
v 2
v
p3
T3
r = pressure ratio during constant volume heat addition rp =
at constant volume (ideal gas law pv=RT)
=
p2
T2
p
v4
T4
at constant
r = cut-off ratio. portion of stroke during which constant pressure heat addition occurs rc =
=
v3
T3
c
pressure (ideal gas law pv=RT)
p2
=
T1
p1
T2
v 1
=
v2
v1
=
T1
v2
T2
(7.35)
= rv
v1
p 2 = p 1 = p 1 rv
v2
2-3 constant volume heat addition using rp during constant volume portion of heat addition ...
T3
QH1 = m cv T3 T2 = m cv T2
1 = m
cv T2 rp 1
T2
QH2 = m cp T4 T3 = m cp T3
1 = m cp T3 rc 1 = m
cp T2
r 1 = mcv.T2 rp rc 1
T2 c
T3
T5
QL = mcv T5 T1 = mcv T1
1
T1
T5
p5
p5 p4 p3 p2
=
=
=
T1
p1
p4 p3 p2 p1
v4
v1 v4
1r
p v = v rp = rp rc
v5
2 3
QL = mcv T1 rp rc 1
=>
/\
as v5 = v1 and v 2 = v3
combining these for thermal efficiency of the cycle ...
th = 1 +
QL
QH
=1
T1 rp rc 1
T2 rp 1 + rp rc 1
rp rc 1
= 1
rv
rv
10/24/2006
rv = 12.5
rp = 1.38
rp rc 1
th := 1
rp 1 + rp rc 1
rp 1 + rp rc 1
th = 0.592
rc = 1.86
W = QH1 + QH2 + QL = m cv T3 T2 + m cp T4 T3 m cv T5 T1
m := 1
QH1 := m cv T3 T2
kJ
QH1 = 220.59
kg
kJ
QH2 = 964.897
kg
kJ
QL = 484.034
kg
QH2 := m cp T4 T3
QL := mcv T5 T1
W := QH1 + QH2 + QL
W = 701.453
kJ
W = 701.453
kg
swept_volume
W
Imep =
W m
V1 V2
work
m=
V1 V2
p 1 V1
R T1
V1 V2
W
=
p1
R T1
V2
Imep :=
unit_time
2-stroke ne = # power
strokes/time
W
=
p1
R T1
rv
R
T1
1
n e = engine_rpm
Wi
Pi =
=
period_power_stroke
Wi
1
freq
i = number_of_cylinders
R
T1
rv
consider indicated power, ref: Woud 7.4.2-3
work_per_cycle
kg
p1
power_per_cyl =
kg
n e
Pi = Wi
2
= Win e
n e = engine_rpm
k = if ( stroke = 2 , 1 , 2)
n ei
n ei
Pi = Wi
= Imep
VS
k
k
brake power PB, power at engine drive flange, after mechanical losses in engine see Woud (7.12) and 7.4.1
10/24/2006
p 1 V1
V1
W
kW
W1 := th QH1 + QH2
kW
W1 = 701.296
Imep =
We =
effective_work
unit_mass
Wi
mass
mechanical
n ei
n ei
Pe = We
= mepeVS
k
k
Pe = constant mepe n e
Pe
ne
VS i
k
power_per_cyl
n e
VS
Bore 570 mm
Stroke 660 mm
power_per_cyl := 1250kW
2
VS := bore stroke
4
n e :=
400
n_stroke := 4
min
VS = 5.948 ft
mepe :=
power_per_cyl
as stated in data
above
ne
VS
k
stroke := 660mm
two special cases (can be calculated above setting r p and rc appropriately ...
Otto cycle - spark ignition engine heat added at TDC (constant volume) only
th = 1 +
10/24/2006
QL
QH
=1
T1 rp rc 1
T2 rp 1 + rp rc 1
rp rc 1
=1
rv
rp 1 + rp rc 1
rco := 1
rporco
th_otto := 1
o 1
rc := 1.0
th_otto := 1
rv
o 1
rvo
0.475
th_otto = 0.602
0.661
removing o
designation
th_otto 1
rvo
5
rp := 5 rv := 10
15
and ... Diesel cycle ... all heat added at constant pressure
air-standard Diesel cycle: compression ignition internal-combustion engine
1-2(=3) isentropic compression of air
3-4 heat added at constant pressure (gas expanding during heat addition)
4-5 isentropic expansion
5-1 heat rejection at constant volume (piston at crank-end dead center)
d
rpd := 1
rpdrrcd
th_diesel := 1
d 1
rvd
th_diesel 1
10
rp := 1 rv := 15
20
rc := 2.5
rv
d 1
rc 1
d rcd 1
rvd
rc 1
th_diesel := 1
rcd
0.506
th_diesel = 0.58
0.625
p3
rp =
=a
p2
v 4
rc =
= b
v 3
reset variables
rp rc
1
th := 1
rv
rp 1 + rp rc 1
th substitute , rv = rcc , rp = a, rc = b , = 1
10/24/2006
a b 1
.4
rcc a 1 + a( b 1)
[W 7.87]
units definition
kJ := 1000J
ftr := 1
pressure (bar)
60
fuel
injected
40
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
volume (m^3/kg)
indicator diagram
supercharging or turbocharging
mf_dot fuel
intake
engine
exhaust
stack
ma_dot air
compressor
10/25/2006
RPM
piston ft/min
speed m/sec
BMEP psi
bar
1200-1600
6.1 - 8.1
190-300
13-21
medium speed
350-1200 rpm
400-1000 rpm
high speed
>1200 rpm A.D.C.
750-1000 rpm Manbw.com marine
engine programmes
1200-1800
6.1-9.1
190-350
13-24
1600-2000
8.1-10.2
100-300
7 - 21
2 stroke; 4 stroke
fuel grade
Operating Characteristics
MCR = maximum_continuous_rating
10/25/2006
Engine Layout (ship power with engine design limits, MCR minimum determined
data sourced from text example 11.7 page 462. Ship has attached generator. Design condition (propulsion specified (
and power) - plotted, plus generator - plotted) shown with two additional off design plots:
Engine margin (EM) = 0.85, engine is limited to 103% rpm at MCR and constant Bmep below MCR.
100
P B_mcr
103
100
100
P B_mcr
power (% of MCR)
95
90
PB
85
100
P B_mcr
80
75
70
90
92
94
96
98
100
rpm (% of MCR)
design (service)
design propulsion point
engine design point (+ generator)
light ship
heavy condition
bmep limit
10/25/2006
102
104
106
108
fuel consumption see handout and PA6B chart also typical operating zone
Improvements to Diesels
- fuel efficiency increased 15-25% over two decades
- use of lower quality fuel
mf_dot fuel
intake
engine
exhaust
stack
ma_dot air
compressor
turbine
45 %
exhaust @ 560 K
cooled to 25 C
29 %
14 %
11 %
oil cooler
10/25/2006
mf_dot LHV
100 %
~1%
71 % N2
19 % O2
97 % HC
3 %S
97.5 % HC
1.5 % Ca
1%S
combustion products
99.7 % N 2 , O2 , CO2 , H2 0 typical:
N2 , 74.3 %
O2 , 11.3 %
CO 2 , 6 %
H2 0
8.1 %
gm/KW-hr
NO x, 17
SOx, 10
HC, 1
CO, 0.8
particles 0.25
CO 2 => greenhouse effect, coastal areas may require low sulpher fuel
most serious NOx
10/25/2006
NOx Control
10/25/2006
kJ := 10 J
QH_dot
3
ma_dot air
compressor
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
QL_dot
starting conditions
p 1_plot := 1
T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
after compression
p 2_plot := 10
calculations
11/14/2005
s1_plot := 1
{3}
10
pressure
{2}
{1}
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
{4}
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
volume
adiabatic compression
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection
1200
{3}
temperature
1000
800
{4}
{2}
600
400
{1}
200
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
entropy
11/14/2005
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
compressor work
wc = h 2 h 1
turbine work
wt = h 3 h 4
th =
qH + qL
qH
qL
=1+
qH
q H = h 3 h 2
heat addition
qL = h4 h1
heat rejection
wt + wc
q H
h 4s := Cp T4s T1 + h 1
(2)
h 3 := Cp T3 T2s + h 2s
(1)
h 4s h 1
T4s T1
th 1
h 3 h 2s
T4s
th := 1
T3 T2s
T1
T2s T3
T2s
p 2s
=
T1
p1
T2s
1
p 2s
since
p1
p 2s
=
T1
p1
p3
T2s
p 4s
T1
p3
=
p 4s
T3
T4s
=>
T4s
T1
T3
T2s
p1
th = 1
=1
T2s
p2s
T1
=1
1
1
p 2s
p1
=1
r = pressure_ratio
1.29
:=
1.4
1.67
th := 0.5
th = 1
CO2
air
1
1
= 1 th
) 1
r = 1 th
i1
r := 1 th
i
11/14/2005
1
1
21.83
r = 11.31
5.63
th( r, ) := 1
r
1.29
= 1.4
1.67
r := 0 .. 25
efficiency
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
10
15
pressure ratio
11/14/2005
20
25
regeneration ...
QH_dot
2
1200
ma_dot air
temperature
1000
compressor
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
1
4
QL_dot
regenerator
800
600
th =
wnet
qH
400
wt + wc
q H
q H = c p T3 Tx
wt = cp T3 T4
200
th = 1 +
wc
wt
1.2
1.6
1.8
adiabatic compression
heat addition
heat rejection
T2
T4
wt = q H
T2
p2
T1
T1
1
1
c p ( T2 T1 )
T1
=
p1
=1
=1
1
c p ( T3 T4 )
T4
T3 1
T3
p1
T3 1
p2
b
a 1
form is ...
1.4
entropy
1
a
a 1
b
a 1
b
=a
p2
th = 1
T3 p 1
T1
Q.E.D.
for example, plot th vs pr for = 1.4 (air) with regeneration and T1/T3 = 0.25 figure 9.27
1
:= 1.4
11/14/2005
r := 1 .. 14
T1_over_T3 := 0.25
r := 2
Given
efficiency
0.5
r_intersect = 11.314
T1 := 300
say ...
T3 := 1200
10
15
T2_intersect := T1 r_intersect
pressure ratio
air - gamma = 1.4
T2_intersect = 600
T4_intersect := T3
r_intersect
T4_intersect = 600
at the r_intersect the temperature out of the turbine matches the temperature out of the compressor,
hence regeneration is infeasible
air-standard cycles ...
1. air as ideal gas is working fluid throughout cycle -no inlet or exhaust process
2. combustion process replaced by heat transfer process
3. cycle is completed by heat transfer to surroundings
4. all processes internally reversible
5. usually constant specific heat
(page 311)
reset variables
figure later
T3 = low temperature from first
intercooler, T4 second
compressor. additional stages
replicated at T3 and T4 which =
T1 and T2 respectively. T5 is
turbine inlet
QL_dot
compressor
ma_dot air
3
compressor
2
1
turbine
6
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
QL_dot
p 1_plot := 1
p 1a_plot :=
T1b_plot := T1_plot
p 2_plot := 10
T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
10
calculations
pressure
10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
volume
adiabatic compression
intercooling heat rejection
adiabatic compression second stage
heat addition
adiabatic expansion in turbine
heat rejection
temperature
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
entropy
11/14/2005
1.6
1.8
s1_plot := 1
:= 1.667
th_ic = 1 +
T1 := 300
QL
assume ...
observe ..
T3 := T1
th_ic = 1
T6 T1 + N T2 T1
power :=
N := 1
1
T6 ( pr) := T5
pr
power
T1
th_ic( pr , N) := 1
stages of intercooling
power
rc(pr , N)
:= pr
T6 ( pr) T1 + N T2 (pr , N)
T1
0.6
efficiency
0.4
1 stage intercooling
basic Brayton cycle
4 stages intercooling
0.2
0.2
0
2
= 1.667
0.4
= 1.667
0.6
N+ 1
T5 T2 (pr
)
pr := 1 .. 5
T5 T2
T2 (pr , N) := rc(pr , N)
N= 1
T4 := T2
as ...
QH
maximum
T5 := 1200
pressure ratio
as we observed in class both T H and TL are lowered by intercooling. Intercooling (by itself) slightly reduces
ideal efficiency. Increased number of stages doesn't reduce efficiency significantly further.
reset variables
11/14/2005
QH_dot
5
intercooler, T4 second
T1 and T2 respectively. T5 is
turbine inlet
ma_dot air
QL_dot
compressor
compressor
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
T1 := 300
th_ic = 1 +
QL
as ...
QH
T2 (pr , N) := rc( pr , N)
power
T1
maximum
th_ic_reg = 1
1
T6 ( pr) := T5
pr
start with 1+ as
pr := 1.01 .. 5.01 = 1
mathematically
and ...initial
stage of qL is ...
T2 T1 + N T2 T1
T5 T6
= 1
T2 T1
(N + 1) T2 T1
T5 T6
power
rc(pr , N)
:= pr
th_ic_reg( pr , N) := 1
T3 := T1
observe ..
QH = T5 T6
with
regeneration
N := 2
regenerator
power :=
T4 := T2
T5 := 1200
assume ...
turbine
QL_dot
:= 1.667
N+ 1
( N + 1) T2 ( pr , )
T1
T5 T6 ( pr)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
pressure ratio
11/14/2005
5.5
reset variables
QH_dot
5
ma_dot air
QL_dot
compressor
QH_dot
compressor
reheater
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
turbine
1
9
QL_dot 10
regenerator
p 1_plot := 1
p 1a_plot :=
T1b_plot := T1_plot
p 2_plot := 10
p 3a_plot :=
T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
10
10
calculations
11/14/2005
10
s1_plot := 1
10
pressure
0.5
1.5
2.5
volume
1200
temperature
1000
800
600
400
200
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
entropy
11/14/2005
11
1.6
1.8
2.2
th_ic_reh_reg = 1 +
QL
:= 1.667
QH
T1 := 300
T5 := 1200
maximum
assume ...
as ...
T4 := T2
T3 := T1
for all intercooled stages
observe ..
figure later
T5 inlet to turbine, stages of
turbine are at T5 - T6 for all,
for ease of calculations
number of reheat and
intercooling are the same so
pressure ratios are identical
th_ic_reh_reg = 1
(
)
(N + 1) ( T5 T6 )
(N + 1) T2 T1
N := 2
pr := 1.01 .. 5.01
power :=
rc(pr , N) := pr
th_ic_reh_reg( pr , N) := 1
N+ 1
T2 (pr , N) := rc(pr , N )
power
T6 (pr , N) := T5
rc(pr , )
T1
(
)
(N + 1 ) ( T5 T6 (pr , N) )
(N + 1) T2 (pr , N) T1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1.5
2.5
3.5
11/14/2005
12
4.5
5.5
power
example plot of multiple intercooled Brayton cycle with multiple reheat (and regeneration
parameters for plot. to retain states 2, 3 & 4 as previously defined two points 1a and 1b are inserted rather than
renumbering. for intercooling, T 1 => T1a => T1b =>T2
p1 => p1a => p1b =>p2
s 1 => s1a => s1b =>s2
for reheat return to T 3; T3 => T3a => T3b =>T4
p3 => p3a => p3b =>p4
s 3 => s3a => s3b =>s4
starting conditions
p 1_plot := 1
pressure ratio
pr_plot := 20
T1_plot := 25 + 273.15
n_comp := 4
T1_plot
n_exp := 4
T3_plot
calculations
11/14/2005
13
s1_plot := 1
pressure
15
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
volume
1200
temperature
1000
800
600
400
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
entropy
11/14/2005
14
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
as number of reheat and intercooled stages increases, ideal efficiency should approach Carnot
th_carnot := 1
T1
T5
N := 1 .. 20
pr := 5
0.85
0.8
th_carnot
0.75
0.7
0.65
10
15
11/14/2005
15
20
Polytropic Efficiency
kJ := 1000J
p 2 := 5bar
kJ
s1 := 1
kg K
p 3 := 20bar
stage := 0.9
calculations
Temperature
800
600
400
200
0.95
1.05
1.1
1.15
entropy
using the gas laws and stage effiiciency = stage , after the first stage the states will be
kJ
s2 = 1.04
kg K
T2 = 491.556 K
p 2 = 5 bar
T3 = 756.994 K
kJ
s3 = 1.076
kg K
p 3 = 20 bar
Ts
T
T3s T1
T3s T1
T3 T1
T3 T1
= 0.88
as a check ...
T33s T2
T3 T2
= 0.9
This effect can be accounted for by using polytropic efficiency - or small stage efficiency.
reset variables T, s, p
c =
h 2s h 1
h2 h1
T2s T1
T2 T1
Ts
T
compressor
11/9/2005
T2s T1
T2 T1
= 0.9
dh
T
d
Ts
dT
dT
dp
dp = cpo
R
T
T
p
isentropic ds = 0
substitute
d
Ts
dT
dT s = pcdT
v
pc =
define ...
cpo
dT s = pcdT
cpo
cvo :=
cvo
dT s
T
= R
cpo pc
cpo
dp
dT
T
= R
dp
T2
rearrange and
integrate .....
R := cpo cvo
ln
T1
simplify
pccpo
T2
T1
p2
p
1
use in definition
of c
c =
cpo pc
ln
p1
pc
T2s
pc
p2
raise to exponents
(7.7)
T ds = dh v dp
T2s T1
T2 T1
T1
T2
T1
1
r
pc
example polytropic efficiency = 0.9; calculate isentropic efficiency for p 2 /p1 = 2, 16, 30; use air as working fluid
1
i := 0 .. 2
pc := 0.9
if T1 were 25 deg C
:= 1.4
2
r := 16
30
p2
=
T1
p1
T2 := T1 r
11/9/2005
T2 := T1 +
c =
T2s T1
pc
T2 = T1 +
T2 T1
T2s T1
pc
0.89
c = 0.856
0.845
371.535
T2 = 718.944
877.733
pc
363.449
T2s = 658.369
787.897
(ri)
pc
T1 := 25 + 273.15
T2
c :=
(ri)
370.704
T2 = 698.393
842.313
2
T2s T1
c
T2s := T1 r
temperature above is
higher indicating more
energy required for
compressor
consistent with lower
efficiency
another observation ... if we say the two stages have a polytropic efficiency of 0.9 then using ...
1
p2
=
T1
p1
T2
pc
and ...
T3
T1
p3
p3
=
T2
p2
T3
pc
T2 T3
T3
=
=
T1 T2
T1
=>
p2
p1
pc
p3
p2
pc
pc
p3
=
p1
pc
p1
t =
T3 T4
pt =
=>
T3 T4s
dT
dT s =
dT s
dT
pt
turbine
cpo
dT s
T
= R
dp
p
cpo dT
dp
= R
p
pt T
=>
=>
R pt dp
=
T
cpo p
dT
pc
p3
=
T4
p4
T3
4=2
T4s T3
=>
T4 T3
and ...
T4
T3
3=1
pt
p2
=
T1
p1
T2
pc
pt
morphs to ...
T4
T3
p4
p3
same example polytropic efficiency = 0.9; calculate isentropic efficiency for p 3 /p4 = 2, 16, 30; use air as
working fluid
i := 0 ..
2
pt := 0.9
11/9/2005
:= 1.4
1
1
r
i
t :=
i
2
r := 16
30
T3 := 700 + 273.15
pt
r
i
0.909
t = 0.932
0.938
T4
1
=
T3 r
pt
1
T4 := T3
r
798.309
T4s = 440.702
368.252
t =
pt
814.277
T4 = 477.034
405.834
T3 T4
T3 T4s
T4 T3
T4 := T3 + pt T4s T3
T4 = T3 + pt T4s T3
T4s T3
815.793
T4 = 493.947
428.742
1
T4s := T3
r
direct approach for calculating T 2 modeling as discrete multiple stages. increasing number_of_stages should
make c_1 approach c (back to compressor for calculations)
number_of_stages := 4
j := 0 .. 2
TT
r_per_stage := r
number_of_stages
0, j
:= 25 + 273.15
power :=
2
r = 16
30
:= 1.4
1
TT
1 , ns
= TT
0 , ns
(r_per_stage j)
+
n := 0 .. number_of_stages
power
TT
0, j
TT
power
T2s = T r
TT
c_1 :=
j
0.892
c_1 = 0.869
0.862
c =
pc
TT
number_of_stages = 4
0, j
TT
isentropic
continuous model
0.89
c = 0.856
0.845
( j)
0, j
power
n+ 1, j
TT
number_of_stages , j
0.891
c_1 = 0.862
0.852
T2 T1
:= TT
n, j
T2 = T1 +
(r_per_stage j)
+
T2s T1
c
power
TT
n, j
pc
0, j
20 stages
0.89
c_1 = 0.859
0.849
50 stages
0.89
c_1 = 0.857
0.846
further evidence that for a compressor with a large number of stages each with pressure ration
near 1, the polytropic efficiency of the compressosor is isentropic efficiency of the individual
stages. this follows through to determine isentropic efficiency for the compressor based on
equating polytropic efficiency of small stages to the isentropic efficiency of the (small) stage.
11/9/2005
TT
0, j
TT
10 stages
T2s T1
n, j
T-s diagram
1200
temperature
1000
800
600
400
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
entropy
reversible cycle
irreversible cycle
regeneration inlet temperature reversible
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible
T
7ss
5
5s
2
2s
7s
4 - outlet of turbine
5s - inlet to regenerator T5s = T4
irreversible
1 - start
2 - irreversible compressor outlet
6 - outlet of heat addition T6 = Tmax
4 - outlet of turbine
5 - inlet to regenerator T5 = T7
11/21/2005
irreversible processes can be described by some efficiencies and heat transfer effectiveness:
N.B. the efficiencies are defined wrt irreversible overall cycle
h6 h7
t =
turbine efficiency
compressor efficiency
h 6 h 7s
c =
h 2s h 1
h2 h1
T5 T2
T6 T7
t := 0.8
T6 T7s
T2s T1
c := 0.78
T2 T1
p H
p 6 = p 3 p H = p 3 1
p3
delta_p_over_p_H := 5%
p L
p 7 = p 1 + p L = p 1 1 +
p1
delta_p_over_p_L := 3%
:= 94%
T7ss T2
we will combine these as follows as for efficiency only p across turbine matters:
p6
p7
p 3 1
p H
p3
=
p L
p 1 1 +
p1
p2
p1
( 1 p%)
power :=
one compressor no
intercooling
Nc = 1
1 delta_p_over_p_H
1 + delta_p_over_p_L
delta_p_over_p := 1
delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %
Tmax := 1200
maximum
T3 := Tmax
T6 := Tmax
start with 1+ as = 1
mathematically
pr := 1.3 , 1.4 .. 5
T4 ( pr) :=
irreversible .....
power
pr
T1
T2s ( 2 ) = 365.704
T2 ( pr) := T1 +
T2s ( pr) T1
T2 ( 2 ) = 384.236
power
T3
T4 ( 2 ) = 984.402
p6_over_p7 ( 2 ) = 1.845
power
T7s ( 2 ) = 1007
T7 ( 2 ) = 1046
th =
wnet
qH
wt + wc
qH
irreversible
T3 T4 T2s T1
T3 T2s
rev
) = T6 T7 ( T2 T1 )
QH = T3 T2s = T6 T2
T6 T2
irrev
th_basic_rev ( pr) :=
th_basic_irr( pr) :=
T3 T2s ( pr)
T6 T7 ( pr) T2 ( pr) T1
T6 T2 ( pr)
t = 0.8
thermal efficiency
0.3
c = 0.78
= 0.94
0.2
0.1
delta_p_over_p = 7.8 %
2.5
3.5
4.5
pressure ratio
irreversible ...
T5s := T4
th_ic =
wnet
qH
wt + wc
qH
th_reg_rev ( pr) := 1
11/21/2005
T3 T4 T2s T1
T3 T5s = T4
irreversible
) = T6 T7 ( T2 T1 )
T6 T5
T2s ( pr) T1
1
T3 T3
pr
power
th_reg_irr( pr) :=
T5 ( 2 ) = 1006
rev
irrev
QH = T3 T5s = T6 T5
T6 T7 ( pr) T2 ( pr) T1
T6 T5 ( pr)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
pressure ratio
also look at magnitude of compressor work compared to turbine, say for pr = 2 (since these states are the same for
w & w/o regeneration, the work is also the same
ratiorev =
workcomp
workturb
T2s T1
T3 T4
ratioirr =
T2s ( pr) T1
ratiorev( pr) :=
T3 T4 ( pr)
T2s := 0
T2 := 0
T2 T1
T6 T7
T2 ( pr)
T1
T6 T7 ( pr)
T7 := 0
T7s := 0
T1 = 300
T6 = 1.2 10
T4 := 0
maximum
reset to insure
calculation
for these calculations
t = 0.8
pr := 1.1 , 1.2 .. 5
c = 0.78
power
delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %
range for
pressure ratio
reversible .....
11/21/2005
ratioirr( 2 ) = 54.7 %
N := 1
workturb
ratioirr( pr) :=
ratiorev( 2 ) = 30.5 %
= 1.4
workcomp
rc(pr , N) := pr
N+
1
T1 are at the same ratio so temperatures after each compression are the same.
T2s (2 , 1 ) = 331.227
T2 (pr , N) := T1 +
T2s (pr , N) T1
c
T2 (2 , 1 ) = 340.034
power
T7s ( pr) := T6
p6_over_p7 ( pr)
T4 ( 2 ) = 984.402
power
T7s ( 2 ) = 1.007 10
wnet
qH
wt + wc
qH
irreversible
T3 T4 (N + 1) T2s T1
T3 T2s
) = T6 T7 (N + 1) (T2 T1)
T6 T2
th_ic_irr( pr , N) :=
th_ic_rev( pr , N) :=
T7 ( 2 ) = 1.046 10
thermal efficiency
0.4
0.3
t = 0.8
0.2
c = 0.78
0.1
delta_p_over_p = 7.767 %
0
intercooled - irreversible
intercooled - reversible
0.1
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
pressure ratio
ratiorev =
workcomp
workturb
ratiorev( pr) :=
(N + 1) T2s T1
ratioirr =
T3 T4
(N + 1) T2s (pr , N) T1
workcomp
workturb
ratioirr( pr) :=
T3 T4 ( pr)
ratiorev( 2 ) = 29 %
(N + 1) T2 T1
T6 T7
(N + 1) T2 ( pr , N) T1
T6 T7 ( pr)
ratioirr( 2 ) = 52 %
calculations with reheat and multiple turbines are similar and will not be done here. see brayton_plot.mcd for
11/21/2005
Creep
Creep is slow plastic extension (strain) at elevated temperatures (T ~> 0.3 melting T) and stress. Typical strain
vs time at elevated temperature and stress is:
rupture
T2
III
strain
II
minimum creep rate
d/dt
T1<<T2
time
Typical creep data is usually shown as stress vs time to rupture, 0.5% strain, and 0.2% strain for a given
temperature. A set of curves derived manually from NACA TN 4112 Generalized Master Curves for Creep and
Rupture, Heimerl and McEvily Oct 1957 (Aero Library) for Aluminum 2024-T3 alloy plate is shown:
NACA TN 4112 data
creep data shown as stress (ksi) vs time (hours) parameterized by temperature - includes rupture, 0.5% strain and
0.2% strain
stress (ksi)
T = 500 F rupture
T = 500 F 0.5 % strain
T = 500 F 0.2 % strain
T = 350 F rupture
T = 350 F 0.5 % strain
T = 350 F 0.2 % strain
10
0.1
10
100
1 .10
time (hours)
11/28/2005
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
creep data shown as stress (ksi) vs temperature parameterized by time (hours) - rupture only shown - gets too busy
10
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
temperature deg F
These curves are difficult to use so researchers proposed a parameter that collapses data empirically. E.g.these
data can be represented can be represented on a Master Curve for Creep using the Larson-Miller (or another
similar parameter). The plots lack smoothness due to manual extraction of data.
rupture
0.5% strain
0.2% strain
stress (ksi)
40
30
20
10
13
14
15
16
17
11/28/2005
18
19
The Larson Miller parameter combines temperature and times (rupture, strain) as follows:
( ))
LM = TR C1 + log tr
C1 = constant_based_on_material
C1_al_2024 := 17
C1_carbon_molybdenum_steel := 20
tr = time_to_rupture_hours
above curves
t_0.5 = time_to_point_5%_strain_hours
t_0.2 = time_to_point_2%_strain_hours
stress (ksi)
100
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
11/28/2005
40
45
Open Cycle
mf_dot fuel
QH_dot
combustor
2
ma_dot air compressor
4
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
turbine ...
mf_dot
Jet engine
)(
as a side note: if the net work were converted to velocity via a nozzle (jet engine) the relationships would be
wnet = cp T3 T4
p4
=
T3
p3
T4
determine T 5 from
p5
=
T3
p3
T5
or ...
p5
=
T4
p4
T5
V
h4 = h5 +
2
combustor ...
1 = atmosphere ...
0 = HR2 HP3
rewrite using LHV ...
adiabatic combustion Q = W = 0
rewrite using specifi enthalpy and mass flows ... on a per unit mass flow of fuel ...
ma_dot
ma_dot
0 = h f2 h f0 +
h a2 h a0 1 +
h p3 h p0 + LHV
mf_dot
mf_dot
only obtain
combHV
Given
ma_dot
ma_dot
0 = h f2 h f0 +
h a2 h a0 1 +
h p3 h p0 + combLHV
mf_dot
mf_dot
) (
ma_dot
introduce average
specific heat ...
cp_bar_air =
) (
h p3 h p0 h a2 h a0
h a2 h a0
cp_bar_prod =
T2 T0
h p3 h p0
T3 T0
cp_bar_fuel =
cp_bar_prod T3 T0 cp_bar_air T2 T0
mf_dot
or ... inverting
ma_dot
combLHV + h f2 h f0 h p3 h p0
mf_dot
mf_dot
mf_dot
Find ma_dot h f2 h f0 h p3 + h p0 + combLHV
h a2 + h a0 + h p3 h p0
ma_dot/mf_dot
ma_dot
T2 T0
)
(
cp_bar_prod T3 T0 cp_bar_air T2 T0
h f2 h f0
1
+
( T T4 ) cp_bar_air ( T2 T1 )
c
Wnet_dot
Wt_dot + Wc_dot
ma_dot p_bar_prod 3
=
=
=
mf_dot LHV
mf_dot LHV
mf_dot
ma_dot
kg
SFC =
hr
power = kW
SFC =
12/19/2005
fuel
mf_dot
Wnet_dot
kg
kW hr
mf_dot
lb
hp
hr
LHV
Wnet_dot LHV
1
LHV
LHV
regenerator
3
combustor
mf_dot fuel
mp_dot products
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
T-s diagram
temperature
1000
irreversible cycle
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible
500
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
entropy
N.B. cycle is drawn closed from state 6 to 1 but is taking place in atmosphere
12/19/2005
2.2
stack
regenerator
combustor
mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products
QL_dot
1 compressor
2
ma_dot air
4
3
turbine
compressor
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
T-s diagram
1200
irreversible cycle
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible
temperature
1000
800
600
400
0.8
1.2
1.4
entropy
12/19/2005
1.6
1.8
Table 5: Products - 400% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole) fuel data
p = pressure
Pr = Prandtl number = cp*/
R = gas constant for air
a = velocity of sound
= thermal conductivity
= viscosity
cp
T
dT
T0
Number
air
fuel
fuel
mass_%_water
Table_B =
1
inf
0
0
0
4
400
25
14
6.7
200
50
28
.
12/19/2005
4. Polynomial equations
- example in combustion example c p = f(
polytropic process
compressor
isentropic process
dT
dp
ds = cpo
R
T
p
dp
dT
= pc cpo
p
T
T
dp
p
dT
c
R po T
T
1s
p1 1
ln =
p 2
R
T
p1
cp
T
p2
dT
=e
1s
cp
pc
dT
T
R
T
2
turbine
p1
p2
=e
1s c
p
1
dT
T
R
T
1s c
p
dT
T
ptR
T
1
p1
p2
=e
Disavantages:
materials strength problems (Creep) see separate notes re: creep
corrosion
Solutions:
better materials
blade and combustor cooling
ceramic materials
12/19/2005
blade cooling
mf_dot fuel
QH_dot
combustor
to blades
ma_dot air compressor
turbine
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
cooling flow
compressed air ducted into stationary AND rotor blades. Temperature reuduced by:
convective heat transfer
transpiration (evaporation of water from surface)
film
nominal data for plot
effectiveness %
60
40
20
convective
film
transpiration
0
cooling_effectiveness =
12/19/2005
Tblade_gas Tblade_metal
Tblade_gas Tcooling_air
1500 K
T3
metal temperature
@ critical value
800 K
T4
Ceramic materials
examples silicon nitride, silicon carbide
can be pressed, bonded and/or sintered to produce complete rotor system
25 _deg_C ( 75_deg_F)
.
.
MPa
tensile_strength =
552
Si3 N4
193
Si C
12/19/2005
ksi MPa
ksi
80 172
25
28 138
20
stack
regenerator
10
combustor
mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products
QL1_dot
3
4
1
lp
compressor
power
turbine
lp
turbine
hp
turbine
hp
compressor
ma_dot air
W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot
6
7
8
10
s
powers ... (review) reversible
(
)
HP_comp = mair_dot ( h 4 h 3 )
HP_turb = ( mair_dot + mfuel_dot) ( h 6 h 7 )
LP_comp = mair_dot h 2 h 1
)(
)(
12/19/2005
)(
mfuel_dot
)
9
Marinization
Problems:
1. sea water droplets in air (inlet)
2. sea water in fuel
3. coupling to the propeller
4. long ducting
Solutions:
1. sea water in air
1. design of inlet - demisters to remove droplets
demisters
wire mesh
inertial separation
=>
= R T
p
R T
12/19/2005
10
T-s diagram
irreversible cycle
nominal pressure losses inlet and exaust
temperature
1000
500
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
entropy
similar effect for T inlet > nominal
cycle will walk up p1 curve
normally cannot increase T H to account for these losses
other issues/topics
Materials
coatings
use of titanium
fuel treatment
sodium - bad - corrosion from products
remove by washing
add agents such as demulsifiers
water combines with sodium - remove by centrifuge
vanadium - in Bunker C combines with sulfur - creates corrosive combustion products
GE fro example has an additive to modify ash to prevent adhering to blades
problem 3 above: coupling to propeller
1. Controllable Reversible Pitch Propeller (CRP)
2. reversing gearbox
3. electric drive
4. reversing turbine
concentric opposite direction direction blade annuli
12/19/2005
11
mf_dot fuel
in
comp = mair_dot h 2 h 1
out
2
ma_dot air compressor
) (
stack
turbine
) (
h2 h1 = 1 +
h3 h4
mair_dot
w_dot rev
= 4 5 = h 4 T0 s4 ( h 5 T0 s5 )
= h 4 h 5 T0 (
s4 s5 )
m_dot
max
second law ...
T ds = dh v dp
ds =
dh
T
if ...
cppdT
p 4 = p 5 = p atmos
=>
w_dot rev
T4
= 4 5 = cpp T4 T5 T0 ln
m_dot
max
T5
12/19/2005
12
T4
s4 s5 = cpp ln
T5
dp = 0
ds =
dh
T
example LM 2500
T4 := 825
T0 := 300
GT_power := 330
500
T5 := 400
300
325
T4 T5 = 425
525
kJ
kg K
w_dot rev
= W_m_dot_max
m_dot
max
T4
T0 ln
=
T5
150.233
217.176
303.48
T4
W_m_dot_max := cp_prod T4 T5 T0 ln
K
T5
188.749
kJ
W_m_dot_max = 224.45
kg
239.241
W_m_dot_max
GT_power
12/19/2005
kJ := 1000J
kg
s
cp_prod := 1.08
kW
0.572
= 0.68
0.725
13
Electrical Overview
C = 1C
Q = charge
C = 1 coul
(2.50)
min = 60 s
t = time
s = 1s
A = 1A
I = current
V = 1V
U = volts
1V 1 A = 1 W
1V 1 A = 1 watt
(2.51)
resistance
resistance = R
= 1
ohm = 1
Ohm's law
U( t) = I( t) R
Power = U( t) I( t) = I( t) R
1 (1A) = 1 W
inductance
(2.53)
inductance = L
henry = 1 H
t
d
U( t) = L I( t)
dt
A
s
= 1V
U( t)
dt
I( t) =
L
or ...
V s
H
= 1A
(2.54)
d
P = U I = L I I
dt
H A
A
s
(2.55)
= 1W
t
I
inductive_energy_stored = Eind = P( t) dt =
L I I dt = L I dI
dt
0
0
1 2
L I dI I L
2
0
A H = 1 J
capacitance
capacitance = C
farad = 1 F
t
d
I( t) = C U( t)
dt
(2.56)
V
s
= 1A
I( t)
dt
U( t) =
C
or ...
A s
F
= 1V
(2.57)
d
P = U I = C U U( t)
dt
F V
t
U
capacitive_energy_stored = Ecap = P( t) dt =
C U U( t) dt = C U dU
dt
0
0
V
s
= 1W
C U dU
1
2
U C
(2.58), (2.59)
2
V F = 1 J
1
11/13/2006
Kirchhoff's laws
first ...
number_of_currents
sum_of_currents_towards_node = 0
Ii( t) = 0
i= 1
second ...
(2.60)
direction specified
sum_of_voltages_around_closed_path = 0
number_of_voltages
Ui( t) = 0
i= 1
(2.61)
Um = amplitude_of_voltage
V = 1V
= frequency
Hz = 1
t = time
min = 60 s
I( t) := Imcos( t )
Im = amplitude_of_current
(2.62)
1
s
A = 1 amp
(2.63)
= phase_lag_angle
it is useful to represent this parameters as vectors using complex notation, where the values are represented by the real
parts
Uz( t) := Umcos( t) + Umsin( t) i
plotting set up
Uz(t)
Iz(t)
0.5
0.5
UR( t) = R Im cos( t )
cos( ) = cos( )
d
UL( t) := L I( t) L Imsin( ) t +
dt
L I( t) = ImLsin( t ) = ImLcos + t
2
dt
2
11/13/2006
+ sin( )
2
cos
2
2
cos
or ...
plotting set up
Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
this can be solved for and Im after expanding the rhs into sines and cosines and setting cos = cos and sin = sin
easier if think in terms of vectors
3
11/13/2006
Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)
UzL(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzL(t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Um =
(R Im)
+ L Im
)2 =
R + ( L ) Im
2
and ...
Im =
Um
R + ( L )
2
= atan
4
11/13/2006
Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzL(t)
UzL(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzL(t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzL(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UL(t), etc.
U( t) := Umcos( t)
Um = amplitude_of_voltage
V = 1V
= frequency
Hz = 1
1
s
(2.62)
min = 60 s
t = time
this is different from text: lag phase angle vs. lead angle used
resulting current assumed also harmonic
I( t) := Imcos( t )
Im = amplitude_of_current
V = 1V
= phase_lag_angle
plotting set up
5
11/13/2006
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(2.57)
t
I cos( t )
Imsin( t )
I( t)
Im
dt =
dt =
UC( t) =
=
cos t
C
C
2
C
C
UzC( t) :=
Im
C
cos t
Im
sin t i
+
2 C
2
Im
C
sin( ) t + i
Im
C
cos( ) t +
plotting set up
6
11/13/2006
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzC(t)
UzC(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzC(t)
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UC(t), etc.
Im
C
sin( t ) i
Im
cos( t )
C
7
11/13/2006
Uz(t)
UzR(t)
UzC(t)
UzC(t) rel. to UzR(t)
UzR(t)+UzC(t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Real parts of Uz(t), UzR(t), UzC(t) etc. = U(t), UR(t), UC(t), etc.
magnitude similar to
above ...
Im =
R +
( C) 2
Um
2
Im
sin( t + ) i
Im
cos( t + )
CR
= atan
L 1
CR
R
= atan
8
11/13/2006
Section 2.3.4
2
P = U = I R
P( t) = U( t) I( t)
Pa :=
lim
T
I( t) := Imcos( t )
1 T
1
U( t) I( t) dt UmImcos(
)
T 0
Ue :=
Ie :=
lim
T
lim
T
Umcos( t)
dt
1
2
2 Um
2
2 Im
2
1
Ue = effective_voltage
(Imcos(t ))2 dt
Um
Ue :=
Ie :=
Im
2
Ie = effective_current
cos( ) = power_factor
Pa := UeIecos( )
what is current required in two systems with same effective voltage but larger phase lag?
here forward e subscript dropped and U == U e , I == Ie
some power and current definitions
apparent_power = V A = U I
real_power = U cos( )
W = 1W
reactive_power = U I sin( )
I = current
A = 1 amp
load_current = I cos( )
A = 1 amp
V A
2
:= 3
4
3
ORIGIN := 1
i := 1 .. 3
and ...
3
i= 1
Up := Umcos t i
i
Ip := Imcos t i
i
Up expand 0
i
i= 1
Ip expand 0
i
9
11/13/2006
IL = Ip
1
1
UL := Up Up
i
i
i+
1
i := 1 .. 3
e.g.
magnitude is ...
IL = Ip
3
3
UL := Up Up
3
3
31
i := 1 .. 2
i := 1 .. 3
IL = Ip
2
2
1
1
UzL simplify Um cos( t) + i Umsin( t) + Um cos t + + i Umsin t +
1
3
3
from trigonometry...
1
2
3
3
Um *
magnitude := Um 3
(2.85)
i := 1 .. 3
sin
3
anglet = atan
1 + cos
1 := 1 t1 := 0.79
1 := 1
sin
3
atan
= 30 deg
1 + cos
Up1
Up2
Up3
-Up2 ref Up1
Up1-Up2
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
UL = Up
(2.86)
IL = Ip 3
(2.87)
10
11/13/2006
T = 1 tesla
B = flux_density
2r
T=1
= permeability_of_medium
=1
m kg
2 2
A s
0 = permeability_of_vacuum
R = permeability_of_medium_relative_to_vacuum
=1
kg
T=1
amp s
(2.90)
= 0 R
Wb
henry
0 := 410
7H
unitless
parameters
B = flux_density
T=1
Wb
m
0 = permeability_in_vacuum
0 := 410
C = 1 coul
q = charge
V = velocity_vector_of_charge
7H
=1
=1
newton
2
amp
C = 1 A s
ar = unit_vector_from_charge_q_to_point_P
r = distance_from_P_to_charge
units check
H
m
m 1
= 1T
2
s
m
V ar
dB =
dq
4
r
q V = I dl
0
differential
form
line currents ...
so ..
T = 1 10 gauss
dl ar
dB =
I
2
4
r
0
B=
I
dl ar
4 2
r
11
11/13/2006
dl ar
0 dl sin(
)
dB =
I
=
I
2
2
4
4
r
r
0
dl sin( ) = r d
dl sin( )
r
=
sin( )
cos( )
r*d
r
d
cos( ) d
R
dl
sin( )
r
R
dl
r=
dB into
paper
sin( ) =
r d
cos( ) =
dl
R
r
dl ar
0 dl sin( )
0 cos( ) d
dB =
I
=
I
=
I
2
2
R
4
4
4
r
r
0
2
0 cos( )
B = 1 dB =
I
d
R
4
2
0 cos( )
1 0 I
I
d
R
2
4
B=
0 I
Q.E.D.
2R
:= B dAA
AA = enclosed_area
to distinguish from A
(ampere)
Wb = 1 weber
Wb = 1
kg m
A = 1 amp
A s
12
11/13/2006
Lorentz force
I
FL
FL = B Ilen
(2.92)
FL = I len B
FL = Lorentz_force
N = 1 newton
B = flux_density
T = 1 tesla
I = current_thru_conductor
A = 1 amp
len = length
l=len
B into paper
T A m = 1 N
B I sin( angle)
view of single coil in magnetic field (B) with current (I) (slightly revised from text; len*sin()
I into paper
F into
paper
len
F
len*sin()
side view
B
top view
F = I Bh
M = F lensin( )
AA = area_of_coil = enclosed_area
M = N I sin( )
F = I Bh
M = KmI
AA to distinguish
from A (ampere)
Km = constant_for_given_motor
(2.93)
13
11/13/2006
Faraday's Law
E = Blenv
E = induction_potential = electromotive_force
V = 1 volt
units check
T = 1 tesla
B = flux_density
m
v = velocity
len = length_of_conductor
m
s
m = 1 V
v l=len
E = (B v)len
B into paper
d
E=
dt
since ...
= B Area
substituting ...
E = N
dt
Wb
s
d
d
d
d
E = = (B Area) = B Area = Blen x
dt
dt
dt
dt
= 1V
as ...
(2.95)
Area = len x
where ...
Area = area_enclosed_in_coil
d (
E = N B Areacos( t) ) E = N B Area sin( t)
dt
rad
= 2n
n = rpm
rpm = 6.283
E = N 2 nB Areasin( t)
min
E = KEn
KE = constant_for_given_motor
E = induced_electromotive_force
V = 1 volt
= magnetic_flux
Wb = 1 weber
n = rotation_speed
rpm = 0.105
1
sec
14
11/13/2006
Electric Motors
M = KmI
Ref: Chapter 9
Km = constant_for_given_motor
M = torque
N m
(ref: 2.93)
= magnetic_flux
Wb = 1 weber
I = current
A = 1 amp
(9.1)
1Wb 1A = 1 N
(ref: 2.96)
KE = constant_for_given_motor
E = induced_electromotive_force
V = 1 volt
= magnetic_flux
Wb = 1 weber
rpm = 6.283
n = rotation_speed
(9.2)
Wb rpm = 0.105 V
min
model motor as resistance in series with EMF generator (opposing applied voltage)
U = E + I R
M = KmI
with ...
I :=
n collect ,
(9.1)
KE
n=
2
Km
KE
(9.4)
E = KEn
and ...
E := (U I R)
Km
U
P = E I + I R
(9.3)
n :=
U
KE
(9.2)
RA
Um
KE
separately
excited
field
M R
KEKm
(9.5)
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
to see an example of DC motor behavior assume a set of reasonable parameters. Not all are independent.
M = KmI
n := 100rpm
R := 2
U = E + I R
E Im = M mn 2
M m = KmIm
Km
E = KEn
KE
maximum current
Um := 400V
Im := 10A
E := Um ImR
E = 380 V
M m :=
Km :=
KE :=
E Im
n 2
Mm
Km = 5.775
Im
P = U I = E I + I R = M n 2 + I R
KE = 36.287
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
1
11/15/2006
M = U
a :=
Km
R
Km
KEKm
Um
b :=
Km KE
KEKm
= 57.753 N m
M ( U , n ) := ( U a b n)
nn( U , M ) :=
M 0 := 0N m
Km
M m = 57.753 N m
U a M
nn Um , M m = 100 rpm
derived check
nn Um , 0 = 105.26316 rpm
(
(
)
)
maximum torque
0 torque
N m
50
M U m0.25, n1
N m
10
20
30
n1
rpm
plot data
torque N*m
60
0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
Mm max torque
40
20
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
rpm
2
11/15/2006
additional operating envelope is available beyond design rpm by reducing the field strength . But the region is limited
Pmax := M m 2 n
Pmax = 3.8 10 W
above base sped and torque with power consatant at P max, torque is limited inversely with rpm
M maxnn 2 = Pmax
Pmax
M max_n( nn) :=
nn 2
nn1 := n , n + 1rpm .. 2
n
60
Mm
using .. again
M max_n(nn1)
40
N m
n=
20
100
150
200
M R
KE
KEKm
(9.5)
250
nn1
rpm
Pmax
n=
U
KE
M R
nn =
KEKm
U
KE
nn 2
Pmax
R
U
nn =
KEKm
KE
nn
KEKm
1
4KEKm
calculate n when U and M known - useful at ends of torque range 0 - M m and in this application a and b are functions of
a( ) :=
Km
R
b ( ) :=
M ( U , n) = U a b n
Km KE
n52 := nn 0.75 , M 0
nn( , M ) :=
b( )
MM( , n ) := Um a( ) b ( ) n
Uma( ) M
n62 := nn 0.6 , M 0
3
11/15/2006
60
0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
Mm
FI = 0.75
FI = 0.6
Pmax
50
torque N*m
40
30
20
10
50
100
150
200
250
rpm
now if we plot this data in terms of power,
nrpm
load( nrpm) := Pmax
1.5 n
Pmax
Pmax_plot :=
n
rpm W
4000
0.25 * Um
0.5 * Um
0.75 * Um
1.0 * Um
M max
FI = 0.75
FI = 0.6
P max
load
power (W)
3000
2000
1000
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
rpm
So ... as observed in the text: "The operational envelopes show that a DC motor is very suited to drive a propeller for ship
propulsion."
4
11/15/2006
IA
IF
RA
shunt
field
Um
M := KmI
(9.1)
E = KEn
(9.2)
U = E + I
R
(9.3)
:= KFII
Um
I :=
U E
M := KmKFI
I R = U KEKFIn
M KmKFI
E := KE n
M := KmKFI
E KE KF I n
E := KE KF I n
U KEKFI n
I=
U KE KF I n
I =
I R + KEKFn = U
I :=
R + KEKFn
M Km KF
U
R + KEKFn
(R + KEKFn)
(9.7)
I = current
M := KmI
U = E + I R
series
field
E
KF = constant_for_given_motor
eliminate I ...
RA
M := Km KF
(R + KEKFn)
(9.8)
Um := 100V KE := 1
Km := 1
2
M ( U , n ) := KmKF
(R + KEKFn)
Wb
KF := 1
A
R := 4
M Um , 100rpm = 47.747 N m
Imax := 9A
2
M max := KmKFImax
M max = 81 N
5
11/15/2006
100
Mmax
Torque (N*m)
80
N m
60
40
20
Um
0.5*Um
0
50
100
150
200
250
rpm
motor suitable for traction purposes - high torque at low rpm
IF := 1
:=
1
s
t := FRAME
4
100
sec
t to go from 0 to 4* in
100 steps
Ib ( t) := IF cos t 2
3
Ia( t) := IF cos( t)
Ic( t) := IF cos t 4
3
field vector displaced by 2*/3 and 4*p/3, and current at appropriate phase shift applied
IF cos( t)
= 1
Bza( t) := IF cos( t)
Bzb ( t) := IF cos t 2 cos 2 + sin 2 i
3
3
IF cos t 2 = 0.5
3
Bzc( t) := IF cos t 4 cos 4 + sin 4 i
3 3
IF cos t 4 = 0.5
3
Re_sum ( t) = 1.5
Im_sum( t) = 0
6
11/15/2006
1.5
Im Bz ( t)
( a )
Im Bz ( t)
( b )
0.5
Im Bz ( t)
( c )
0.5
Im_sum( t)
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
0
0
0
Re Bz ( t) , Re Bz ( t) , Re Bz ( t) ,
( a )
( b )
( c )
Re_sum( t)
t1 :=
sec
Re Bza( t1)
IF cos t1 2 = 0.5
3
Re Bzb ( t1)
IF cos t1 4 = 1
3
Re Bzc( t1)
= 0.5
= 0.5
=1
+ Im Bza( t1)
+ Im Bzb ( t1)
+ Im Bzc( t1)
7
11/15/2006
speed of rotation of this machine = frequency of the supplied AC. as shown, there are two poles (one pair) N-S
with multiple pairs the speed of rotation is reduced proportional to the number of poles
ns = f =
with AC frequency
and two poles
n s = rotation_speed
f = frequency
rpm
Hz
1
= frequency
for p poles
ns =
2 f
Hz = 1
Hz = 9.549 rpm
s
Hz
( 9.10 )
assumes radians
2Hz = 60 rpm
d
= constantf
dt
(2.95)
small ...
U = IFR + E
R<1
U=E=
E=
=>
f
KF
U
= KF
f
=>
KF
KF = constant_for_given_motor
now consider the rotor,if it is turning at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field of the stator, there is no EMF
the current induced in the rotor is strongly dependent on the relative speed
define ...
at low slip
s=
0%
n s n
(9.14)
n
s
to ..
10%
s = slip
n s = rotation_speed_stator
fR_EMF = n s n
n = rotation_speed_rotor
fR_EMF = frequency_of_rotor_EMF
(9.15)
because the rotor induced current will be at slip frequency, EMF is low so reactance (L) will be low. I A depends
primarily (only) on rotor (armature) resistance R A and is in phase with the flux pattern. The net result is torque is ~
directly proportional to slip
M = K s
(9.16)
8
11/15/2006
M,I
M
increasing
resistance
load curve
n
s
load curve
ns
0
ns
1
fig. 9.20A Torque - speed curve varying rotor resistance from Woud
1
fig. 9.18 Torque - speed curve induction motor from Woud
Um
I
increasing
resistance
0.75*Um
0.5*Um
load curve
load curve
0.25*Um
0
n
s
ns
0
1
fig. 9.20B Current - speed curve varying rotor resistance from Woud
n
s
ns
0
There is much more to this subject and text covers quite well. Next lecture will review ship applications.
One comment regarding opinion in text regarding DC motor drive. Dc drives not typical as commutation brushes require
significant maintenance. DDX motor has innovative new brush technology.
see: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2002/mil-02-04-wavelengths02.htm
9
11/15/2006
http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/, 2005.
Including and improving reliability of propulsion (and other) systems is a challenging goal for system designers.
An approach has developed to tackle this challenge:
1. a design and development philosophy
2. a test procedure for components and total systems
3. a modelling procedure based on test results, field tests and probability (statistics
critical systems in the design, followed by an examination of the factors leading to failure.
Causes of failure:
a. loading: (inaccurate estimates of) thermal, mechanical or electriacl including
vibrations
b. strength: (inaccurate estimates of) the load carrying capacity of the components
c. environment: presence of dirt, high temperature, shock, corrosion, moisture, etc.
d. human factors: heavy handed operators ("sailor proof"), wrong decisions (operator error), criminal activities
(sabatoge), poor design, tools left in critical components, use of incorect replacements
e. quality control: or lack thereof; loose control of materials and manufacture, lack of inspection, loose
specifications
b. assume that every component can fail, examine the outcome of the failure and try to reduce the risk of damage.
(life):
12/13/2005
set up N_surv
80
60
40
20
20
40
60
80
100
time
proportion_failing_in_t
d
N( t)
dt
N( t)
N( t) 1
1 d
N( t)
=
N( t) t
N( t) dt
to make some
estimates based on this
sample:
d N( t)
N( t)
N( t)
ln
( ) d
=
N( 0 )
0
= dt
fail_rate( t , t) :=
N( t + t) N( t)
N( t)t
N = N( t = 0)
define ... I
N( t) = NIexp d
d
N( t)
dt
N( t)
set ...
or ...
or ...
N( t) = NI exp ( ) d
0
time
1 d
N( t) = constant
N( t) dt
d
N( t)
dt
N( t)
integrate from
N( t)
ln
d
=
0 to t
N( 0 )
0
:= 0.01
N( t) := NIexp( t)
NI := 100
100
N( t) 50
50
t
12/13/2005
100
N.B. failure rate is not necessarily the same as (but can be related to) (in this case it is) the probability of failure
100
800
failure rate
200
400
600
800
1000
Reliability
(applies to a particular mission with a defined duration.)
defined as the probability of operating without degraded performance during a specific time period. At time t 1 , the
number operating is N(t1 ) and NI is the initial number. The reliability is:
( )
R t1 =
( )
t1
R( t 1 ) =
= exp
dt
NI
0
1
N( t1 )
ln
= dt
0
NI
( )
N t1
since ...
NI
with = constant
d N( t)
N( t)
= dt
( )
R t1 = exp t1
( )
and expanding
in a series ...
( )
R t1 = 1 t1
e.g.
N t1
R t1 = 1 t1
t1 := 0.05
2
3
t1 )
t1 )
(
(
+
+ ..
1 t1 = 0.95
2!
3!
exp t1 = 0.951
accumulated_life
number_of_failures
t1
MBT( OM) F
12/13/2005
=
<1
number_of_failures
accumulated_life
MBT( OM) F
t1
R t1 = 1 t1 = 1
MBT( OM)
F
( )
Probability of Failure (Q or F)
since probability of success + failure = 1
t1 if ... *t1
Q = 1 R = 1 exp t1 = t1 =
MTBF<< 1
R+ Q=1
now consider separate components C1 and C2 having R 1 and R2 and Q1 and Q2 . then ...
R1 R2 + R1 Q2 + Q1 R2 + Q1 Q2
R1 R2 = probability_both_C1_and_C2_operating
R1 Q2 = probability_C1_operating_and_C2_failed
R2 Q1 = probability_C2_operating_and_C1_failed
Q1 Q2 = probability_C1_and_C2_failed
Series Systems
If it is necessary for all systems to operate, then this termed a series system and is represented as a circuit as:
Rseries = R1 R2
e.g. ...
( it1) = Ri
Rseries = R1 R2 R3 .. Rn = exp
more generally,
R1 := 0.9
R2 := 0.9
R3 := 0.9
2 components
R1 R2 = 0.81
Rn := 0.9
6 components
Rn = 0.531
Parallel Systems
If there is redundancy, and either C1 or C2 is required for operation then this is a parallel scheme ...
Rparallel = R1 R2 + R1 Q2 + Q1 R2 = 1 Q1 Q2
generally ...
Rparallel = 1 Q1 Q2 Q3 .. Qn = 1
Qi
when Qi = Qn
Rparallel = 1 Qi
e.g. ...
R1 := 0.9
R2 := 0.9
R3 := 0.9
Qi := 0.1
Rn := 0.9
2 components
12/13/2005
1 Qi = 0.99
R out of N
see Handbook of Statistical Methods section 8.1.8.4.R out of N model
If a system has n components and reqires any r to be operational; assuming
all components have thesame reliability Ri
all components operate independent of one another (as far as failure is concerned)
the system can survive any (n - r) components failing, but fails at the instant the n - r - 1)th component fails
System reliability is given by the probability of exactly r components surviving to time t + the probability of exactly (r
+ 1) components surviving to time t ... up to all n surviving. These are binomial probabilities:
n
Rs( t) =
i = r
n R i 1 R ni
i (
i)
r
n=4
2 components
R1 R2 Q3 Q4 + R1 R3 Q2 Q4 + R1 R4 Q2 Q3 + R2 R3 Q1 Q4 + R2 R4 Q1 Q3 + R3 R4 Q1 Q2
3 components
R1 R2 R3 Q4 + R1 R3 R4 Q2 + R1 R2 R4 Q3 + R2 R3 R4 Q1
R1 R2 R3 R4
n = 4 components
N.B. a series system is one with r = n i.e. all components must operate. a parallel system is one with r = 1
Standby Systems
Standby scenario will be more reliable than parallel as seen in Handbook of Statistical Methods section
8.1.8.5.Standby model
Availability
Availability is the probability that a component is operational, i.e. it is not being repaired
MTTR = mean_time_to_repair =
total_time_for_repairs
number_of_repairs
For every failure there should be a repair, so that the average component is repaired for the average time after it
has operated for the average time between failures. Average time between failures is MTBF and for repair MTTR,
so assuming component is either operating or being repaired ...
availability = A =
if ...
12/13/2005
operating_time
operating_time + repair_time
( << )
MTBF
MTBF + MTTR
A=
MTBF
MTBF + MTTR
=1
MTTR
MTBF
1+a
= (1 + a)
=1a
a<1
MTTR
QA = 1 A =
MTBF
Aseries = A1 A2 A3 .. An =
Ai
n
Aparallel = 1 Q1 Q2 Q3 .. Qn = 1
Qi
n
12/13/2005
( << )
primarily chapter 15
PDF = probability_density_function = f( t)
t
CDF = cumulative_distribution_function = F( t) = f( x ) dx
F( t) = 1 R( t)
or ...
f( t)
1 F( t)
f( t)
conditional probability
R( t )
f( t) = R( t) h ( t)
therefore ...
d
d
F( t) = R( t) = f( t)
dt
dt
R( t) = 1 F( t )
now ...
h ( t) =
f( t)
R( t )
d
R( t )
dt
R( t )
d
= ln( R( t) )
dt
integrate from 0 to t
h ( x ) dx = ln( R( t))
exponentiate ..
h( x) dx
R( t) = e
f( t) = R( t) h ( t) = h ( t) e
therefore ...
h( x) dx
h ( t) :=
f( t) := h ( t) e
h( x) dx
( )
f( t) e
( ) x
( ) t
F( t) := e
dx e
+1
F( t) := 1 e
1
11/27/2006
PDF_of_time_to_next_failure = f( t) = e
:=
t := 0 .. 10000
1000
f( t) := e
0.001
5 .10
0
0
2000
4000
6000
1 .10
8000
= CDF_of_waiting_time_to_next_failure
F( t) := 1 e
0.5
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
1 .10
interpret time to failure as a waiting time, it can be shown that this can be represented as a Poisson
process, if a component which fails is immediately replaced with a new one having the same failure rate .
Some results from this observation:
mean_waiting_ttime_between_successive_failures =
= MTBF
R( t) := 1 F( t)
R( t) e
Reliability_function = probability_unit_survives_beyond_t
( ) t
0.05
10000
1000
= 0.607
n components in series
if a system consists of n components in series, with respective failure rates 1 , 2 ... n
n
Rs( t) =
it
=e
it
=1
i= 1
MTBF series_system =
i= 1
1
MTBF
i
i = 1
probability_all_will_fail = unreliability = Fp =
Fi
i= 1
Rp ( t) = 1 Fp ( t) = 1
F ( t) = 1
i= 1
1 Ri(t)
i= 1
Fi(t) = (
1 e
n
Fp ( t) =
i= 1
h p( t) =
fp ( t)
Rp( t)
it
i= 1
Fp ( t
)
dt
Rp ( t )
Rp (t) difficult to obtain in general, but when all components have same failure rate
3
11/27/2006
Rp( t) = 1
t
t
(1 e ) = 1 (1 e )
n
1 R ( t) = 1
i= 1
i = 1
n_choose_k( n , k ) :=
1 1e
n!
= 1 1 n_choose_k( n , 1) e
Rp ( t) = n_choose_k( n , 1 ) e
binomial coefficient
k!(n k)!
+ n_choose_k( n , 1) e
n_choose_k( n , 2 ) e
2 t
........
+ ......................... ( 1 )
n 1 n t
fp ( t) =
d
Rp ( t )
dt
MBTF parallel =
1 +
1
2
+ ............. +
1 3
MBTF parallel =
2
k=1
1
k
= 2.083
four to double
4
11/27/2006
Reduction Gears
need:
propellers
waterjet pump
low speed diesels
medium speed diesels
steam turbine
gas turbine
60-300 rpm
300-1500 rpm
70-250 rpm
350-1200 rpm
6000-9000 rpm
3600-15000 rpm
1904 - study by consulting engineers George Melville Adm (Ret.) and John Alpine
George Melville was Chief Bureau of Steam Engineering and in 1899 President of ASME see
study: - Problem - steam engine succeeding reciprocating engine:
"If one could devise a means of reconciling, in a practical manner, the necessary high speed of revolution of the
turbine with the comparatively low rate of revolution required by an efficient propeller, the problem would be solved
and the turbine would practically wipe out the reciprocating engine for the propulsion of ships. The solution of this
problem would be a stroke of great genius." Ref: Mar. Eng.
First gear generally attributed to Pierre DeLaval in 1892. Parsons (cavitation) and George Westinghouse
developed prototypes and installed gears:
ANSUAGMA 1012-F90
[Tables or other self-supporting sections may be quoted or extracted in their entirety. Credit lines
should read: Extracted from AGMA 1012-F90, Gear Nomenclature Terms, Definitions, Symbols and
Abbreviations, with the permission of the publisher, American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500
King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314 ] Availability changed to require registration in course.
I have copy from previous registration when it was free.
See: handout from Marine Engineering, (on web site)
11/29/2006
Single Reduction
gear_ratio = R =
R=
Single reduction
input
pinion
diameter_of_gear
diameter_of_pinion
number_teeth_gear
number_teeth_pinion
rpm_pinion
rpm_gear
NP
output
NG
bull
gear
dg1
dp1
R2 =
dg2
Double reduction
R = R1 R2
dp2
dp 2
dg 2
dp 1
dg 1
dg 1
dg 1
dp+ 2
dp+2
dp 1
input
output
dg 2
Epicyclic gear
ring
+
planets
sun
cage
cage
Type
Fixed
Input
Output
Ratio
Normal range
Planetary
ring
sun
cage
RR/RS + 1
3:1 - 12:1
Star
cage
sun
ring
(-) RR/RS
Solar
sun
ring
cage
RS/RR + 1
RS = radius_sun
RR = radius_ring
RP = radius_planet
11/29/2006
1.2:1 - 1.7:1
Wr*Rr
ring
Wp*Rp
subscripts ...
W = angular_velocity
s = sun
WT = tangential_load
p = planet
Wc
Wr
planet
Ws
Wc*Rr
Wp
Wp*Rp+Wc*Rs
Ws*Rs
sun
r = ring
n = rpm
c = carrier( cage)
1 = primary
for compound
systems
2 = secondary
2. point on sun gear pitch diameter meshing with planet gear pitch diameter has tangential velocity
Wp Rp + WcRs
WsRs = Wp Rp + WcRs
mesh =>
WrRr = Wp Rp WcRr
Ws Rs = Wr Rr + Wc Rr + Rs
Planetary arrangement ... input sun,
fixed ring
Ws
WsRs = Wc Rr + Rs
Wr = 0
Wc
Ws
Wr
0 = Wr Rr + Wc Rr + Rs
Wr
Wc
Rr + Rs
Rs
Rr
Rs
+ 1
WsRs = WrRr
Wc = 0
11/29/2006
combining ...
Ws = 0
WrRr + WcRr = Wp Rp
or ...
Rr
Rs
fixed sun
Rr + Rs
Rs
Rr
Rr
+ 1
k 1 :=
Hertz stress
1 1
k 2 :=
E1
1 2
2
E2
It can be shown that the width of contact between two parallel cylinders given: elliptical loading, q o , etc.
b :=
4 P_p k 1 + k 2 R1 R2
R1 + R2
where ...
P_pr =
1
2
bq o
R1
(236)
q o = max_pressure_elliptical_distribution
b = half_width_of_rectangular_contact_area
q o :=
2 P_pr
P_pr = P' =
bb
kn =
load
1 n
(235)
length
2
all n
En
R2
(236)
b := 2 p_over_Pmax( x ) :=
x
b
x := b , b + 0.01 .. b
elliptical loading numerical plot
2
p ( xx) := P_max 1
want
xx
bb
2
pressure
symbolically
bb
bb
let ...
distance
then ...
p ( ) := P_max sin( )
bb
bb
therefore ..
0
1
p ( ) ( bbsin( )) d P_max bb
11/29/2006
P_pr =
1
2
b q o
P_pr
qo
1 2 1 2
R2
1
2
P_pr
E + E R1 R + R
1
2
1
2
or ...
2 P_pr
qo =
qo =
R1 + R2
P_pr
R1 + R2
4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2
P_pr 4
P_pr
4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2
R1 + R2
P_pr
4 P_pr k 1 + k 2 R1 R2
R1 + R2
(k1 + k2)R1R2
P_pr
R1 + R2
1 2 1 2
2
1
E + E R1 R2
1
2
R1 + R2
1 2 1 2
(240)
2
1
+
R R
E
E2 1 2
1
qo =
P_pr
R1 + R2
1 2
R R
E 1 2
P_pr E
R1 + R2
2
2 1 R1 R2
2
1
P_pr E R1 + R2
2
R1 R2
2
1
:= 0.3
= 0.418
2
2 1
q o = 0.418
S=
P_pr E R1 + R2
R1 R2
(241)
r1 + r2
P
0.175 E
L
r1 r2
S = maximum_compressive_stress psi
P
L
Wt
Fe
unit version
P
L
hp
Wt
= 126051
Wt
Fe
2 1
= 0.175
tangential_tooth_load
lbf
effective_face_width_at_pitch_diameter in
hp = horse_power_transmitted_per_mesh
rpmpiniond pinionFe
Fe
11/29/2006
1
= loading_per_inch_length = P_pr
P d1 + d2
L d 1 d 2
maximum stress ~
E, r straight forward
hp in horsepower
hp
rpmpiniond pinionFe
rpm in min-1
dpinion in inches
Fe in length; carries to result
result ...
lbf
Fe_unit
replace ...
d1 = dg
d2 = dp
dg
+ 1
Wt d p
=
dg
Fe
Wt d g + d p
=
Fe d g d p
maximum stress ~
Wt R + 1
=
Fe d g
Wt 1 R + 1
Fe d p
R
K=
as ...
Wt R + 1
Fe d p R
R=
dg
dp
K
Wt
R
hp
= K d p
=
Fe
R+1
n p d p Fe
Fe
=C
d
p
max
dp =
above ...
dp =
Kn p Fe
2 C 2.5
KCn p R
3
hp R + 1
KCn R
p
550
6012 = 126051
hp
100psi = 689.5
R + 1
sec
ft
min
dp =
unit conversion
R + 1
hp
hp
=>
kN
1000psi = 6895
m
300psi = 2068
kN
2
kN
2
Marine Engineering suggests the first approximation for the gear ratio for the second reduction be taken as ...
Roverall 1
another Navy study (ref: Prof
Carmichael) suggests
volume_bull_gear =
total_volume =
11/29/2006
hp
Kn p
Roverall
vol =
d p Fe = d p C =
locked train
Roverall
Roverall + 3
articulated
d Fe
R + 1
2 2
2 hp R + 1
2
d g Fe = R d p Fe = R
4
4
4
Kn p R
hp R + 1 2
2
2
d p Fe R + 1 =
R + 1
4
4 Kn p R
6
n p = R n g
or substituting
total_volume =
R + 1 2
R +1
2
4 Kn g
R
hp
$/hp
single reduction
double reduction
triple reduction
0
10
20
30
40
11/29/2006
50
60
Backlash_lookup
Backlash_lookup 0.010
Backlash_lookup
6
8
Backlash_lookup
10
0.010
Backlash_lookup
12
14
16
0.009
Backlash_lookup
0.009
Backlash_lookup
0.008
pressure_angle_at_pitch_radius
NP 20
addendum
dedendum
number_of_gear_teeth
RG
DP
2 DP
NG 1
DP 2
RG
RP
BL
DP
BL
TP1 = TG1 =
=
2
2
2
DP 2
S
DP 2
BL
2
TP1
R
center_distance
1.5
BL
CP
2.5
1.25
DP
*************************************************************************
NP NG
BL Backlash_lookup
TP1
number_of_pinion_teeth
NG 30
NP 1
DP 2
RP
NG
NP
0.01
TG1 TP1
0.152
Rroot_P RP dedendum
Rroot_P
0.875
Rroot_G RG dedendum
Rroot_G
1.375 root_radius_gear
root_radius_pinion
Radd_P RP addendum
Radd_P
1.1
addendum_radius_pinion
Radd_G RG addendum
Radd_G
1.6
addendum_radius_gear
inv I tan I I
0.006
diametral_pitch
I1 20deg
20
0.007
18
TG1
CP
0.152
S 2 RP
NP
2 TP1
dedendum
0.125
addendum
0.1
CP
0.314
0.304
involute_function
CTT 1 TP1
circular_tooth_thickness_at_pitch_radius
T1 inv I1
involute_angle_at_pitch_radius
T1
0.854 deg
1
12/8/2006
CTT1
CTT1
B(I
R2
R1
A
T
RB
R1
T
RB
T
A = T1
1 CTT 1
2 R1
CTT 1 = circular_tooth_thickness
I = pressure_angle_design
B I2 = A T2
T1 = involute_of_design_pressure_angle
RB
R1 = pitch_radius =
cos I
R2 =
Pinion geometry
RB_P
cos I2 i
RB_P
RB_P
Radd_P
I_add_P
D = circular_range_variable
0.94
Rroot_P
0.875
Rroot_P ! RB_P
31.321 deg
N1 = number_of_points_along_involute
i 1 N1 1
T2 inv I2
base_radius_pinion
I_add_P acos
N1 20
cos I2
D 0 0.01 2 S
RB_P RP cos I1
R2_P
RB
I2 i
I_add_P
N1
( i 1)
increment_of_pressure_angle
involute_angle_at_local_radius
radius_on_involute
CTT 1
CTT 2 2 R2_P
i
2 RP
T1 T2 i
thickness_at_location
2
12/8/2006
number of teeth
j 1 NP
B = angle_relative_to_tooth_center =
CTT 2
Bl_P
i j
B_del ( j 1 )
j
2S
NP
thickness
2 radius_at_location
CTT 2
2 R2_P
B_del
Br_P
i j
B_del
j
i = range_variable_along_involute
i
j = tooth_number
2 R2_P
adding a point at the root radius so we need to add two values of R root and one each of Br and Bl. these are the first points
R2_P Rroot_P
0
Bl_P
0 j
Bl_P
Br_P
1 j
N1 N1 1
0 j
Br_P
1 j
i 0 N1
i ( N1 1) 2 ( j 1)
R2_P
i
R_plot_P
i ( N1 1) [ 2 ( j 1) 1]
R2_P
N1 i
i ( N1 1) 2 ( j 1)
Br_P
B_plot_P
i j
i ( N1 1) [ 2 ( j 1) 1]
R_plot_P
bug
R_plot_P
B_plot_P
bug
N1 i j
close curve
B_plot_P
krhs 1
90
120
Bl_P
60
Xr_P
i j
Yr_P
150
i j
Xl_P
i j
Yl_P
i j
30
0.5
closeup of tooth
180
0.1
210
330
0
240
300
270
0.1
gear outline
root radius
base radius
0.8
1.2
3
12/8/2006
RB_G RG cos I1
base_radius_gear
RB_G
N2 24
1.41
Rroot_G
RB_G
Radd_G
I2 reset
Gear geometry
I_add_G acos
I_add_G
1.375
28.241 deg
N2 = number_of_points_along_involute
Rroot_G ! RB_G
RB_G
Rroot_G
I_ded_G acos
involute_angle_at_local_radius
CTT1
CTT 2 2 R2_G
i
2 RG
T1 T2 i
i j
N2
RB_G
R2_G
2 R2_G
increment_of_pressure_angle
radius_on_involute
cos I2
NG
thickness
2 radius_at_location
CTT 2
( i 1)
thickness_at_location
2S
B = angle_relative_to_tooth_center =
Bl_G
I_add_G I_root_G
j 1 NG B_del ( j 1 )
CTT 2
12.816i deg
if root is > base, start involute at root not base. to allow the
pposite, insert extra point as in pinion.
I2 i I_root_G
T2 inv I2
I_ded_G
B_del
Br_G
i j
B_del
j
i = range_variable_along_involute
i
2 R2_G
j = tooth_number
i
adding a point at the root radius, R root is max(RB,Rroot) and one each of Br and Bl. these are the
first points. in either case, added point is R root_G .
R2_G Rroot_G
0
Bl_G
0 j
Bl_G
Br_G
1 j
0 j
Br_G
1 j
N2 N2 1
i 0 N2
N2 points from i up and down. radius up across then down across connecting the dots ...
R2_G
R_plot_G
R2_G
i ( N2 1) [ 2 ( j 1) 1]
i
N2 i
put right data first, alternate by and "right" and "left" in sequence
R_plot_G
i ( N2 1) 2 ( j 1)
B_plot_G
i ( N2 1) 2 ( j 1)
Br_G
B_plot_G
i j
R_plot_G
bug
R_plot_G
i ( N2 1) [ 2 ( j 1) 1]
B_plot_G
bug
Bl_G
B_plot_G
N2 i j
close curve
krhs 1
Xr_G
i j
Yr_G
i j
4
12/8/2006
90
120
closeup of tooth
60
1.5
0.1
150
30
1
0.5
R_plot_G 180
0
0.1
210
330
240
1.4
1.5
300
270
B_plot_G
R,T
T
R21 R T C T1
T 21 R T C T1
R cosT T1 C 2 R sin T T1 2
R*cos(TTC
T1 = angle_circle_center_rotated
atan R sin T T1 T1
R cos T T1 C
shift gear a distance C, no rotation of center but rotate gear (B P) by 1/2 circular pitch angle to mesh
Gear
i 0 rows( R_plot_G ) 1
B_shift
S
NG
B_rot B_shift 2
B_shift
B_shift
100
6 deg
FRAME
B_rot
6 deg
and finally ... remove BL for meshing, applying half thedistance on each of pinion and gear
pinion is rotating CCW so adjust BL/4*R P and gear is CW so add BL/4*RG (CCW) to gear
B_adj_P
B_adj_G
BL
4 RP
BL
4 RG
5
12/8/2006
so tangent plot is
t_plot
RB_P I1
RB_G S I1
I1
RB_P
Rtan_G T tan_G
T tan_G T 21 RB_G S I1 C 0
t_plot
0.94 0.349
1.27 0.389
90
4
120
60
150
30
2
1
R_plot_G_1
R_plot_P
180
0
t_plot
210
330
240
300
270
1
B_plot_G_1 B_plot_P B_rot R B_adj_P t_plot
6
12/8/2006
X_G reset
Y_G reset
Y_P
j
R_plot_P sin B_plot_P B_rot R B_adj_P
j
j
j 0 rows( R_plot_P) 1
t_xy_pl
Y_tan_G X_tan_G
Y_tan_P X_tan_P
1.5
0.5
Y_G
Y_P
0
t_xy_pl
0.5
1.5
2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
1
X_G X_P t_xy_pl
2.5
3.5
4.5
B_rot R
R
1.5
NP
20
NG
9 deg
30
7
12/8/2006
0.15
0.1
0.05
Y_G
Y_P
0
t_xy_pl
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1
X_G X_P t_xy_pl
These last two figures are animated in gear mesh video revised. In animating, the variable FRAME is incremented from 0 :
100, the calculations highlighted above are carried out and plotted, the plots updated and a video screen captured.
8
12/8/2006
Gear geometry
Consider the curve generated by unwrapping a string from around a
disk of radius R B. The end of the string will trace an involute curve.
To mathematically define an involute consider the following:
Rc = length_of_string_unwrapped
involute curve
(not exact)
Rc
R
tan ( ) =
RB = radius_of_generating_cylinder
= pressure_angle
RB
RC
RB
= position_paramter_associate_with_involute
E= +
=>
RB
= E = +
= tan ( )
involute curve
tan ( ) =
RC
RB
= E= +
RC = E RB
tan ( ) = +
basic definition for angular coordinate of involute curve for any . Curve is generated by setting
to range from 0 to max
RB
RB
=> R =
the other coordinate, R=pitch_radius
cos ( ) =
R
cos ( )
when = pressure angle for design
:= 40deg
:= tan ( )
involute ( )
RB:= 1
1 := 0 , 0.01.. 2
pressure_angle
= 8.077deg
R_rad := 0 , 0.1.. 2
2_range_variable
1_max:= 0.85rad
RP :=
RB
cos ( )
RP = 1.305
the involute is constructed by varying a dummy pressure angle over a range - equivalent to unwrapping the
string from the disk.
1 := 0 , 0.01 .. 1_max range_variable_for_construction
2 ( 1 ) := tan( 1 ) 1
R2( 1 ) :=
RB
cos( 1 )
a tangent is drawn from the pressure angle thru the involute at the pitch radius (perpendicular to involute)
R
P
2
1 0.873
RB 2
12/4/2006
add in an involute at a nominal pressure angle of 50 deg and then rotate it by the difference between pressure
angles. Notice it overlays the first tangent.
4 := 50deg
4 := tan( 4 ) 4
4 = 18.282 deg
RB
+ ( 4 ) k4
2
cos( 4 )
R_tan1 :=
4 + ( 4 ) k4
RB
2
R_tan1 =
(4 ) k4
1.556 1.745
1 0.873
RB = radius_of_generating_cylinder
= pressure_angle
R=
define
12/4/2006
RB
cos( )
CP = circular_pitch =
circumference_of_pitch_diameter
number_of_teeth
2
:= 25deg
DP := 10
diametral_pitch = DP =
NP := 20
BL := 0.01
pressure_angle
number_of_teeth
pitch_diameter
NG
2 RG
NG := 30
number_of_pinion_teeth
CTT P :=
DP 2
NP
2 RP
CP DP =
number_of_gear_teeth
BL
2
circular_tooth_thickness
RG = 1.5
pitch_radius_gear
RBG := RGcos( ) RBG = 1.359
DP 2
NP 1
DP 2
RP :=
C := RG + RP
R :=
RG
RP
RP = 1
pitch_radius_pinion
C = 2.5
center_distance
R = 1.5
gear_ratio
CTT P
CTT P2 = 2 RP2
2
RP1
at R2 point on
thickness of tooth B is
RBP := RPcos( )
RBP = 0.906
base_diameter_gear
base_diameter_pinion
i.e. gear ration is ratio of pitch radii (or diameters or number of teeth)
+ inv( 1 ) inv( 2 )
1 CTT 1
B = 1 +
2
2 R1
derived below ...
12/4/2006
an aside ...
inv( ) := tan( )
CTT1
CTT1
B(2)
R2
R1
A
RB
R1
RB
1
2
A = 1 +
1 CTT 1
2 R1
CTT 1 = circular_tooth_thickness
= pressure_angle_design
B( 2 ) = A 2
1 = involute_of_design_pressure_angle
RB
R1 = pitch_radius =
cos(
)
R2 =
so ..
RB
cos( 2 )
B = 1 +
1 CTT 1
2
2 R1
additional definitions
addendum
dedendum
root_diameter
tooth profile ... with pitch radius and base radius shown ...
plot set up
12/4/2006
pinion profile
( )
move the pinion out to C, rotating it by and offsetting both by half tooth thickness
_plotG RG
plot set up
90
120
60
150
30
180
210
330
240
300
270
12/4/2006
Helical Gears
advantages ...
greater load capacity
smoother operation
less sensitivity to tooth errors
2**RB
2RB
L = lead
tan B
RB = base_radius
( )
( )
tan B =
2RB
B = base_helix_angle
develop normal at any radius on tooth by considering transverse and normal planes intersecting tooth at that point
geometry development
0, 0
point B ... point on gear for normal with helix (shown off gear)
point A ... point on radial line 0,0 to B perpendicular joining tangent
point D ... tangent point
point E ... point on plane perpendicular to tooth at B, connecting with (transverse) tangent point along RB
( )
AB
tan N =
AE
( )
AB
tan T =
AD
( )
cos( ) =
( )
AD AB
AB
=
= cos( ) tan T = tan n
AE AD AE
AD
AE
( )
=>
tan T =
( )
tan n
tan( n)
or ...
cos( )
T = atan
cos( )
D d
Pt = circular_pitch_transverse =
=
Ng
Np
D = diameter_gear
Ng = number_of_teeth_gear
d = diameter_pinion
Np = number_of_teeth_pinion
Pt
magnified ....
Pn
cos( ) =
Px
Pt
Pn
Px
Pn
Pt
Pn = circular_pitch_normal = Pt cos( )
Pb
tan B =
Px
( )
Pb = base_pitch_transverse
Pb
3. Pitch
Pt = circular_pitch_transverse =
pitch_circumference
number_of_teeth
Pn = circular_pitch_normal = Pt cos( )
N.B.
P = diametral_pitch_transverse =
B = atan
and ...
D
Ng
Px
g = gear
p = pinion
Np
number_of_teeth
pitch_diameter
tan( ) =
Px
Pb
= atan
Pt
Ng
D
=>
Px
Np
so ...
d
Px =
Pt
tan( )
and ...
Pt =
P
Pn =
PN
Px = axial_pitch = Pt cot( )
Pb = base_pitch_transverse =
base_circumference
number_of_teeth
2 RB
2 RG RB
RG
N
RG = pitch_radius =
( )
=>
cos t =
RG
D
2
B
t
D
Pb =
cos t = Pt cos t
Ng
( )
( )
RG
RB
t
PbN = base_pitch_normal
0,0
Pb
PbN
area =
Px
1
2
base altitude =
and ...
=>
area =
2
P P
2 x b
Pb + Px PbN
2
Pb + Px PbN = Px Pb
and ...
Px Pb
PbN =
Pb + Px
also ...
Px
PbN =
Pb + Px
( )
( )
Pb = cos B Pt cos t
( )
P
PN = diametral_pitch_normal =
=
=
Pn
cos( )
Pt cos( )
2 1 in 1 in
min 2
= 126051
lbf
in
and ...
Pt =
P
HP
HP
Wt = tangential_tooth_load = 126050
= 126050
RPMp d
RPMg D
Wt
WT = total_tooth_load_transverse_plane =
cos t
( )
Wn = tangential_tooth_load_normal_plane =
WN = total_tooth_load_normal_plane =
11/22/2004
Pn =
PN
Wt
cos(
)
Wt
( )
cos n cos( )
As is well known typical submarine propulsion uses a storage battery with engine recharging. In all the stored
systems, the challenge is storage of the oxygen component,
** The initiative behind the self-propelled torpedo was provided by an Austrian frigate captain Giovanni Luppi. After some
unsuccesful attempts to propel a charge laden boat with a springdriven clockwork. In 1864 he turned to Robert Whitehead
(1823-1905), then technical manager in an Italian factory to design an improved version. The result was a torpedo in
October 1886: length 3.35 m, diameter 25.5 cm, weight 136 kg. Propulsion was provided by 20 to 25 kg of compressed air,
driving a reciprocating engine with a high and low pressure cylinder. Taken from "Swedish Torpedo 100 Years; 1876 - 1976.
Secondary Batteries
liquid
=>
solid liquid
2 Pb
(2 + 8) O
2 S
4 H
check
67
lbf
kW hr
= 30.391
kgf
kW hr
(8 + 2) O
2 S
4 H
1
67
Silver - Zinc
discharges 1.1 - 0.8 V per cell
charges 1.6 - 2.0 V per cell
electrolyte KOH
20
lbf
kW hr
1
20
lbf
lbf
W hr
lbf
kW hr
= 9.072
= 50
= 14.925
kgf
kW hr
W
hr
lbf
kW hr
problem (both cells): hydrogen release in charging. New developments: NiCd, Li rechargeable
Fuel Cell
originally developed by Roger Bacon. H 2 and O2 are supplied to special electrodes with various electrolytes. KOH
in the alkaline cells, proton exchange membranes (PEM) and high temperature carbonate in the molten carbonate
cells, solid oxides in other cells. Energy conversion is relatively high ~ 60%
figure later
overall reaction
1
H2 + O2 = H2 O
2
complete
12/11/2006
H2 + 2 OH = 2 H2 O
+ 2electons
1
O + H2 O = 2electrons + 2 OH
2 2
maximum power at
constant T1
w_dot max
m_dot
= h 1 T1 s1 h 2 T1 s2 = G1 G2 = G
G = Gibbs_function
h 1 h 2 = heating_value_of_fuel
G
hhv
= 0.825_to_ 0.95
H2 consumption:
O2 consumption:
reactants
0.111
lbf
kW hr
0.889
1.0
= 0.05
lbf
kW hr
lbf
kW hr
kgf
kW hr
kgf
= 0.403
= 0.454
kW hr
kgf
kW hr
the volume is important and depends on the storage method: as cryogenic liquids:
O2
sp_gr = 1.14
71
lbf
ft
H2
sp_gr = 0.064
4.0
3 kgf
= 1.137 10
lbf
ft
m
3
= 64.074
kgf
3
Other methods of storage include: high pressure gas, hydrides (driven out by heat and pressure reduction) or as
liquid fuel which has to be reformed. A summary of ypes of fuel cells from
Fuel Cell Handbook (Sixth Edition) DOE/NETL-2002/1179 By EG&G Technical Services, Inc. Science Applications
International Corporation Under Contract No. DE-AM26-99FT40575 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil
Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory P.O. Box 880 Morgantown, West Virginia 26507-0880 November
2002
12/11/2006
A brief description of various electrolyte cells of interest follows. A detailed description of these
fuel cells may be found in Sections 3 through 7.
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is an ion exchange
membrane (fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer or other similar polymer) that is an excellent
proton conductor. The only liquid in this fuel cell is water; thus, corrosion problems are
minimal. Water management in the membrane is critical for efficient performance; the fuel cell
must operate under conditions where the byproduct water does not evaporate faster than it is
produced because the membrane must be hydrated. Because of the limitation on the operating
temperature imposed by the polymer, usually less than 120C, and because of problems with water balance, a
H2-rich fuel is used. Higher catalyst loading (Pt in most cases) than that used in
PAFCs is required for both the anode and cathode. Because CO poisons the catalyst, the fuel
may contain no CO.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is concentrated (85 wt%) KOH in
fuel cells operated at high temperature (~250C), or less concentrated (35-50 wt%) KOH for
lower temperature (<120C) operation. The electrolyte is retained in a matrix (usually asbestos),
and a wide range of electrocatalysts can be used (e.g., Ni, Ag, metal oxides, spinels, and noble
metals). The fuel supply is limited to non-reactive constituents except for hydrogen. CO is a
poison, and CO2 will react with the KOH to form K2CO3, thus altering the electrolyte. Even the
small amount of CO2 in air is detrimental to the alkaline cell.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC): Phosphoric acid concentrated to 100% is used for the
electrolyte in this fuel cell, which operates at 150 to 220C. At lower temperatures, phosphoric
acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO poisoning of the Pt electrocatalyst in the anode becomes
severe. The relative stability of concentrated phosphoric acid is high compared to other common
acids; consequently the PAFC is capable of operating at the high end of the acid temperature
range (100 to 220C). In addition, the use of concentrated acid (100%) minimizes the water
vapor pressure so water management in the cell is not difficult. The matrix universally used to
retain the acid is silicon carbide (1), and the electrocatalyst in both the anode and cathode is Pt.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is usually a combination
of alkali carbonates, which is retained in a ceramic matrix of LiAlO2. The fuel cell operates at
600 to 700C where the alkali carbonates form a highly conductive molten salt, with carbonate
ions providing ionic conduction. At the high operating temperatures in MCFCs, Ni (anode) and
nickel oxide (cathode) are adequate to promote reaction. Noble metals are not required.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): The electrolyte in this fuel cell is a solid, nonporous metal
oxide, usually Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2. The cell operates at 600-1000C where ionic conduction by
oxygen ions takes place. Typically, the anode is Co-ZrO2 or Ni-ZrO2 cermet, and the cathode is
Sr-doped LaMnO3.
12/11/2006
A
FC
PAFC
MCFC
SOFC
Electrolyte
Ion Exchange
Membranes
Mobilized or
Immobilized
Immobilized
Ceramic
Immobilized
Liquid
Liquid
Potassium
Phosphoric
Molten
Hydroxide
Acid
Carbonate
____________________________________________________________________________________
Operating
80C
65C - 220C 205C
650 C
600-1000C
Temperature
Charge
OH -
CO 3 -
External
Reformer for
CH4 (below)
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Prime Cell
Components
Carbon-based
Carbon-based
Graphite-based Stainless
based
Ceramic
Catalyst
Platinum
Platinum
Platinum
Nickel
Perovskites
Product
Water
Management
Evaporative
Evaporative
Evaporative
Gaseous
Product
Gaseous
Product
Product Heat
Management
Process Gas +
Independent
Cooling
Medium
Carrier
Internal
Reforming +
Process Gas
O2 consumption:
H2O + KOH
0.62
lbf
kW hr
= 0.281
kgf
kW hr
lbf
kgf
= 0.263
kWlbf
hr
kWkgf
hr
1.98
= 0.898
kW hr
kW hr
0.58
12/11/2006
figure later
closed; constant mass, states at end points shown; drive rotates /2 clockwise between each state
compare with continuous plot below volumes are designated 0, 0.5 and 1.0 to go with min, midway and max in
each cylinder.
hot
regenerator
state 1:
volhot = 0.5
volcold = 1.0
voltotal = 1.5
action 1 - 2: working fluid is compressed with T = constant, negative work done and
heat is removed
cold
hot
regenerator
cold
hot
state 3:
volcold = 0.5
voltotal = 0.5
volhot = 0.5
volcold = 0.0
voltotal = 0.5
action 3 - 4: working fluid is expanded with T = constant, positive work done and heat
is added
state 4:
regenerator
volhot = 0.0
action 2 - 3: ~ constant volume, heat added to system from regenerator, note that end
state volume is the same but what was in cold cylinder (2) goes to the hot (3)
regenerator
cold
hot
state 2:
volhot = 1.0
volcold = 0.5
voltotal = 1.5
action 4 - 1: ~ constant volume, heat removed from system to regenerator, note that
end state volume is the same but is in hot cylinder vs. cold
cold
12/11/2006
hot side
cold side
volume of system
thermo model
volume
1.5
0.5
kJ := 10 J
kmol := 10 mole
*
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1
p1 v1
(3.2)
T1
p2 v2
(3.5)
T2
2
2 1
V2
dV = p 1 V1 ln
W1_2 =
p dV = p 1 V1
V
V1
V
1
(4.5)
du = cvodT
12/11/2006
vo
T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvo ln
+ R ln
T1
v1
T2
p2
s2 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1
(5.20)
(7.24)
(7.23)
TH := 1000K
p 1 := 1bar
TL := 300K
R TL
v 1 :=
p1
T1 := TL
P V = R T
kJ
s1 := 1
kg
K
r := 3
R_m := 8.3144
kg K
kJ
:= 1.4
kg
compression ratio
cv :=
cp
mw_N2
cv = 0.744
NN := 10
ten increments
for plotting
kg
kmol
R_m
R :=
kmol K
v 1 = 0.891
mw_N2 := 28
kJ
cp := 1.042
N2
cpo = constant
R = 0.297
kJ
kg K
kJ
kg K
i := 0 .. NN
p1 < p < p2
p 2 := r p 1
p 2 = 3 bar
p 1_2 :=
NN
i + p 1
v 1_2 :=
i
w1_2 = p dv = R Th
R
T1
v 1_2
p 1_2
v 1_2
v2
dv = R T1 ln
v
v1
1
=3
v 2 := v 1_2
NN
v 2 = 0.297
10
v2
w1_2 := R T1 ln
v 1
T2 := T1
q 1_2 = 98
kJ
kg
kJ
w1_2 = 97.868
kg
s2 :=
kg
q 1_2
T1
+ s1
kJ
s2 = 0.674
kgK
plot 1 - 2
q 2_3 := cv TH TL
v 3 := v 2
p 3 :=
R T3
v3
p v = R T
q 2_3 = 521
T3 := TH
p 3 = 10 bar
T2
v2
s2 s1 = cvoln
+ R ln
T1
v1
kJ
kg
T2_3 p 2_3 =
p 2_3 v 2
R
(7.24)
T2_3 ( p 2_3 )
functionally
T2
s2_3 p 2_3 = s2 + cv ln
12/11/2006
p3 p2
NN
T2_3 :=
i
p 2_3 v 2
i
T2_3 i
indicially
s2_3 := s2 + cv ln
T2
7
kJ
s3 := s2_3
s3 = 1.57
NN
kg K
3 - 4 (+) work done by fluid; expansion at constant internal energy, heat addition; at constant
temperature
constant volume ...
v 4 := v 1
p v = R T
p 3_4 :=
i
p 3 = 10 bar
p4 p3
NN
i + p 3
w3_4 = p dv = R Th
v 3_4 :=
i
v 3_4
p 3_4
v 3_4
q 3_4 := w3_4
kg
p 2 = 3 bar
= 0.333
10
v4
w3_4 := R T3 ln
v 3
v4
q 3_4 = w3_4 = R T3 ln = T3 s4 s3
v 3
p 4 = 3.333 bar
v4
R T3
v4
dv = R T3 ln
v
v3
v 4 = 0.891
R T4
p 4 :=
T4 := TH
constant temperature
s4 :=
kJ
w3_4 = 326
kg
q 3_4
T3
kJ
s4 = 1.896
kg K
+ s3
q 4_1 := cv T1 T4
v 1 := v 4
p 1 :=
R T1
v1
q 4_1 = 521
kJ
T4
p4
s4 s1 = cpo ln
R ln
T1
p1
kg
T1 := TL
p 4_1 := p 4 +
i
p1 p4
NN
T4_1 i
p4_1 i
s4_1 := s4 + cp ln
R ln
T4
p4
T4_1 :=
i
p 4_1 v 4
i
p 1 = 1 bar
indicially
s1 := s4_1
NN
here could have used cv relationship as well. both are consistent as the area will show
set up plot
12/11/2006
T1
= 300 K
kJ
s1 = 0.999
kg K
p-v
pressure (bar)
10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1000
Temperature
800
600
400
200
500
1000
1500
2000
entropy s
p - v (log scale)
pressure (bar)
10
1
0.1
1
specific volume (m^3/kg)
th :=
12/11/2006
w3_4 + w1_2
q 3_4
th = 0.7
th_carnot := 1
TL
TH
th_carnot = 0.7
from combustion.mcd
this is on a stochiometric basis
(mole basis- i.e. 1 mole of C12H26
mw_O2 := 32
kg
kmol
mw_H2_O := (2 + 16)
kg
kmol mw_C_O2 := (12 + 32)
kg
kmol
mw_N2 := 28
kmol
kg
kmol
1kmol C12H26 + 18.5 kmolO2 + 69.6 kmolN2 = 13 kmolH2 O + 12kmol CO2 + 69.6kmol N2 + LHV
170
170
18.5 kmol.mw_O2
12kmol mw_C_O2
O2 ...
CO2 ...
+
+
170
170
69.6 kmolmw_N2
69.6kmol
mw_N2
+
N2
+
N2
170
170
kW
mf_dot LHV
LHV := 43000
sfc =
kJ
kg
air_fuel_ratio = 14.94
mf_dot
kW
kg
mf_dot := 1
s
power := 10000kW
:=
12/11/2006
power
mf_dot LHV
= 0.233
10
sfc :=
mf_dot
kW
sfc = 3.6 10
kg
kW hr
Thrust
Shaft torque
EHP of the boat
The propeller shaft power (delivered power) PD
The (Quasi) PC or D
The propeller is also tested at zero ship speed (bollard pull) and it is found that the engine limits the torque to
50,000 lbf ft. Determine:
f.
2. A propeller is to be selected for a single-screw container ship with the following features:
EHP = 80000 HP, ship speed = 25 kts, maximum propeller diameter = 34 ft,
w = 0.249, t = 0.18, R = 1.0, centerline depth, h = 25 ft
a. Using the maximum prop diameter, determine the optimum B 5-90 design. Use the metrics below to confirm
your design.
a.
P/D
b.
KT (optimum)
c.
KQ (optimum)
d.
o (optimum)
e.
J
f.
Developed HP
g.
The (Quasi) PC or D
h.
RPM
From the consideration of cavitation, determine:
i.
The predicted cavitation (%) using the Burrill correlation
j.
The expanded area ratio (EAR) to provide 5% cavitation for a commercial ship.
Assume the operating conditions are similar to the B 5-90 propeller.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of the fixed pitch propeller, controllable pitch propeller, and waterjet
propulsion systems. List the best applications (or platform(s)) for each propulsor and supporting reasons
considering the mission of the platform. (expectation: half a page of concise thought).
1. A survey vessel has a 10 ft diameter, B 5-90 propeller with a pitch of 10 ft. The
propeller speed is 200 rpm, the boat speed is 20 knots, and the thrust reduction factor
(t) is 0.12, wake fraction (w) is 0.18, and the relative rotational efficiency R is 1.0.
The propeller operates as indicated by the Wageningen (Troost) Series B propeller
charts. Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Thrust
Shaft torque
EHP of the boat
The propeller shaft power (delivered power) PD
The (Quasi) PC or D
The propeller is also tested at zero ship speed (bollard pull) and it is found that the
engine limits the torque to 50,000 lbf ft. Determine:
f.
a. Prop. Thrust.
Given variables
d := 10ft
p := 10ft
p_over_d :=
t := .12
w := .18
R := 1
n_rpm := 200
n :=
n_rpm
60 sec
n = 3.333
Vs := 20knot
:= 1.9905lb
sec
ft
VA := Vs ( 1 w)
Velocity of Approach
Advance Ratio
m
VA = 8.437
s
VA
J1 :=
n d
1
s
J1 = 0.83
KT := .12
KQ := .023
2 4
Thrust := KT n d
Thrust = 2.654 10 lb
b. Shaft Torque
2 5
Torque := KQ n d
PD := 2 n
Torque
lb
550
Torque = 5.087 10 lb ft
ft
sec
hp
PD = 1.937 10 hp
d. EHP
Vs
PE := Thrust ( 1 t )
lb
550
ft
PE = 1.433 10 hp
sec
hp
e. Quasi Efficiency
D :=
PE
D = 0.74
PD
n o :=
Torque max
5
no = 3.305
KQ d R
2 4
Thrust q := KT n q d
1
s
n q := n o 60 sec
n q = 198.286
7 2
Thrust q = 9.391 10 s lb
V2 := 25 knot
EHP := 80000 hp
d 2 := 34 ft
w2 := .249
t2 := .18
R := 1
h := 25
First we must combine a couple of equations in order to get all the information we know in terms of KT and
J.
ft
lb
sec
R2 := 550
hp
EHP
V2
Kt
T2 :=
R2
1 t2
ft
lb
sec
550
hp
Kt :=
( EHP)
)(
V2 d 2 1 t2 1 w2
J2
T2
2
n2 d2
V2
J2 :=
n 2 d 2
= 0.55
Now we can plot the function KT = 0.55 * J2 on the B 5-90 curve graph. Drawing a verticle line
where the function plot and each KT - P/D intersect will provide a value for KT and o. Starting
with a logical P/D (.5 for example), step though P/D values, recording KT and o. Take note at
the peak value for o, That will determine optimal values.
found:
P/D = 1.2
KT=.29
o = .6
a. P/D = 1.2
J2 :=
b. KT(opt) = .29
Kt
Kq := .055
.55
c. KQ(opt) = .055
o2 := .6
2 5
d. o = .6
Kt := .29
Q2 := Kq n d
J2 = 0.726
e. J = 0.726
1t
PC := o2
1 w R
EHP
PD2 :=
PC
f. HP = 124200 HP
1 w2
n 2 := V2
J2 d 2
g. PC = .644
h. RPM = 77.012
n2 = 1.284
1
s
N2 := n 2 60 s
Cavitation Calculations
EAR := 90
A E := EAR
d2
4
assume AD ~ AE
P_over_D_ans := 1.2
PD2 = 1.242 10 hp
PC = 0.644
N2 = 77.012
h := 25ft
2
2
VR := V2 ( 1 w2) + ( 0.7 n d 2)
C :=
AP
1
2
VR
2026
0.7R :=
ft
sec
+ 64.4
ft
C = 5.421 10
1
A s
sec
sec
1
2 ft
VR + 4.836 N2 d 2
s
2
0.7R = 1.095 10
0.2
C :=
10
A E = 7.591 10 m
0.7R
0.0305
C = 17.791
0.0174
% cavitation
i. Cavitation = - 17.8%
Cn := C .0305 0.7R
A pn :=
0.2
0.2
.5 V 2
Cn R
EARn :=
A pn
( )
j. = EAR is much less than one, Changing to meet these requirements would
not be necessary. (This will be considered extra credit)
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of the fixed pitch propeller, controllable
pitch propeller, and waterjet propulsion systems. List the best applications (or
platform(s)) for each propulsor and supporting reasons considering the mission of the
platform. (expectation: half a page of concise thought).
For full credit - A brief discussion similar to that in chapter 6 of the text, At least 2 advantages and 2
disadvantages of each and an example of where each has been used sucessfully.
2 ( 1 )
( 1 t)
( 1 w) p
1 + Kout 2 ( 1 Kin)
As a designer, how would you optimize overall efficiency in a waterjet? Hint: The above
equation makes some assumptions that may not always be true and substitutes for Vj/Va.
Bonus: What is the optimum value for Vj/Va?
2. Two waterjet propulsion systems are proposed for a surface effect ship having a net
thrust of 225,000 lbf at 70 knots. Determine the total propulsive efficiency, pump
pressure rise, the mass flow rate, and the total horsepower delivered to the pumps, for the
two designs with the following characteristics:
VJ/VA
Ram
2.0
Flush
2.0
12 ft
12 ft
CD
0.4
0.15
Kin
0.8
0.2
Kout
0.7
0.2
pump
0.9
0.9
** For this problem you can assume w and t are equal, or use reasonable values for each.
1)Find the optimal efficiency for this propeller from Kramers Diagram
Using the data for a NACA a=0.8 meanline and NACA 65A010 Thickness section
determine the blade section design at the r/R=0.697 radius. The max. thickness of this
section is chosen at to/C = 0.04
2) Find the lift coefficient for this section as well as the camber ration fo/c and proper
angle of attack
3). Determine the blade angle and pitch P/D for this section.
4).Will this section cavitate at this radius under the design operating conditions for this
ship? Use Brockett diagram to estimate
5). Use the matlab m-file vlm.m provided to analyze the 2D section at ideal angle of
attack. Plot the pressure distribution Cp vs. chordwise position. At what position on the
blade would cavitation first occur under these conditions?
BETA
57.796
57.303
56.337
54.940
53.168
51.093
48.794
46.353
43.848
41.347
38.909
36.576
34.379
32.336
30.457
28.743
27.190
25.792
24.540
23.423
22.433
21.559
20.793
20.126
19.550
19.060
18.650
18.316
18.052
17.857
17.729
17.665
BETAI
63.334
62.895
62.031
60.770
59.154
57.237
55.078
52.745
50.304
47.820
45.350
42.941
40.631
38.448
36.408
34.522
32.792
31.218
29.795
28.516
27.373
26.359
25.465
24.683
24.006
23.428
22.943
22.546
22.233
22.001
21.848
21.772
Chord/D
CD
0.17419 0.00800
0.17576 0.00800
0.17890 0.00800
0.18377 0.00800
0.19082 0.00800
0.20106 0.00800
0.21512 0.00800
0.23122 0.00800
0.24637 0.00800
0.26003 0.00800
0.27285 0.00800
0.28614 0.00800
0.29986 0.00800
0.31291 0.00800
0.32415 0.00800
0.33326 0.00800
0.34021 0.00800
0.34487 0.00800
0.34696 0.00800
0.34610 0.00800
0.34147 0.00800
0.33205 0.00800
0.31757 0.00800
0.30007 0.00800
0.28231 0.00800
0.26639 0.00800
0.24822 0.0080
0.22128 0.00800
0.18391 0.00800
0.13812 0.00800
0.08618 0.00800
0.03048 0.00800
5. A marine steam plant operates as a simple Rankine cycle with a turbine inlet
temperature and pressure of 600 C and 4 MPa. The condenser operates at a pressure of
20kPa. Assume that the turbine isentropic efficiency is 80% and the pump isentropic
efficiency is 90%.
a.
Sketch the cycle on T-s and h-s diagrams.
b.
Determine the steam quality at exit from the turbine.
c.
Determine the specific enthalpy change across each component.
d.
Determine the net power of the cycle with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s.
e.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle.
1. First Law refreshera) Write the generic first law thermodynamic equation for a single inlet and single
exit flow.
d
U
dt
( )
( )
2
2
V in
V out
Q _W
+m
h + g z +
mout_dot h out + g zout +
dot
dot
in_dot in
in
2
2
t1 := 283 K
P1 := .080 MPa
velocity_in := 200
Area := .5 m
R := .287
1000 Pa m
kJ := 1000J
kg K
To determine the mass flow rate, find specific volume of the air using the ideal gas relationship
Volume_spec := R
t1
Volume_spec = 1.015
P1
kg
velocity_in ( Area )
m_dot :=
Volume_spec
m_dot = 98.497
h_out := h_in
velocity_in
h_in := 283.14
kJ
kg
velocity_out := 0
kg
h_out = 303.14
t2 := 303.14K
3. Consider the tank system below. Tank A has a volume of 100ft3 and initially
contains R134a at a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 313 Kelvin. The
compressor evacuates tank A and charges tank B. Tank B is initially evacuated
and is of such volume that the final pressure of the R134a in tank B is 800 kPa.
Temperature remains constant. Determine the work done by the compressor.
VA := 100 ft
h_A := 287.66
PA := .1MPa
TA := 313 K
PB := .8 MPa
kJ
vA := .25076
kg
kg
TB := 313 K
TA = 39.85C
T_o := TA
u_A := h_A PA vA
u_A = 262.584
u_B := 252.13
mass :=
VA
vA
mass = 11.292kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
s_A := 1.141
kJ
kg K
s_B := .9374
kg K
kJ
4 1
Work_r = 5.327 10
kg
joule
Work_rev = 6.016 10 J
4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500C with a mass flow rate of 3kg/s
and leaves at 30 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is .9. Neglecting kinetic
energy, determine:
a) Temperature at the turbine exit
b) Power output
m1 := 3
v1 := .0417
h1 := 3398.3
kg
P2 := .030 MPa
T2 := 342.25K
hf := 289.23
hfg := 2336.1
hg := 2625.5
kJ
kg
s1 := 6.724
kJ
kg
kg
s
Pi := 8 MPa
T1 := 773.15K
kJ
kg
sf := .9439
kJ
kJ
sfg := 6.8337
kg
kJ
kg
kg
kJ
kg
( s1 sf )
sfg
h2 := hf + .846 hfg
= 0.846
3 kJ
h2 = 2.266 10
kg
h_actual = 2.379 10
Work := m1 ( h1 + h_actual )
kg
3 1
Work = 3.058 10
kJ
5. A marine steam plant operates as a simple Rankine cycle with a turbine inlet
temperature and pressure of 600 C and 4 MPa. The condenser operates at a pressure of
20kPa. Assume that the turbine isentropic efficiency is 80% and the pump isentropic
efficiency is 90%.
a.
Sketch the cycle on T-s and h-s diagrams.
b.
Determine the steam quality at exit from the turbine.
c.
Determine the specific enthalpy change across each component.
d.
Determine the net power of the cycle with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s.
e.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle.
p 3 := 4MPa
p 4 := p 1
p 2 := p 3
T3 := 873.15K
T1 := 333.21K
h 1 := 251.42
kJ
kJ
kg K
s 4S := s 3
kJ
kg K
s 2S := s 1
v 1 := .001017
h 4g := 2609.7
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
3 kJ
kg
s 4fg := s 4g s 4f
X4S = 0.924
h 4 := h 3 t h 3 h 4S
kg
s 4f := 0.83202
s 4g := 7.9072
h 4fg := h 4g h 4f
h 4fg = 2.358 10
p := 0.9
3
h 4f := 251.42
kg
s 1 := 0.83202
t := 0.8
kJ
h 4S = 2430.242
kg
h3 h4
0.78( Given) so solve for h4:
h 3 h 4S
h 4 = 2679.074
kJ
kg
s 4fg = 7.075
kJ
kg K
kJ
kg K
kJ
kg K
h 4 h 4f
X4 = 1.029
h 4fg
c). Determine h across each component. We only need to solve for h2 to complete this. I used a slightly
different pump calc. I gave credit for either method.
h 2S := h 1 + v1 p 2 p 1
h 2 := h 1 +
h 2S h 1
h 2 = 435.827
kJ
kg
h 2S = 417.386
h results:
h 3 h 4 = 995.326
kg
pump:
kJ
h 2 h 1 = 184.407
kg
steam generator:
kJ
h 3 h 2 = 3238.573
kg
condenser:
kJ
h 4 h 1 = 2427.654
kg
Power
m_dot := 3
kg
s
) (
m_dot h t h p
Power := m_dot h 3 h 4 h 2 h 1
)
Power = 2432.759kW
th_real :=
kg
kJ
turbine:
kJ
) (
m_dot h 3 h 4 h 2 h 1
m_dot h 3 h 2
th_real = 0.25
2.
ratio rc = T4 / T3 = 1.40 ; the temperature of the air entering the cylinder T1 = 300 K ;
The engine is now fitted with a turbocharger and charge cooler. The compressor
pressure ratio of the turbocharger is 3.9 and the polytropic efficiency PC = 0.83 .
The effectiveness of the charge cooler = TCOMP T11 / (TCOMP TW ) = 0.8 where
the cooling water temperature TW = 300 K , the air temperature leaving the
o
compressor and entering the charge cooler is TCOMP and the temperature of the air
leaving the charge cooler and entering the engine cylinder is T.
Determine:
e.
f.
the temperature of the air leaving the charge cooler and entering
the engine cylinder T11
Repeat the tasks a through d for the new situation.
Assume that the properties of air are C p = 1.00kJ / kgK , cv = 1/1.40kJ / kgK
and R = .286kJ / kgK .
3.
Using the data presented in the Vee-form additions to Pielstick family article,
calculate the engine performance assuming that it can be modeled as an Air
Standard Dual Cycle. Use the PC40 engine. Assume that the constant volume
temperature rise is T3-T2 = 300 K, the constant pressure temperature rise is T4-T3
= 800 K, and the air (from a charge cooled turbocharger) enters the cylinders at
300 K and 3 bar.
Determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Assume that air has cp = 1.00 kJ/kg K, = 1.4, and the heating value of the fuel
(LHV) is 43,000 kJ/kg.
~ e e - f o r madditions to
Pielstick family
lthough the SEMT. Pielrrick PC40
engine has been wcli accepted and
rervtce resuirs have shown high
reiisbiiiry. the use of iarge-bore in-line
medium-speed engines in ferries. ln Japan.
has not been entirely iucccssful. Engine
indurdribraiionson sai:>e sfinpan'snew
ferries - none of them u,itll Pklsrick engin*, - have retarded sales of in-line
eijgiiiesrc:en;:y i?drheFiiisrickdesignen
have therefore brought our two new Veetype engines, lo be known as the P C 4 ~ 2 B
and PC2-6B.
The PC4-2B engine is based on the long
established PC4-2 design but incorpamrer
componentsofthe youngeePC40Lengine.
However, the Pielstick engineen have i n
creased the piston snoke from 6 2 h m in
r h e ~ ~ 4 - 2 r 0 6 6 0 m m a nthefiringpressure
d
from 145 bar to i 5 0 bar.
Thesechanges,combinedwdththesame
power output per cylinder (1650bhp) and
therefore a decrease in bmep, have improved the specific fuel oil consumption
fiom 183gikW h 10 175gikW hfoithe new
engine. Further improvemenain reliability
are also expected.
U'hen some ferry operators in Japan
i w k e d at newbuilding instaiiations, they
decided torerum to Vee-type engines- as
aresultanumberofferries presently building in Japanese yards are being installed
with Vee-form P C 2 4 engines. 70 funher
improvethaiengine,thePieistickderigner,
have mken proven components fmm the
PC20L design and incorporated these into
the new PC2-6B. Other minor modificationr have beenaddedandthepweroutput
per cylinder has been lifted to the 825bhp
level of the PCZOL machines. The piston
stroke has been slightly increased t o
500mm but the engine speed is held at
520revlmin.
r.
.>
uStmw
m
(mi
p
,
,
, cylovipufbw)
I
~mepjw)
M u pess (bar)
Sfoc at mn
PC428 F W O
570
570
560
750
4m
8.8
375
9.4
94
11.8
13.3
140
1215 1300~12151325
27.5 21.6-20.2 22.1 !
145
150
155
'
uiedonRewHomo~iuandher5iiteiships.
PC42
Ewlns.
! Cyl b r e (mm)
570
s M e (mm) 6M
SIGMA
TANK COATING
RANGE
'
f d f b d ~ dilemiCdi
i
waterand
i i l " e o " i i l l : i o , u t o r s ~ o b e c a r . ~ ~1d
iqueniei
SIGMAKEMIGUARD
:i a f a i f
segment
SIGMAGUARDEHB
yean of operation.
Pielstick engineers had. therefore, to
Wear in the fin: engine in senice with design a special oil sump for each of the
the vessels has been regularly checked and engines so !-wet
sump style of operashown no untoward nendr. Some cylinder tion could be obtained, as is the case with
units lhavr been operated wtthour opening automotive engines. However, unlike an
them up until recently and here h e wear automotiveengine,rhelubticabngoilis nor
rate was the same as those cylinders ,
oievi- changed at regular intervals and the
ously inspected - O O I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I on
C X ensines
N ~
are burning HFO of up 380eSt
thecylinderlinen andO.O2Zmm/lWOhon viscosity.
thepistonringa.Thespecificlubricatingoi1
Instead of theusual marine standards of
consumption across all theengines in s m - around I litre of lubricating oil per honeice har senled down to 0.7 to I.O@hp h.
pawer, theseengines haveonly 0 3 l i n e h p .
The othenviw excellent service resvlcr Filaatiqn and cenmLfoging of the sump oil
have lead to an "prating of the latest followaconrenuonal lines but with the fil9PC40L engines lo be built at Diesel ters sized as if 1 litrehp of oil was in
United, in Japan, toalevei of 18Wbhplcyi circulation.
at 3M)/37Sreuimin thus mainmining the
T<py:og up df (I\, n ? # nengine sump*
same bmep.
.>nLe I I. lrultl thc ,I .n&c LA, hlrl Ilu
Satisfactory tertbed tnals were mn lrvln dl2 wnl'. u f i l c chlcr. 5I'Afil. ,ar~ltowards the end of 1989 with the fint of iary units.
these engines. The second engine in this
Thcre auxiliary machines have their
series was required by h e owner to be sumps drained at regular intervals and
mounted on elastic suspension elements severe rejections limits are placed on the
and the engine was modified to have a lubeoil toallow ittobeuscdfortopping~rp
special oil sump to mainwin good rigidiry the main engines.
to the whole set.
After 35Wh of opention the owner has
The anti-vibration elements are there- reported that the lubricating system is
fore set at an h g l e , towards the topedge of working well. The lubricating oil cont h e s m p and, at273t,theenginerepresenrr sumption n t e har settled d o m to a maxithe heaviest weight yet suspended by PielL mumof 0 8 g h h p handtheviscosityofthc
stick in this way.
main engine oil has slowly risen to l7cSt
and then remained steady. The TBN rose
Special sump
quickly duiing the first 2Wh or sa but has
An unusual request by a shipowner since serried down at 36.
having fow 18PC2.6 engines installed in a
There results have proved this original
car ferry was for no oil drain tmks to be idea which was accepted by Pielstick with
coniained in the ship's double-bonom.The some hepidation.
~
1
(
SIGMAGUARD LINE
tfi@
THE RIGHT CHOICE
'
.!
Problem 2
Diesel engine (two stroke) V1 = 1.0m3 , rv = 13.0 , rp = 1.8 , rc = 1.4 , T1 = 300o K ,
Temperature:
V
T2 = T1 1
V2
1.4
T5 = T4 x (V4 / V5 ) = 2109.1
13.0
0.4
= 864.9o K
b.
m = 1.1655kg
c.
QHI = 1.1655 x
1
(1506.5 836.9 ) = 557.4kJ
1.4
1
(864.9 300 ) = 470.29kJ
1.4
d.
Work output =
QHI + QH 2 QL = 557.4 + 702.3 470.29 = 789.45kJ per cycle
Power of the two stroke engine =
Work xrpm / 60 = 1.039.4kW / cycle
e.
pc = 0.83
1
Tcomp T11
Tcomp Tw
479.3 T11
479.3 300
f.
All temperatures are scaled from previous results by
335.8 / 300 = 1.1195
T21 = 936.97o K
T31 = 1686.6o K
T41 = 2361.2o K
T51 = 968.3o K
1
H1
1
3
1
2
p11 T1
m = p V / RT = mx x 1 = 4.06kg
p1 T1
1
1
1 1
1
H1
1
1
p11
= QH x
= 3.9 xQm = 2173.9kJ
p1
QH 2 = 2739.1kJ
QL1 = 1834.1kJ
The work per cycle is proportional to the heat transfers.
Work output1 = 3078.9kJ per stroke
and Power1 = 4053.8kW per cylinder
Problem 3
Given:
T1 := 300K
p 1 := 3bar
cp := 1.00
:= 1.4
kJ
kg K
LHV := 43000
eng_RPM := 375RPM
stroke := 0.75m
piston_speed := 9.4
a. Temperature calculations:
T2
1
so
rv
T1
T2 := T1 rv
rv := 14
m
s
T2 = 862.1K
T3 := T2 + 300K
T3 = 1162.1K
T4 := T3 + 800K
T4 = 1962.1K
T3
rp :=
T2
T4
rc :=
T3
kJ
kg
T5 := T1 rc rp
T5 = 841.9K
swept_volume :=
rv
V1
bore stroke
and
swept_volume
so
V2
rv V2
V1
rv V1 V1
rv V1 rv V2
V1 rv 1
V1 :=
rv V1 V2
1
V1 1
rv
V1 V1
swept_volume
swept_volume
1
p 2 := p 1 rv
V1 = 206.104L
rv
V1
V2 :=
rv
b).
V1 V2
V2 = 14.722L
p 2 = 120.7bar
p 3 := p 2 rp
p 3 = 162.7bar
p 4 := p 3
p 4 = 162.7bar
T5
p 5 := p 1
T1
p 5 = 8.4bar
rp = 1.348
rc = 1.688
rp rc 1
th_dual := 1
1 ( rp 1) + rp ( rc 1)
rv
3600
sfc :=
th_dual = 0.618
s
hr
th_dual LHV
sfc = 0.135
kg
kW hr
mRT
m :=
m = 0.718kg
287 J T
kg K 1
m_dot := m 375
rev
min
cv :=
min
cp
1power_stroke
2strokes
60sec
Q_dot H1 := m_dot cv T2 rp 1
Q_dot H2 := m_dot cv T2 rp rc 1
Q_dot L := m_dot cv T1 rc rp 1
MEP
cyl
swept_volume
sec
so
MEP :=
W_dot
swept_volume 375
1 power_stroke
2 strokes
min 60 sec
rev
min
MEP = 23.53bar
g).
Include a comparison of your calculated results with the numbers in the article.
5.
7.
8.
The rotor of a certain 25 hp, 6 pole, 60Hz induction motor has an equivalent
resistance and reactance per phase is 0.1 and 0.5 respectively. The blocked
rotor voltage/phase is 150 V. If the rotor is turning at 1164 rpm, determine:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
synchronous speed
slip
rotor impedance
rotor current
rotor current is changing the shaft load resulted in 1.25% slip
speed for condition in e.
1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using a Gas Turbine vs. a Diesel
Engine.
Advantages in general (not req'd for answer):
1) Fast Start-Up
2) Modular Construction
3) Easy Automation
4) High Reliability and Maintainabilty
Vs. Diesel
- low efficiency compared to diesel / higher fuel consumption than diesel
- requires higher fuel quality
- harder to repair underway
- higher power density than diesel so frees up space and weight
Ref:Woud, p. 137-138
2. Draw a T-S diagram for an intercooled regenerative Brayton Cycle. Label the points
and explain, in words, each portion of the cycle. Mark on your diagram the area where
heat is transferred into the system and where it leaves the system.
T1 := 298.15K
p2_over_p1 := 11
c := 0.85
T3 := 1698K
t := 0.92
p_over_p := 0.06
cp_air := 1.00
kJ
kg K
air := 1.4
m_dot := 60
kg
s
Compressor:
1
T2S
T1
air 1
p2
p
1
p2_over_p1
air
= 1.984
T2S
T1
c
T1
T2 T1
T2S
T1
so rearrange to get:
T2
T2 :=
T1 p2_over_p1
c
air 1
air
T1
c
+ T1
+T
1
T2 = 643.301K
Turbine:
p3
p2
p4
p1
p4
p
3
T4S
T3
p2_over_p1 ( 1 p_over_p )
air
= 0.513
air 1
T4S_over_T3 :=
(
)
p2_over_p1
1
p_over_p
and
t
air
T3 T4
T4S
T3
T3 1
T4 := T3 t T3 ( 1 T4S_over_T3 )
T4 = 937.264K
m_dot := 60
Now that we have the temperatures, we can do the rest of the analyses.
b). ratio of W_dot_compressor/W_dot_turbine
W_dot_compressor
W_dot_turbine
m_dot cp_air h 1 h 2
m_dot cp_air h 3 h 4
so:
W_dot_compressor
W_dot_turbine
m_dot cp_air T2 T
m_dot cp_air T3 T4
T2 T1
T3 T4
= 0.454
kg
s
Net_power
W_dot_compressor + W_dot_turbine
c. Net power
e. Thermal efficiency
th
Q_dot_H
Net_power
Q_dot_H
T3 T2
= 0.394
T5 := T2 + .9 T4 T2
:= 0.90
T5 = 907.868K
q_in := T3 T5 cp_air
Net_power :=
_th :=
q_in = 790.132
kJ
kg
4
Q_in = 4.741 10 kW
Net_power
q_in
_th = 0.526
a := 1.4
T3 := T1
P2_over_P1 := 5
cpa := 1.005
P4_over_P3 := 5
p := 1.33
T6 := 1350 K
cpp := 1.130
Pressure_loss := .1
kJ
kg K
kJ
kg K
LHV := 43000
pc := .85
pt := .9
T := 298.15K
comb := .92
a 1
T2 := T1 P2_over_P1
a 1
T4 := T3 P4_over_P3
:= .85
1
pc
T2 = 532.488K
1
pc
T4 = 532.488K
p 1
p pt
P6_over_P7 = 22.5
( 1)
T7 := T6 P6_over_P7
T7 = 673.566K
T5 := T4 + T7 T4
a
fuel_air_ratio :=
T5 = 652.404K
cpp T6 T cpa T5 T
kJ
kg
fuel_air_ratio = 0.022
specific_power = 333.755
c.
sfc :=
kW
kg
s
fuel_air_ratio
specific_power
sfc = 0.234
Pturb := 20000 kW
m_dot a :=
Pturb
specific_power
m_dota = 59.924
kg
kW hr
kg
s
d.
Assume ambient air conditions outside the ship
Tamb := 298 K
m
s
MW air := .8 28
MW air = 0.029
gm
+ .2 32
mol
kg
mol
n
V
MW air
n_over_V :=
P
R T
Press air
Rcon Tamb
Rcon := .08206
L atm
K mol
n_over_V = 40.359
ambair = 1.162
A duct :=
m_dot a
ambair
kg
3
Vflow = 51.555
m
s
Vflow
velduct
m
Vflow :=
mol
Aduct = 2.062m
gm
mol
6.
t1 := 303K
p2_over_p1 := 5
c := 0.85
p 1 := .1MPa
m_dot := 60
n C := 1.5
cp_air := 1.00
t := 0.92
t3 := 1373K
air := 1.4
p_over_p := 0.06
kJ
:= .85
kg K
kg
Power := 18000 kW
s
:= 220
n T := 1.33
kJ
cp :=
kg
m 1000
K s
t2 := p2_over_p1
nC
t1
Pc := m_dot cp t 2 t 1
t2 = 518.123K
4
b)
Pc = 1.291 10 kW
t3 = 1.373 10 K
1
t4 := t3
p2_over_p1
.25
t4 = 918.18K
Pe := m_dot cp t3 t 4
Pe = 2.729 10 kW
c)
t5 := t2 + t4 t 2
t5 = 858.172K
Q_rel = 4.212 10 kW
Q_rel := m_dt cp t 3 t 5
m_fuel :=
Q_rel
43000
d)
7.
m_fuel = 0.98
kJ
Ke := 30
PB
PB = 1.438 10 W
n := 3
Im := 10 A
Q_rel
1
s
R1 := 2
Um := 400 V
E := Um Im R1
kg
PB := Pe Pc
Km := 5
kg
m = 4.222Wb
E = 380 V
m :=
E
Ke n
E Im
n 2
= 201.596N m
= 0.341
8. AC motor
a.
p := 6
f := 60 Hz
nr = 1164 rpm
Rr := .1
X := .54
n s := 120
b.
s s :=
Zr :=
e.
Ns = 1200 rpm
ns nr
c.
d.
f
p
s s = 0.03
ns
Rr
+ .54 i
s
Ir = E/Zr
Recalculate using same eqn. in step c above with new slip value
New rotor current = 18.7 amps, angle -3.9 deg.
f.
nf = 1185 rpm
ua *
-ut*
V*
VA
Vo
Bi
B
r+VT
2) (50 pts) A ship captain must purchase a new propeller to replace the damaged one currently
installed on his ship. The supplier only has two propellers in stock. Both are fixed pitch, 5
blade Wageningen B-series propeller with an EAR of .45, one has a pitch of 17.1 ft and the
other a pitch of 20.9 ft. The details of the ship are as follows:
Conversion factors
Ship and Propeller characteristics:
ft
B-series 5-45 propeller (see attached sheet)
knot = 1.688
Pitch1 = 17.1 ft or Pitch2 = 20.9 ft
sec
Diameter = 19 ft
2
sec
Wake Reduction Factor, w = .2
:= 1.9905lbf
Thrust Reduction Factor, t = .12
4
ft
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R = 0.89
Ship Resistance at max Power, 174800 lbf
Velocity of the ship = 20 kts
a) Using the provided Wageningen B-Series design curves, determine the best choice between
the two propellers in stock with respect to efficiency o. (J2 function, o, and correct choice
20 pts)
b) Determine Joptimum, KToptimum, KQoptimum (15 pts)
c) Determine the Optimal propeller speed np. (5pts)
d) Calculate Thrust (T) and Torque (Q) (5pts)
e) The ships engines are capable or producing 16 x 103 HP, will the ships engines be
adequate for propeller selected? (5pts)
3) (30 pts) The same Captain asks you to design a new propeller for his pleasure boat. You run
PVL and get the following results at r/R=.7:
Given:
r/R = .7
Nprop = 220 rpm
D=1m
Va = 18 m/s
Vt = 0 m/s
Ut* = -.9 m/s
Ua* = .9 m/s
G = .7 m^2/s
c = .18 m
w=0
a) Draw the inflow vector diagram at .7R (10 pts)
b) Find V* (10 pts)
i) Hint: = 2*pi*N
c) What is CL? (5 pts)
d) How do we determine if the blade will cavitate? No calculations are required. You can
describe or use formulas. You do not have enough information to calculate a number for
this blade. (5pts)
-ut*
V*
VA
Vo
Bi
B
r+VT
2) (50 pts) A ship captain must purchase a new propeller to replace the damaged one currently
installed on his ship. The supplier only has two propellers in stock. Both are fixed pitch, 5
blade Wageningen B-series propeller with an EAR of .45, one has a pitch of 17.1 ft and the
other a pitch of 20.9 ft. The details of the ship are as follows:
Conversion factors
Ship and Propeller characteristics:
ft
B-series 5-45 propeller (see attached sheet)
knot = 1.688
Pitch1 = 17.1 ft or Pitch2 = 20.9 ft
sec
Diameter = 19 ft
2
sec
Wake Reduction Factor, w = .2
:= 1.9905lbf
Thrust Reduction Factor, t = .12
4
ft
Relative Rotative Efficiency, R = 0.89
Ship Resistance at max Power, 174800 lbf
Velocity of the ship = 20 kts
a) Using the provided Wageningen B-Series design curves, determine the best choice between
the two propellers in stock with respect to efficiency o. (J2 function, o, and correct choice
20 pts)
b) Determine Joptimum, KToptimum, KQoptimum (15 pts)
c) Determine the Optimal propeller speed np. (5pts)
d) Calculate Thrust (T) and Torque (Q) (5pts)
e) The ships engines are capable or producing 16 x 103 HP, will the ships engines be
adequate for propeller selected? (5pts)
Solution
Kt
VA
n D
n D
Kt
n D
n D
VA
T
2
D VA
Kt/J2 is constant; independent of n and P/D, Determine n, P/D which gives maximum o.
Vs := 20knot
w := 0.2
VA := ( 1 w) Vs
t := 0.12
D := 19 ft
T :=
VA = 16knot
T
Kt_over_J_sq :=
D VA
R := 174800lbf
T = 1.986 10 lbf
1t
Kt_over_J_sq = 0.379
a) Draw KT=.379*J2 function on B 5-45 Chart to determine the most efficient design
For P/D of .9
J_1= .655
KT= .14
KQ= .027
J_2= .755
KT= .22
KQ= .04
o= .63
o= .65
0.4
Using the above J and P/D=1.1 on the B 5-45 plot, we get KT := 0.22 and KQ :=
10
c)
n p :=
VA
J_2 D
n p = 112.952
1
min
T := KT n p D
T = 2.022 10 lbf
Q := KQ n p D
Q = 6.987 10 lbf ft
d) Power delivered by the engines is not quite enough to support the optimum propeller.
0 := .65
H :=
PE :=
1t
1w
R Vs
550
lbf ft
R := .89
4
PE = 1.073 10 hp
s hp
QPC := 0 H R
PE
PD :=
QPC
QPC = 0.636
4
PD = 1.686 10 hp
Looking at exercise 1 in chapter 10, the required propeller power PD is what was being asked for.
PE in this case required looking at the resistance due to hull form. That is the reason it is
calculated this way. Only 2-4 pts taken for incorrect answers.
2) (30 pts) The same Captain asks you to design a new propeller for his pleasure boat. You run
PVL and get the following results at r/R=.7:
Given:
r/R = .7
Nprop = 220 rpm
D=1m
Va = 18 m/s
Vt = 0 m/s
Ut* = -.9 m/s
Ua* = .9 m/s
G = .7 m^2/s
c = .18 m
w=0
a) Draw the inflow vector diagram at .7R (10 pts)
b) Find V* (10 pts)
i) Hint: = 2*pi*N
c) What is CL? (5 pts)
d) How do we determine if the blade will cavitate? No calculations are required. You can
describe or use formulas. You do not have enough information to calculate a number for
this blade. (5pts)
w := 0
b) Find V*
utstar := .9
D := 1 m
m
uastar := .9
:= 2 Nprop
Vstar :=
m
Va := 18
s
m
= 23.038
1
s
c) find CL
L
Vstar
1
2
1
2
Vstar
G :=
r = 0.35 m
r = 8.063
Vstar c CL
2
CL :=
Vstar c
d) How to determine if a blade will cavitate
Pinf Pvap
r := .7 R
m
s
therefore:
local :=
.7
:= .7
r := r
(
2
)2
r + utstar + ( Va + uastar )
R :=
c := .18 m
CL = 0.385
Pinf
Patm + g h
400 ft
45 ft
16 ft
4100 LT
23,000 HP
6,350 HP
14.5 ft
14.75 ft
0.04
0.095
0.995
400 ft
45 ft
16 ft
4100 LT
23,000 HP
6,350 HP
14.5 ft
14.75 ft
0.04
0.095
0.995
Operating Profile:
Cruising Range:
Days per year underway
Underway time at endurance
Underway time at sustained
Average electrical load
Underway
Pier-side
Cost factors:
Ship life:
Discount rate:
Fuel cost
Salvage value
Accounting Method
Additional Guidance:
This project is meant to be an opportunity to perform a broad but shallow analysis of
multiple engineering plant configurations. Take into account size and weight of the
engines when compared to the length, beam, and displacement of the ship. Also, provide
some estimate for operating and maintaining. Manpower costs over a 28 year life cycle
are substantial. The objective of the project is to expose you to the different types of
engineering plant configurations and the positive and negative characteristics of each.
These include electric drive, CODAG, CODOG, and Integrated Propulsion System
plants.
Final Phase
In the final phase of the project, the main components of the power and propulsion
system should be evaluated.
Your final report should contain the following:
a. A summary presenting reliability/availability data for your selected (single)
design (This should be the best of your two designs selected in Project 2).
b. A description of your final design and the approach used to select the best of the
contending systems. A paragraph discussing key design features that led to one
plant over another will suffice.
c. Simple arrangement diagrams of your proposed engine spaces (include support
equipment as discussed below). Consider all aspects for arrangements, including
survivability.
d. Summaries of your final design calculations.
In Project two, cost, size, and combination permutations of the main components were
analyzed. In this project, reliability and availability of the main components (with
ancillary equipment) are analyzed. (Professor Carmichaels Reliability and Availability
equations should be used to perform this analysis).
Example systems that should be included in the reliability/availability analysis are:
- All engines (power and/or propulsion)
- F/O system
- L/O system
- Propulsion motors (if necessary)
- Reduction gear
- Propellor/Shafting
- Sea water system
Ensure that proper equations are applied for systems that are either in parallel or series,
and remember that availability and reliability will increase with each redundant piece of
equipment (but, so will price). Availability of your selected propulsion systems should
be computed based on the operation of the complete system, including ship service
power. The reliability should be computed for a cruise period of 30 days (720 hours).
Page 1 of 6
source: www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion
AIR-INDEPENDENT PROPULSION
AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat
Walter Type XVIIB up on the stocks. Pictured above is the German Walter Type XVIIB U-1406, partially dismantled shortly after
the end of World War II. U-1406 was turned over to the U.S. Navy as a war prize and soon disposed of, but the Royal Navy later
operated her sister ship, U-1407, as HMS Meteorite to gain experience in hydrogen-peroxide propulsion technologies.
As interest mounts in "Air-Independent Propulsion" (AIP) for enhancing the performance of small,
defensive submarines, a serious new underwater threat is developing in littoral waters.
Increasingly, smaller nations unwilling or unable to accept the high cost of nuclear power to
achieve greater underwater endurance and longer range are turning to lower-priced and less
ambitious alternatives that still offer significant operational advantages over conventional dieselelectric submarines. The best of the latter boats, such as the German-designed Type 209 or the
Russian KILO, can remain submerged on battery at slow speed for periods on the order of three
to five days. But now, several AIP schemes in development or already in operation can increase
slow-speed endurance to as much as three weeks or a month. While still dwarfed by the potential
of nuclear power, AIP offers diesel submarines a remarkable increase in capability.
AIP - The Early History
Despite their initial successes, submarine pioneers were still eager to find some means to free their
boats from the necessity of surfacing frequently for access to the atmospheric oxygen demanded by
the gasoline or diesel engines that charged the batteries. A number of approaches were tried, but
eventually, open-cycle diesel engines, lead-acid batteries, and electric motors for submerged
propulsion became the standard submarine engineering plant that served well through two world
wars.
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In the early 1930s, however, a brilliant German engineer, Dr. Helmuth Walter (ca. 1900-1980) of
Kiel's Germaniawerft, proposed a radical new submarine propulsion plant based on the use of highpurity hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an oxidant. In Walter's system, hydrogen peroxide from an
onboard supply was decomposed using a permanganate catalyst to yield high temperature steam
and free oxygen. Into the reaction chamber was injected diesel fuel, which combusted with the
oxygen to yield a mixture of steam and hot gas that drove a high-speed turbine. The exhaust and
condensed steam were then expelled overboard. Walter's primary design goal was high underwater
speed, rather than long endurance, and indeed, his first submarine prototype, the experimental V80,
reached 28.1 knots submerged in its 1940 trials - at a time when conventional submarines were
limited to 10 knots or less. Thus, V80, only 76 tons and 22 meters long, also served as an early test
bed for studying the dynamics and control of high-speed underwater vehicles.
Later in the war, the Kriegsmarine attempted to scale Walter's prototype up to a useful operational
size, but although seven Type XVIIB H2O2 coastal boats were completed before Germany's final
defeat, none saw combat. These Type XVIIs displaced 300 tons and were powered by two 2,500
horsepower turbines, in addition to a conventional diesel-electric plant. More ambitious plans to build
larger Walter-designed ocean-going submarines, such as the 800-ton Type XXVI and the 1,600-ton
Type XVIII were thwarted by the unsuccessful course of the war and the realization that the industrial
capacity needed to supply sufficient quantities of hydrogen peroxide could never be achieved.
However, the Type XVIII was modified into the highly successful Type XXI "electro-boat," in which
larger batteries provided a submerged speed of 17 knots, which could be maintained for 90 minutes.
That innovation, and the adoption of the snorkel, yielded a potent combination that strongly
influenced the postwar design of conventionally-powered submarines on both sides of the Iron
Curtain.
AIP Fallout from World War II
After the conflict, several nations sought to exploit Dr. Walter's revolutionary propulsion concepts. As
war prizes, the United States and Britain received the scuttled Type XVIIBs, U-1406 and U-1407,
respectively, and the latter was resurrected for experimental purposes as HMS Meteorite.
Additionally, Walter himself and several of his key staff were brought to England and there
collaborated with Vickers, Ltd. for several years in the design of more advanced hydrogen peroxide
systems. The result was two 1950s-era high-speed boats, HMS Explorer and HMS Excalibur, whose
design was heavily influenced by that of Walter's wartime Type XXVI. While both boats achieved
stated design goals for high underwater speed, their highly-concentrated hydrogen peroxide fuel
created such a safety hazard that the two boat became known as "HMS Exploder" and "HMS
Excruciator." Both were decommissioned in the 1960s.
The Soviet Union built a single, semi- successful exemplar of a Walter-cycle boat, known in the West
as "the Whale," but their most serious AIP efforts were focused on a closed-cycle diesel plant based
on the German Kreislauf system and their own researches prior to the war. Eventually, this led to the
650-ton Soviet QUEBEC class (1956) that used stored liquid oxygen to sustain closed-cycle
operation for diesel engines on three shafts. Although 30 were built between 1953 and 1957, their
safety record was so dismal that they were known by their crews as "the cigarette lighters" and
withdrawn from service by the early 1970s.
Meanwhile, the United States had salvaged a 2,500-horsepower Walter turbine from U-1406, as well
as a 7,500-horsepower version planned for the Type XXVI, and set them up at the Naval
Engineering Experiment Station at Annapolis, Maryland. Subsequently, the Navy funded research on
several alternative submarine AIP approaches, including variants of the Walter-cycle and Kreislauf
systems. Eventually, unacceptable growth in the required size and weight of the corresponding
engineering plants - plus the growing prospect in the late 1940s of submarine nuclear propulsion
soon brought these efforts - and those of the British and Russians - to a close. USS Nautilus (SSN
571) got "underway on nuclear power" in January 1955.
X-1 The U.S. Navy's First Midget Submarine
However, in September 1955, the U.S. Navy's first midget submarine, the one-of-a-kind X-1 (SSX-1),
was launched on Long Island with a closed-cycle hydrogen peroxide/diesel plant! Inspired by the
success of the British "X-craft" of World War II, X-1 was intended for shallow-water commando
operations. Displacing 36 tons submerged on a length of some 50 feet, X-1 was powered by a
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Page 3 of 6
heavily modified commercial diesel engine with a small battery-powered electric motor as a backup.
On the surface, the ambient atmosphere charged the engine, but underwater, the oxygen required
for combustion was derived from the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in a reaction
chamber. Both engine exhaust and water condensate were compressed and discharged
overboard. Four hundred gallons of peroxide could be stored in a flexible polyvinyl-chloride bag
forward, and the craft could accommodate four crewmembers.
After several engine failures and subsequent design modifications, X-1 finally achieved acceptable
performance in February 1957 and undertook a series of operational trials based at the Portsmouth
Naval Shipyard. Unfortunately, in May 1957, an explosion in the hydrogen peroxide storage system
blew off the whole bow section, and although no one was injured, X-1's closed-cycle capability was
never replaced. Instead, the boat was rebuilt with a small, conventional diesel-electric/battery plant,
and after being laid up for three years, it was reactivated in late 1960 and subsequently used until
1973 for a variety of research studies in the Chesapeake Bay. Later, X-1 was put on static display at
the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, and more recently at the Nautilus Museum in Groton,
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Connecticut. Significantly, her former Officer-in-Charge later wrote, "The most important lesson
learned from this experimental program was that high concentration unstabilized hydrogen
peroxide has no place on a fighting ship.
Current Efforts in AIP
Although major naval powers like the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union
turned quickly to submarine nuclear propulsion as soon as it became technically feasible, smaller
navies have remained committed to conventional diesel-electric submarines, largely for coastal
defense. Many of these have incorporated innovations originally pioneered in the German Type XXI,
but more recently, growing demand for longer underwater endurance has generated increasing
interest in promising AIP technologies, both old and new. Currently, system developers are actively
pursuing the following generic approaches for achieving "closed cycle" operation:
z
z
z
z
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Page 5 of 6
combustion systems, such as the CCD, in that the combustion processes can be kept separate from
those that actually convert heat to mechanical work. This provides significant flexibility in dealing with
exhaust products and controlling acoustic radiation.
The Stirling-cycle engine forms the basis of the first AIP system to enter naval service in recent
times. The Swedish builders, Kockums Naval Systems, tested a prototype plant at sea in 1989, and
today, three Swedish Gotland-class boats are each fitted with two adjunct, 75 kilowatt Stirling-cycle
propulsion units that burn liquid oxygen and diesel fuel to generate electricity for either propulsion or
charging batteries within a conventional diesel-electric plant. The resulting underwater endurance of
the 1,500-ton boats is reported to be up to 14 days at five knots, but significant burst speeds are
possible when the batteries are topped up.
Fuel Cells
In simplest terms, a fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device that combines hydrogen and
oxygen to produce water, electricity, and heat. Fuel cells are already seeing a number of promising
applications in the space and automotive industries, and many authorities believe that fuel cells offer
the best potential for developing more capable AIP systems in the future. There are several
alternative configurations, but for submarine propulsion, so-called "Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane" (PEM) fuel cells have attracted the most attention because of their low operating
temperatures (80 Centigrade) and relatively little waste heat. In a PEM device, pressurized
hydrogen gas (H2) enters the cell on the
anode side, where a platinum catalyst decomposes each pair of molecules into four H+ ions and four
free electrons. The electrons depart the anode into the external circuit - the load - as an electric
current. Meanwhile, on the cathode side, each oxygen molecule (O2) is catalytically dissociated into
separate atoms, using the electrons flowing back from the external circuit to complete their outer
electron "shells." The polymer membrane that separates anode and cathode is impervious to
electrons, but allows the positively-charged H+ ions to migrate through the cell toward the negatively
charged cathode, where they combine with the oxygen atoms to form water. Thus, the overall
reaction can be represented as 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O, and a major advantage of the fuel-cell approach
is that the only "exhaust" product is pure water. Since a single fuel cell generates only about 0.7 volts
DC (direct current), groups of cells are "stacked" together in series to produce a larger and more
useful output. The stacks can also be arrayed in parallel to increase the amount of current available.
The greatest challenge for fuel-cell AIP systems lies in storing the reactants. Although oxygen can be
handled with relative safety as LOX, storing hydrogen onboard as a liquid or high-pressure gas is
very dangerous. One solution is to carry the hydrogen in metal hydride accumulators, at low pressure
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Page 6 of 6
and ambient sea temperature. (A metal hydride is a solid compound of hydrogen and metallic alloy,
in which individual hydrogen atoms occupy interstitial positions in the host metal's crystalline lattice.
By manipulating temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas can be absorbed or released at will.)
Another, less efficient, approach is to generate gaseous hydrogen from a stored liquid hydrocarbon
such as diesel fuel, kerosene, or methanol. This requires an auxiliary device called a "reformer," in
which a mixture of hydrocarbon and water is vaporized and superheated under pressure to yield a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Several manufacturers are currently offering fuel cell systems for submarine AIP. Prominent among
these is the German Siemens firm, which is collaborating with Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft
(HDW) and Italy's Fincantieri to supply fuel cell installations for the forthcoming 1,840-ton German
and Italian U 212-class submarines. These will consist of nine PEM fuel-cell modules each nominally
rated at 34 kilowatts, to yield a total of approximately 300 kilowatts (400 horsepower). With metalhydride hydrogen storage, the system is predicted to yield 14 days submerged endurance and the
ability to run up to eight knots on the fuel cells alone. Siemens is working on a next-generation PEM
module rated at 120 kilowatts, and two of these will be incorporated into HDW's 1,860-ton U 214
boats, planned as export successors to the U 212 series. Other nations, such as Russia and Canada
- the latter with significant under-ice requirements - are also considering fuel-cell modules for either
new construction or for upgrading older boats.
Other key advantages here are both higher efficiency and lower specific stored-oxygen consumption
than the other alternatives.
An AIP Perspective
Although it is a remarkable tribute to Hellmuth Walter's engineering genius that he fielded a fully
functional - if troublesome - 5,000-horsepower AIP system in 1945, the maximum power output of
current AIP installations is typically on the order of 400 horsepower (300 kilowatts). In comparison,
the conventional diesel-electric plant of the U 212 class described above is rated at over 3,000
horsepower, and a typical nuclear submarine propulsion plant produces over 20,000. Since the
power required to propel a submerged body varies with the cube of its velocity, it should be apparent
that at least for the near future, AIP will be valuable primarily as a low-speed, long-endurance
adjunct to the under- water performance of conventional submarines. There is little short-term
prospect for AIP to become a primary, full-performance alternative to either diesel or nuclear power.
Even the phrase "closed cycle" is something of a misnomer, because except for fuel cells, all AIP
alternatives require ejecting exhaust gases overboard, which limits both depth capability and stealth.
However, this is not to minimize the dangerous potential for AIP submarines to complicate seriously
both coastal defense and assured access to littoral regions. If their distinctive characteristics are
exploited by skillful operators, AIP submarines can be used to telling effect for both short- and
medium-range missions. AIP dramatically expands the tactical "trade-space" for diesel-electric
submarines. If conditions permit, they can transit rapidly on the surface with-out unduly expending
the wherewithal for superior underwater performance. Submerged, they can opt for a long, slow,
silent patrol that keeps their batteries fully charged and thus capable of powering speed bursts of
significant duration. And by carefully husbanding their resources, they can revert again to slowspeed operation and repeat the cycle several times over weeks of submergence. Moreover, AIP
technology is evolving rapidly, and some experts predict, for example, that the power output of a
typical fuel cell module could well double or triple in the next several years, allowing an even more
advantageous trade-off between underwater speed and endurance.
Their tactical flexibility, their small size, their inherent stealth - and the novel operational paradigms
AIP submarines introduce to undersea warfare - will make these new boats a dangerous threat to
submariners accustomed to nuclear- or conventionally diesel-powered adversaries. The Submarine
Force needs to understand this threat - where it's been, where it's going, what it means, and how to
counter it.
Dr. Whitman is the Senior Editor of UNDERSEA WARFARE Magazine.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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11/29/2004
GAS TURBINES
1. Gas Turbine World Performance Specifications, annually.
2. Wilson, D.G., The Design of High-Efficiency Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines, MIT
Press, 1989.
REDUCTION GEARS
1. Mowers, G.P., "Reduction Gears", Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
2. Dudley, D. W., Handbook of Practical Gear Design, (TJI84.D847) 1984.
ELECTRIC DRIVE
1. Beverley, J.A. "Electric Propulsion Drives", Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
2. Casey, J. P., "AC Electric Drive Machinery Design," Presented at the 1990
Chesapeake Marine Engineering Symposium, SNAME, March, 1990.
3. Doery N., and Davis, J. "Integrated Power Systems for Marine Applications," Naval
Engineers Journal, May 1994.
4. Hensler, J., "Electric Ship Propulsion: Application and Integration", Trans. SNAME,
Vo197, 1989.
JOURNALS
1. Bulletin of Marine Engineering Society in Japan (in English). Final issue March 2002.
2. Gas Turbine World.
3. Marine Technology (SNAME).
4. Naval Engineers Journal.
5. The Motorship.
6. Professional Mariner