Circulation of the Atmosphere

Solar Radiation - initial source of energy to the

Earth. It can be absorbed, reflected and
reradiated. The redistribution of this energy
controls the structure and dynamics of the
Atmosphere and Oceans.

The Atmosphere Is Composed Mainly of

Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Water Vapor
What are some properties of the atmosphere?

The lower atmosphere is a fairly homogeneous mixture of gases.

Water vapor occupies up to 4% of the volume of the atmosphere.
The density of air is influenced by temperature and water content.

Ascending air cools as it expands. Cooler

air can hold less water, so water vapor
condenses into tiny droplets - clouds.
Descending air warms as it compresses
the droplets (clouds) evaporate.

Gases: permanent and

variable
Permanent =
present in
constant relative
% of total volume
Variable =
concentration
changes with time
and location
Suspended
microscopic particles
Water droplets

Greenhouse
Gases

The Atmosphere Moves in Response to Uneven

Solar Heating and Earths Rotation

An estimate of the heat budget for Earth. On an average day, about half of
the solar energy arriving at the upper atmosphere is absorbed at Earths
surface. Light (short-wave) energy absorbed at the surface is converted into
heat. Heat leaves Earth as infrared (long-wave) radiation. Since input equals
output over long periods of time, the heat budget is balanced.

 Heat budget
Solar input must balance solar output
Temperature increases/decreases if input is
greater/less than output
Average Earth Temperature is 16oC
Solar Energy is reradiated from the surface as a long
wave.
Surface of Earth (including oceans) is heated from
above
Atmosphere is heated from below

The Atmosphere
Vertical (thermal) structure of the
atmosphere

O3
absorbs
UV Solar
Radiation,
heats
Atm.

Troposphere: lowest layer 0-12 km,

temperature decreases with altitude
Tropopause: minimum temperature
zone between the troposphere and
stratosphere
Stratosphere: layer above
tropopause 12-50 km, temperature
increases with altitude
Mesosphere: layer above
stratosphere 50-90 km, temperature
decreases with height
Thermosphere: layer above
mesosphere >90 km, extends out to
space

Density of air depends on temperature, water vapor and altitude

Temperature decrease =
density increase
Water vapor increase =
density decrease
Altitude increase
=
density decrease

The Solar Heating of Earth Varies with

Latitude
The atmosphere reflects, scatters and absorbs solar radiation. At high
latitudes solar radiation travels a longer path through atmosphere.

How solar energy input varies

with latitude.
Equal amounts of sunlight are
spread over a greater surface
area near the poles than in the
tropics.
Ice near the poles reflects
much of the energy that
reaches the surface there.

The Solar Heating of Earth Varies with Latitude

Earth as a whole is in thermal
equilibrium, but different latitudes are
not.
The average annual incoming solar radiation
(red line) absorbed by Earth and the average
annual infrared radiation (blue line) emitted
by Earth. Polar latitudes lose more heat to
space than they gain, and tropical latitudes
gain more heat than they lose. The amount of
radiation received equal the amount lost at
about 38N and S. The area of heat gained
(orange area) equals the area of heat lost
(blue areas) so Earths total heat budget is
balanced.

What factors govern the global circulation of air?

Uneven solar heating
The Coriolis effect

Re-distribution of heat
Heat gained at Equatorial latitudes
Heat lost at higher latitudes
Winds and ocean currents redistribute heat around
the Earth
Oceans do not boil away near the equator or freeze solid near
the poles because heat is transferred by winds and ocean
currents from equatorial to polar regions.
Warm equatorial water flows to higher latitudes

Cool Polar water flow to lower latitudes

The Seasons: solar heating varies with seasons

* Earth revolves around the

Sun (365 days)
* Earth rotates about its own
axis (1 day)
* angle (tilt) that axis of
rotation makes with plane
that contains trajectory
around the Sun is 23 and
it remains that way (same
orientation) as the Earth
revolves around Sun

During the Northern Hemisphere winter, the Southern Hemisphere is

tilted toward the sun and the Northern Hemisphere receives less light and
heat. During the Northern Hemisphere summer, the situation is reversed.

Spring (sun aims Winter (Northern Hemisphere

tilts away from sun)
directly at
equator)

Summer
(Northern
Hemisphere tilts
toward sun)

To
Polaris

Fall
(sun aims
directly at
equator)

The tilt (23 inclination) causes the seasons

Earths Uneven Solar Heating Results in LargeScale Thermal Cell type of Atmospheric Circulation
A convection cell is driven by density differences

A convection current forms

in a room when air flows
from a hot radiator to a cold
window and back.

Air warms, expands,

becomes less dense, and
rises over the radiator. Air
cools, contracts, becomes
more dense, and falls near
the cold glass window.

Earths Uneven Solar Heating Results in LargeScale Atmospheric Circulation

What factors govern the global circulation of air?
Uneven solar heating
The Coriolis effect
Enters Co!
The Coriolis effect is the observed deflection of a moving object,
caused by the moving frame of reference on the spinning Earth.
How does this apply to the atmosphere?

As air warms, expands, and rises at the equator, it moves toward the
pole, but instead of traveling in a straight path, the air is deflected
eastward.
In the Northern Hemisphere air turns to the right.
In the Southern Hemisphere air turns to the left.

The Coriolis Effect Deflects the Path of

Moving Objects

Sketch of the thought experiment in the

text, showing that Buffalo travels a
shorter path on the rotating Earth each
day then Quito does.

A continuation of the thought experiment.

A look at Earth from above the North Pole
shows that Buffalo and Quito move at
different velocities.

The Coriolis Effect Deflects the Path

of Moving Objects

As observed from space,

cannonball 1 (shot northward)
and cannonball 2 (shot
southward) move as we might
expect; that is, they travel
straight away from the cannons
and fall to Earth.
Observed from the ground,
however, cannonball 1 veers
slightly east and cannonball 2
veers slightly west of their
intended targets.
The effect depends on the
observers frame of reference.

The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement of

Air in Atmospheric Circulation Cells

Global air circulation as described in the six-cell circulation model. Air rises at
the equator and falls at the poles, but instead of one great circuit in each
hemisphere from equator to pole, there are three in each hemisphere. Note the
influence of the Coriolis effect on wind direction. The circulation show here is
idea that is, a long-term average of wind flow.

Wind bands Three convection

cells in each hemisphere
Trade winds = NE (30N to
0) and SE (30S to 0)
Westerlies = 60N to
30N and 60S to 30S
Polar easterlies = 90N
to 60N and 90S to
60S
Low pressure at 0, 60N,
and 60S
Low pressure, ascending air,
clouds, increased
precipitation
High pressure at 30N, 30S,
90N, and 90S
High pressure, descending
air, clear skies, low
precipitation

The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement of

Air in Atmospheric Circulation Cells
A large circuit of air is called an atmospheric circulation cell.

Three cells exist in each hemisphere.

Hadley cells are tropical cells found on each side of the equator.
Ferrel cells are found at the mid-latitudes.
Polar cells are found near the poles.
What are some of the wind patterns found between and within
cells?
Doldrums are calm equatorial areas where two Hadley cells
converge
Horse latitudes are areas between Hadley and Ferrel cells.
Trade winds are surface winds of Hadley cells.
Westerlies are surface winds of Ferrel cells.

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE HADLEY CELL (1)
Insolation in tropical
areas causes warm air
to rise and spread
polewards, carrying
heat energy.

SOLAR ENERGY

20

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE HADLEY CELL (2)
Air cools and begins to fall at
about 30N and 30S of Equator.
Cooled air returns to the Equator.
This circulation of air is
caused by solar heating.

SOLAR ENERGY

Heat energy is transferred

from the Equator to subtropical latitudes.
It is called the HADLEY CELL.

21

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE POLAR CELL (1)

Intensely cold,
dense air sinks at
the poles, then
blows as surface
winds towards the
Equator.

22

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE POLAR CELL (2)

At about 60N and 60 S,

the cold polar air is warmed
in contact with the earths
surface.
This warmed air rises and
returns polewards,
carrying heat energy.

This circular motion is

called the POLAR CELL.

23

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE FERREL CELL (1)
The Hadley Cell is driven
by differences in heat
energy at the Equator.

As the air in the Hadley

Cell falls at about 30N
and 30S, it pulls the air
beside it down as well,
due to friction

24

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE FERREL CELL (2)
The Polar Cell is driven by
differences in heat energy.
Cold polar air falls and
spreads towards the Equator.

As the air in the Polar Cell

rises at about 60N and
60S, it pulls the air
beside it up as well, due to
friction.

25

THE THREE CELL MODEL

FORMATION OF THE FERREL CELL (3)
Unlike the Hadley and Polar
Cells, the Ferrel Cell is not
driven by differences in heat
energy.

The Ferrel Cell is caused by

friction where air is in
contact with the other two
cells.

The Hadley Cell drags air

down at about 30N and S.
The Polar Cell causes an
uplift at about 60N and
S.
26

THE THREE CELLS TOGETHER

Polar Cell
Ferrel Cell

Hadley Cell

Hadley Cell

Ferrel Cell
Q

Polar Cell

27

THE TRANSFER OF HEAT ENERGY FROM

EQUATORIAL TO POLAR AREAS
Where air carrying energy from the
Equator in the Hadley Cell comes into
contact with air in the Ferrel Cell,
there is a transfer of heat energy
into the Ferrel Cell.

There is a similar transfer

of heat energy from the
Ferrel Cell to the Polar Cell.
SOLAR ENERGY
In this way, heat energy is
transferred from the Equator,
where there is a surplus of
energy, to the poles where
there is a deficit.

28

THE CORRESPONDING MOVEMENT OF COLDER AIR

In the Polar cell cold air from polar
regions flows to mid-latitudes as
polar easterly winds

In the Ferrel Cell there is a

movement of cold air at
high altitude.

In the Hadley Cell, cooler

air moves from the subtropics to the Equator.

29

ASSOCIATED PRESSURE BELTS

Rising air at the equator causes the
equatorial belt of low pressure
Descending air at about 30N and
30S causes the sub-tropical belt
of high pressure

Rising air at about 60N and

60S causes a mid-latitude
belt of low pressure

Polar high pressure

Mid latitude low pressure

Sub-tropical high pressure

Equatorial low pressure

Descending air at the poles

causes the polar high
pressure areas

Sub-tropical high pressure

Mid latitude low pressure

Polar high pressure

30

ASSOCIATED SURFACE WIND PATTERNS

Winds always blow from high pressure to
low pressure.
They are deflected because of the
Coriolis Force which come about because
of the rotation of the earth.

Winds in Northern Hemisphere

are deflected to the right.
Winds in the southern hemisphere
are deflected to the left.

Polar high pressure

Mid latitude low pressure

Sub-tropical high pressure

Equatorial low pressure

Sub-tropical high pressure

These wind belts shift

seasonally. (See next section)

Mid latitude low pressure

Polar high pressure

31

32

POSITION OF THE THREE CELLS IN DECEMBER

Polar Cell

The sun is overhead at the

Tropic of Capricorn, 23S
of the Equator.

Ferrel
Cell

Hadley
Cell
SUN OVERHEAD 23S
The cells shift
southwards as the
heat equator is in the
southern hemisphere.

Hadley
Cell

Ferrel
Cell

Polar Cell

33

POSITION OF THE THREE CELLS IN JUNE

The sun is overhead at the
Tropic of Cancer, 23N of
the Equator.

Polar Cell
Ferrel
Cell

Hadley
Cell
SUN OVERHEAD 23N

Hadley
Cell
The cells shift
northwards as the heat
equator is in the
northern hemisphere.

Ferrel
Cell

Polar Cell

34

THE INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE:
The winds that blow to the equatorial
low pressure belt are called the North
East Trade Winds
IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE:

The winds that blow to the

equatorial low pressure belt are
called the South East Trade Winds

Sub-tropical high pressure

Equatorial
low pressure
Inter-Tropical
Convergence
Zone

The line along which they converge

(meet) is called the INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE.

Sub-tropical high pressure

This is often abbreviated to ITCZ

35

THE INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
OVER WEST AFRICA
The sub-tropical high pressure belt
develops over the Sahara so is hot and
dry.

This is known as continental Tropical

(cT) air.
Sub-tropical high pressure

IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

OVER WEST AFRICA
The sub-tropical high pressure belt
develops over the Atlantic so is warm
and moist.

Equatorial low pressure

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

Sub-tropical high pressure

This is known at maritime Tropical (mT)

air.

36

THE ITCZ IN DECEMBER

In December, the zone of maximum
insolation (solar energy) is south of
the Equator. This means that the wind
belts shift southwards.

SOLAR ENERGY
This means that winds blow out of the
sub-tropical high pressure area over the
Sahara, and take dry air from the
continental Tropical (cT) air mass across
most of West Africa. This causes a dry
season.
Moist air from the maritimeTropical
(mT) air mass from the Atlantic cannot
reach far inland, where there is a dry
season.

37

THE ITCZ IN JUNE

By contrast, in June, the zone of
maximum insolation is well to the north
of the Equator. This means that the
wind belts shift northwards.

SOLAR ENERGY
Moist maritime Tropical air from the
Atlantic now reaches far inland, where
there is a rainy season. These winds flow
northwards to the ITCZ to replace air
that has become unstable and risen.
The winds blow out of the sub-tropical high
pressure area over the Sahara, now only affect
the northern part of sub-Saharan Africa.

38

Monsoons Are Wind Patterns That Change with

the Seasons

Monsoons are patterns of wind circulation that change with the season.
Areas with monsoons generally have dry winters and wet summers.
Sea breeze is cool air from over the water moving toward land. Sea
breezes occur after sunrise.
Land breezes occur after sunset when air warmed by the land blows
toward the water.

In the Northern Hemisphere

Air flows clockwise around high pressure systems

Air flows counterclockwise around low pressure systems

Monsoons Are Wind Patterns That Change

with the Seasons
A monsoon is a pattern of wind
circulation that changes with the
season. Locations where monsoons occur
typically have wet summers and dry
winters.
Monsoon patterns.
During the monsoon circulations of
January (a) and July (b), surface winds
are deflected to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. (c) Detail of
summer Asian monsoon, showing location
of Cherrapunji, India, one f the worlds
wettest places. Rainfall amounts there
can exceed 10 meters (425 inches) per
year!

Sea Breezes and Land

Breezes Arise from
Uneven Surface Heating
The flow of air in coastal regions
during stable weather conditions.
(a) In the afternoon, the land is
warmer than the ocean surface,
and the warm air rising from the
land is replaced by an onshore
sea breeze.

(b) At night, as the land cools,

the air over the ocean is now
warmer than the air over the
land. The ocean air rises. Air
flows offshore to replace it,
generating an offshore flow (a
land breezes).

Storms Are Variations in Large-Scale

Atmospheric Circulation
Storms are regional atmospheric disturbances. Storms have high winds
and most have precipitation.
Tropical cyclones occur in tropical regions. These storms can cause
millions of dollars worth of damage and endanger life.
Extratropical cyclones occur in Ferrel cells, and are winter weather
disturbances. These storms can also cause extensive damage.
Both types of storms are cyclones, or rotating masses of low-pressure
air.

Extratropical Cyclones Form between Two Air

Masses
(a) The genesis and early
development of an
extratropical cyclone in
the Northern Hemisphere

(b) How precipitation

develops in an
extratropical cyclone.
These relationships
between two contrasting
air masses are
responsible for nearly all
the storms generated in
the polar frontal zone and
thus responsible for the
high rainfall within these
belts and the decreased
salinities of surface
waters below.

Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air Mass

The internal structure of a mature tropical cyclone, or hurricane.

(The vertical dimension is exaggerated in this model of a
hurricane.)

Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air Mass

The dynamics of a tropical cyclone, showing the influence of the Coriolis

effect. Note that the storm turns the wrong way (that is,
counterclockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere, but for the right
reasons.

Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air Mass

Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air Mass

The tracks of tropical cyclones. The breeding grounds of tropical cyclones are
shown as orange-shaded areas. The storms follow curving paths: First they
move westward with the trade winds. Then they either die over land or turn
eastward until they lose power over the cooler ocean of mid-latitudes. Cyclones
are not spawned over the South Atlantic or the southeast Pacific because their
waters are too chilly; nor in the still air - the doldrums - within a few degrees
of the equator.

Hurricanes
Easterly waves = pressure disturbances
resulting from variations in trade winds due to
changing surface water temperature
o

Critical sea surface temperature = 27 C

Decrease in atmospheric pressure
Increases evaporation rate
Increased wind speeds
Energy from ocean fuels hurricanes
Water vapor extracted from warm sea
surface
Energy released during condensation

 Heat capacity (review)

Heat capacity of ocean is greater than that of land
Ocean currents, wind and waves can transfer heat
downward in summer and upward in winter
Larger seasonal variations of temperature over land
Oceans control surface temperatures in Southern
Hemisphere
Land in the Northern Hemisphere influences the
range in surface temperature

Chapter 8 - Summary
The interaction of ocean and atmosphere moderates surface
temperatures, shapes Earth's weather and climate, and creates most of
the sea's waves and currents.

Different amounts of solar energy are absorbed at different latitudes,

and this makes the tropics warmer than the polar regions.
Uneven solar heating causes convection currents to form in the
atmosphere and leads to areas of different atmospheric pressures. The
direction of air flow in these currents is influenced by the rotation of
Earth.
To observers on the surface, Earth's rotation causes moving air (or any
moving mass) in the Northern Hemisphere to curve to the right of its
initial path, and in the Southern Hemisphere to the left. This is known as
the Coriolis effect.

Chapter 8 - Summary
The atmosphere responds to uneven solar heating by flowing in three
great circulating cells over each hemisphere. The flow of air within these
cells is influenced by Earths rotation (Coriolis effect). Each hemisphere
has three large atmospheric circulation cells: a Hadley cell, a Ferrel cell,
and a polar cell (less pronounced over the South Pole).

Large storms are spinning areas of unstable air that develop between or
within air masses. Extratropical cyclones originate at the boundary
between air masses.
Tropical cyclones, the most powerful of Earth's atmospheric storms,
occur within a single humid air mass.