STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Materials are of three types. They are

1. Elastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and deformation disappears upon
unloading.
2. Plastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and it is permanent upon unloading
the effect is not reversed.
3. Rigid : No deformation on loading.
Stress :
When a material is subjected to a load, it undergoes deformation, against this
deformation. This material offers resistance to prevent it from deformation. This force
of resistance offered by a body against this deformation is called stress. The external
force is called load. Load is applied on the body, while the stress is induced in the body.
Stress = Force ( or Pressure )/ Area = N / m2
There are different types of stress. They are tensile stress, compressive stress and
shear stress.
Tensile stress : When the resistance by a body is against the increase in length then it is
tensile stress.
e = Increase in length / Original length.
Compressive stress : If the resistance offered by the body is against the decrease in
length, then the stress induced is compressive stress.
e = Decrease in length / Original length.
Shear stress : If in this rectangular block, a force P is applied tangentially along the top
face, then the force is called as shear force.
Shear stress = Shear force / Area = P / ( L x H )
Shear strain = Transverse displacement / Distance form lower face.
Temperature Stress : If the natural change ( +ve or - ve ) in the length of the rod is not
prevented, then the stress is not induced. The increase in length of a rod = TL.
= Coefficient of linear expansion.
T - Temperature rise.
L - Actual change in length.

Strain :
It is the ratio of change in length to the original length. It has no units. e = dl / l
Hooke's Law :
Within in elastic limits, the ratio of stress to strain is constant. This constant is
called Young's modulus of elasticity. In case of shear force, if the ratio of shear stress to
shear strain is also constant. That constant is called as shear modulus of rigidity. This
young's modulus of elasticity is a measure of stiffness.
Young's modulus ( E ) = Stress / Strain.
Poisson Ratio :
Within elastic limits the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant and
is equal to Poisson ratio. When a load is applied on a load, there is a dimensional
increase along the longitudinal direction and dimensional decrease in lateral direction.
The Poisson ratio for most metals falls between 0.25 to 0.35. Rubber has a
Poisson ratio close to 0.5 and is therefore almost incompressible. Theoretical materials
with a Poisson ratio of exactly 0.5 are truly incompressible, since the sum of all their
strains leads to a zero volume change. Cork, on the other hand, has a Poisson ratio close
to zero. This makes cork function well as a bottle stopper, since an axially-loaded cork
will not swell laterally to resist bottle insertion.
Volumetric Strain ( ev ):
Because of increase in Length, and decrease in breadth and depth, there is a
change in volume. Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in Volume to
original volume.
Ductility :
It is the capability of a material to be drawn into wires. There are two methods
used for its measurement. One based on Total elongation produced and other based on
total reduction in sectional area.
% increase in elongation = ( L- l ) / l
% reduction in cross sectional area = ( A - a ) / A x 100
Hardness :
Of as substance is the resistance that a body offers or indentation by other bodies.
For testing hardness, there are two tests. They are Scratch test and Indentation test.

Impact Test :
This test is used to find out the resistance of a body against shock load. This is
called as Izod impact test. The test specimen is a 10 mm square rod and notched at a
face. The notch is at a depth of 2 mm and a radius of 0.25 mm at the bottom. It is fixed
in a vice. The pendulum is raised and the value stored is around 165 joules.
Fatigue :
Sometimes members are subjected to loads that vary in magnitudes. They may be
even reversible loading. ( The member is subjected to repeated tensile and compressive
stress ). These members fail at point lower than ultimate stress. This property is called
fatigue of materials. At a certain range of applied stress, the number of cycles becomes
infinite. That limit is called as Endurance limit.
Strain Energy :
It is the energy stored on a member when work is done on it to deform it.
Types of Loading :
There are three types of loading. They are

Gradually applied load,

Suddenly applied load and

Impact load.

Beams :
are structural members in which the load is applied at right angles to the axis. The
following are the different types of beams.

Cantilever beams,

Freely supported beams,

Fixed beams and

Continuous beams.

Torsion in Shafts :
A shaft of circular cross section is said to be in torsion, when it is subjected to
equal and opposite end couples. Whose axes coincide with axes of shaft. As a result of
torsion, a shaft twists.
Torsional Rigidity :

It is the amount of torque required to produce a twist of 1 radian at unit length of

shaft.
Column and Struts :
These are members that are subjected to compressive load along the axis. Short
columns fail by crushing. Thus we have to take care of crushing load. But long columns
fail by buckling or bending, hence we have to take care of crippling load. This buckling
load is less than the crushing load.
This value of bucking load is low for long members and vice versa. Thus
buckling load depends on

Length of member and

Least lateral dimensions.

Effective length :
Of a given column with the given end conditions is the length of the equivalent
column of the same section with hinged ends. The crippling load is same in both cases.
The effective length under different conditions is given by

Both ends pinned L = l

One end fixed and other end free L = 2l

Both fixed L = l / 2

One end fixed and other end hinged L = l / sqrt ( 2 )

Proof resilience :
It is the maximum energy stored at elastic limits.
Factor of Safety :
It is the ratio of Ultimate stress / allowable stress. Following are the reasons why
factor of safety is used in manufacturing and design.
1. Loading uncertainity
2. Type of loading - Static, dynamic and impact.
3. Machine strength uncertainity
4. Work environment - corrosive
5. Reliability requirements and
6. Effect of manufacturing process.

Bulk Modulus :
It is the ratio of applied Stress to volumetric strain.
Stress concentration :
Sometimes the cross section of a member changes abruptly because of presence of
a hole, notch, groove or shoulder. In regions close to the abrupt change the stress is of
high magnitude. This change in section is called discontinuity or stress raisers.
Following are the causes.
1. Variation in properties of materials due to presence of internal cracks, air holes in
casting, cavities in welds
2. Abrupt changes in cross sectional area or due to surface conditions like cuts and
grooves.
Disc spring / Belleville spring :
Occupy small space and gives high spring rates. Parallel arrangement takes a
higher load for a given deflection and series arrangement gives a larger deflection.
Leaf springs :
Used in automobiles. They are energy absorbing devices. There are two types.
Constant width and constant strength springs.
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