Semiconductor Devices

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 2014
Energy bands in solids

The collection of very closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.
According to the Bohr's theory, free electrons in an isolated atom have certain definite discrete amount of
energy. If large number of atoms are brought close to one another to form a crystal, they begin to influence each
other. The valence electrons are attracted by the nucleus of the other atoms. This brings about a considerable
modification in the case of energy levels of the electrons in the outer shells. The process of splitting of energy
levels can be understood as follows:
a) If interatomic spacing of atoms is very large i.e., r = d>>a, there is no interatomic separation. Each atom in
the crystal behaves as free atom. Take for example silicon whose electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2.
If N atoms were to be considered in silicon crystal, then there will be 2N electrons filling 2N possible energy
levels in 3s, 6N possible levels in 3p of which only 2N is completely filled.
b) When the spacing is progressively decreased i.e., c<r<d, there is no visible splitting of energy levels.
c) When r = c, the 3s and 3p electrons of neighbouring silicon atoms becomes appreciable. The energy of
electrons of each atom starts changing, whereas the energies of electrons in the inner shell do not change.
d) When r lies between b and c, the energy levels get slightly changed and instead of a single 3s or 3p levels, we
get a large number of closely packed levels. This collection of closely spaced energy levels is called an energy
band.
e) When r = b>a, the gap between 3s and 3p completely disappear and the 8N energy levels are (2N of 3s and
6N of 3p sub shells) continuously distributed. In this stage 4N levels are filled and 4N levels are empty.
f) When r = a i.e., actual spacing in the crystal the 4N filled energy levels are separated from 4N unfilled energy
levels. This gap or separation is called the forbidden gap. E.g., the lower completely filled band is called
valence band and upper unfilled band is called conduction band.
1
COMPILLED BY DR. S.K.SINGHAL
P-N JUNCTION: - When a P-type crystal is joined with a N-type crystal in such a manner
that crystal structure remains continuous then this structure is called as P-N Junction.
Formation of P-N junction: - Diffusion method is used to form a P-N Junction. In this
method an element of III group (like Boron) is coated on a slice of N-type semiconductor
called wafer or an element of V group (like phosphorus) is coated on P-type
semiconductor. When this semiconductor is heated at a high temperature (about 500C)
the impurity is diffused inside the semiconductor. Diffusion is more at surface and
decreases as the depth increases. The depth up to which the diffusion takes place, a
junction is formed which is called P-N Junction. On the one side of this junction there is Ptype semiconductor and on the other side there is N-type semiconductor.
What happens at the time of formation of P-N Junction (formation of depletion
region and potential barrier): As soon as a junction is formed the holes from p-region
diffuse towards n- region and electron from n- region diffuse towards p-region due to the
high concentration of holes and electron into two different regions. In the vicinity of
junction the
P-Type
N-Type
Potential
Barrier
Electrons
majority carrier
Holes
majority
carrier
Immobile - ve
ions
Depletion
region
Immobile +ve
ions
electrons and holes recombines with each other and vanishes, due to which there is a
excess of immobile +ve ions in n-region and ve ions in p-region. Thus an electric field
and hence a potential difference called potential barrier is developed across the junction
which stops the further diffusion of holes and electrons. The region free form chargecarriers on both side of junction is called depletion region or space charge region.
The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of 10 -6 meter while the potential
barrier is about 0.7 volt. Therefore
P
N
0.7
ElectricField 6 7 10 5 Vm 1
10
Biasing of p-n junction: B
(I)
Forward Bias: - When p-region of a p-n
A
junction is joined to the (+) ve pole of a
battery and n-region to -ve pole then the
junction is said to be forward biased.
2
Depletion layer
FORWARD
BIASING

Action of p-n junction: - When the p-n junction is made forward bias the (+) ve pole of
the battery repels the holes towards n-region and the (-) ve pole repels the electron
towards p-region. Due to which the electrons and holes enter the depletion region and
the thickness of depletion region decreases. If the external potential is greater than the
potential barrier then near the junction electrons recombine with holes. For each
electron-hole combination that takes place near the junction, a covalent bond breaks in
p-region near the positive pole of battery. Due to which electrons and holes are produced
in pair, the electron is captured by the (+) ve terminal, while the hole moves towards the
junction. At the same time an electrons enters the n-region from the ve terminal of the
battery, thus a forward current flows in the circuit due to the flow of electrons and hole.
During the forward bias the applied D.C. voltage opposes the potential barrier due to
which the thickness of the depletion layer decreases. Thus p-n junction offers low
resistance in forward bias.
(II) Reverse Bias: - When p-region of a p-n
junction is joined to the (-) ve pole of a
P
N
battery and n-region to +ve pole then the
junction is said to be reversed biased
Action of p-n junction: - when p-n junction
is
reversed biased, the ve pole of the battery
attracts the holes present in P-region, while
the
+ve pole of the battery attracts the
electrons present in the n-region. Thus the
electrons and holes get away from the
junction and the thickness of depletion
region
increases. But a very small current flows
REVERSE
through
the
junction
due
to
the
BIASING
recombination of minority carriers. This current is called as reverse current. If the
reverse bias voltage is made very high, all the covalent bonds near the junction
break and a large number of electron-hole pairs are created due to which reverse
current increases abruptly. This phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown and the
reverse voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is called as reverse break down
voltage or zener voltage which depends upon the density of impurity atoms. Due to
the over heating at this voltage, the p-n junction may be damaged.
During the reverse bias the applied D.C. voltage aids the potential barrier due to
which the thickness of the depletion layer increases and hence it offers the high
resistance in reverse bias.
Symbol of p-n junction diode:p
n
3

Characteristics of p-n junction: -There is two type of characteristics-
(I) forward bias Characteristics-First of all makes the connection according to the
circuit shown in fig.1. By changing the forward voltage with the help of potential divider
note down the corresponding forward current and plot the graph between forward
voltage and forward current. The graphs so obtained are called as forward characteristic
curve of p-n junction.
N
If
Vf
Forward Current If
BATTER
Y
R
h
Knee Voltage
From the graph it is clear that initially there is no current. When the applied voltage is
less than the potential barrier, the current flow through the junction is very small. As the
forward voltage increases above the potential barrier,0.4
current
increases approximately
0.6 0.8 1.0
FORWARD
VOLTAGE
V
linearly. When the forward voltage is equal to voltage of
potential
barrier
then the curve
becomes like a knee and called as knee voltage. At this voltage the thickness of
depletion layer becomes negligibility and the diffusion of electrons and holes across the
junction take place easily i.e. the p-n junction offer low resistance when it is forward bias
and the resistance is of the order of 100 ohm.
f
(II) Reverse Characteristic Curve: Make the connection according to the circuit shown in the following figure. Change the
reverse voltage and note the corresponding reverse current. The graph plotted between
reverse voltages and reverse current is called as reverse bias curve. Practically in
reverse bias there is no current if the applied voltage is low but a very small flow due to
minority carriers. On increasing the reverse
REVERSE VOLTAGE
Zener
Voltage
Reverse Current Ir (
Voltage to a very high value, the current increases abruptly, which is clear from graph. It
is due to the fact that at very high voltage, the entire covalent bond near the junction is
broken. Due to which a large number of holes & electrons are liberate and the
corresponding voltage is called as Zener voltage. In reverse bias the thickness of
depletion layer increases due to which the further diffusion of charge carriers stops and
no current flows through the junction. Thus in reverse bias the junction offers very high
resistance.
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE: - The ratio of the small change in voltage to the small change
in the current is called as dynamic or a.c. resistance of the junction diode. It is
Vd
V
I
represented by Vd.
The region of the characteristic curve where dynamic resistance is almost independent
of the applied voltage is called the linear region of junction diode.
Junction diode as Rectifier: - An electronic device, which converts a.c. power in to
D.C. power, is called rectifier.
Half wave Rectifier: - A rectifier, which rectifies only one half of each a.c. input
supply cycle is called half wave rectifier.
Principle: - It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when it is
forward bias and high resistance when it is reversed bias i.e. current can flow through
the diode when it is forward biased.
A p
n
Input
a.c.
voltage
5
C
RL
A.C.
Input
Voltage
Output
D.C.
Voltage
D
D.C.
0utput
Voltage

Arrangement:- The p-region of the junction diode is joined to the one terminal of the
secondary coil of a step down transformer and the load resistance is joined between nregion and the IInd terminal of the secondary coil.
Working:- Let during the first half cycle of the input a.c. upper end i.e. point A of
secondary is at +ve potential and the lower end i.e. point B is at ve potential. Thus the
diode is forward bias. During first half cycle and current flows through diode in
loadresistance from C to D.
During the next half cycle the upper end becomes ve and lower end becomes +ve
and thus the diode gets reverse biased and no current fows through it. In the next half
cycle diode gets forward biased and current flows through it from C to D and this process
repeated again and again. The current obtain in output is discontinuous and pulsating
d.c. due to which there is a huge loss of energy.
Full-wave Rectifier:- A rectifier which rectifies both halves of the a.c. input is called a
full wave rectifier.
Principle:- It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when it is
forward bias and offers high resistance when it is reverse biased.
D1
A
Input
a.c.
voltage
A.C.
Input
Voltage
C
T
RL
B
D2
Output
d.c.
Voltage
D
D.C.
0utput
Voltage
Arrangement:- The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of a step down
transformer. Two two ends of the secondary coil S of the transformer are connected
to the p- regions of the junction diodes D1 and D2 . A load resistance RL is
connected beteen the n-regions of the two diodes and the ncentral tapping of the
secondary coil. The out put d.c. is obtained across the load reistance.
Working:-Suppose that during first half of the input, the upper end A of the secondary is
at + ve pot. and lower end B is at () ve pot. So the diode D 1 gets forward bias and D2
gets reverse bias hence current flows through D1 in load resistance from C to D. During
the next half cycle A becomes ve and B becomes +ve and hence D 1 gets reverse bias
and D2 gets forward bias. Thus the current flows through D 2 from C to D in load
resistance.
Hence the full wave rectifier, rectifies the both halves of a.c. The output d.c. is
continuous but pulsating. To reduce the fluctuations, filter circits are used in output
circits. Electrolytic condenser and zener diodes are use to reduce the fluctuations of d.c.
6

Different types of junction diode :(I) Zener diode:- A specially designed diode in which P and N region are heavily dopped
due to which the depelation layer junctioin width is small and the junction field ie
potential barrier is high and it can operate continuously, with out being damaged in the
region of reverse breakdown voltage, is called zener diode.
After the break down a large change in current can be produced by almost insufficient
change in reverse bis voltage ie for widely different currents, the voltage across the
zener diode remains constant so a zener diode can be used as a d.c. voltage regulator.
I
N
UNREGULATE
VOLTAGE (Vi)
SYMBOL OF
ZENER
DIODE
IL
IZ
VO
RL
REGULATED
VOLTAGE (VO)
To use a zener diode as a dc voltage regulator, it is joined in reverse bias to unregulated

dc input voltage through a resistance R (called dropping resistance) and the regulated
output voltage is obtained across load resistance RL.
If I is the current from the supply, I Z the current through zener diode and I L the current
through the load resistance, then
I= IZ + IL
If RZ is the resistance of zener diode, then
VO = VZ = IZRZ =ILRL
7
Output Voltage (VO)
Applying Kirchhoffs law to the mesh containing R, we get

RI+ VZ = VI
VZ = VI RI
When
V
<
V
,
almost
no
current
flows through the zener diode i.e. I Z =0 and VO =
i.
i
Z
Vi
When VI =VZ, the junction diode operates in the breakdown region and out put
ii.
voltage
VO = VZ = (VI RI) becomes constant.
When
the
input voltage increases
iii.
beyond a certain limit (i.e. VI > VZ) then
the
voltage across zener diode remains
constant (= VZ) but the current rises
abruptly as the resistance of the zener
diode
reduces to almost zero. Due to which
there
Regulated Output Voltage
is an increase in voltage drop across R.
Since
VZ
RL is connected in parallel so the voltage
across
RL remains the same as that of zener
break
down voltage. Hence the output voltage
remains constant.
VZ
Input Voltage (Vi)
Question-What is a photo diode? Explain
its
working principle. Also give some uses.
Photo diode: - A junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is called a
photo diode.
mA
LIGHT
LIGHT
P
Reverse bias
RL
N
I1
I2
I3
I4
Volts
Photo diode
is
always
I4 > I3 > I2 > I1
A
reverse bias. When no light falls on it, a
small
reverse current flows through the
junction. This current is due to the thermally generated electron-hole pairs and is called
as dark current. When the photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy h>E g
then it ejects the valence electrons due to which the current increases and becomes
maximum. This current is called as saturation current. On increasing the light intensity,
the saturation current increases.
A photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in nanoseconds. So it can be used as a
fastest photo detector.
Uses:
RL
1. In detection of optical signals.
2. In demodulation of optical signals
3. In light-operated switches
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.
8

5. In electronic counters.
Light Emitting Diode (LED): - A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased p-n
junction made of gallium arsenide or indium phosphide and emits spontaneous light
radiation. When a LED is made forward bias then the energy is released due to the
recombination of electrons and holes, falls in visible region or infrared region of EM
spectrum.
Advantages over conventional incandescent
lamps:
LIGHT
1. Low operational voltage and less power

consumption.
2. Fast action and no warm up time required.
3. Long life and ruggedness.
4. Light emitted is nearly monochromatic
Uses:
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm systems.
2. In optical communication system.
3. LEDs are used in numeric displays (in watches and calculators).
4. In optical mouses for the computers.
5. In remote controls
Solar cell: - It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy and
is based on photovoltaic effect (generation of voltage due to bombardment of photons).
It consists of a p-n junction made of Si or GaAs. A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor
is grown over a p-type semiconductor by using diffusion method. (So that the energy
falling on the diode not greatly absorbed before reaching to junction)
Working:When light falls on the top of the solar cell, it gets absorbed. The absorbed energy
knocks out electrons, which flows across the junction to create a current. The current
flows through the p-layer. A load resistance is connected across the metal contact of cell
to store the electricity. After flowing through the load resistance, the current flows back
into the n-layer. Thus, a current is generated without mechanical input energy.
Transistor: - When a thin layer of one type of semiconductor is sandwiched between
the two thick blocks of another type of semi conductor then obtained structure is called a
transistor. These are used as an amplifier as well as an oscillator. These are of two types:
(I)
NPN transistor: - A junction transistor in which a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of n-type semiconductor is
known
N as NPN
P transistor.
N
E
C
C
E
9
Emitter
Collector
(II)
PNP Transistor: - A junction transistor in which a thin layer of N-type

semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of P-type semiconductors is
known as PNP
transistor.
P
N
P
E
C
C
E
EmitterB
Collector
B
In a transistor base is lightly doped and very thin. The region, which is lightly doped and
very thin, is called as Base. The region, which is highly doped, is called emitter while the
remaining one is called collector. When a transistor is used in a circuit, base emitter
junction is always forward bias while the collector base junction is reverse bias.
Action of Transistor: (a) Action of n-p-n Transistor: - The emitter base junction is made forward bias by
using a battery VEE while the collector base junction is made reversed bias by using the
VCC. The ve pole
of battery VEE
N
P
N
repels
the
electrons
in
E
emitter
region
C
(as
majority
IE
IC
Emitter
B
Collector
carrier
in
nIB
region) towards
base. Since the
VEE
VCC
base is very thin
and lightly doped, hence about 95% electrons cross over the base region and entered
the collection region where they are attracted by the +ve pole of the battery V CC. As soon
as an electron enters the +ve pole of the battery V CC, at the same time an electron enters
the emitter region from the ve pole of the battery VEE and this process is carried out
continuously. About 5% electrons recombined with holes in base region. For each
recombination a covalent bond breaks which creates the hole and electron in pair.
Electron enters +ve pole of V EE through B and hence base current I B flows which is very
small.
If IE, IC and IB are the emitter, collector and base current then (According to Kirchhoffs 1st
law)
IE = I B + I C
It may note that in n-p-n transistor current flows due to the flow of electrons in and
outside of transistor.
10

Action of P-N-P transistors:- P
Legends: -
HoleElectron-
IE
Emitter
IB B
VEE
IC
Collector
VCC
Holes
Electrons
Characteristics of n-p-n transistor in Common Emitter configuration: - Common

Emitter characteristics of a transistor are the graph plotted between the voltage and the
current when emitter is earthed, base is used as input terminal and the collector as
n-p-n
output terminal.
C
Ic
I
A
B
E
VCC
VBB
mA
+
+
VBE
_
11
VCE
_
12
13
14
15
16
N-P-N Transistor: -The base emitter circuit is made forward biased by using a battery
VBB while the emitter, collector circuit is made reversed bias by using battery V CC. To draw
17

the characteristic the circuit arrangement is shown in the above figure in which a n-p-n
transistor is used.
A transistor has two types of characteristics.
D. C. Input characteristics: - Keeping VCE at constant voltage, charge V BE (Base
emitter voltage) and note down the corresponding values of base current. Now for some
other value of VCE , find
out the change in base current for the
corresponding
change in VBE. Now plot the graph between VBE and IB at different constant value of VCE.
The graphs so obtained are called as input characteristics.
A.C.I input resistance:- The ratio of the change in the emitter base voltage ( V BE) to
the change in base current ( I B) at the constant VCE is called as a.c. input resistance. It is
VBE
Rin
I B
VCE
denoted by Rin.
(2) Output characteristics:- The graphs plotted between emitter collector voltage
and the collector current (IC) at different constant values of base current (I B). Following
result may be drawn from the output characteristic curves(I) The collector current changes rapidly in beginning but soon it becomes saturated.
(II) The saturation current increases on increasing the base current.
(III) In audio frequency amplifiers the linear part of the output characteristics is used in
order to obtained undistorted output.
Output resistance :-The radio of the change in emitter collector voltage to the change
VCE
Rout
I C
IB
in collector current at the constant base current. It is denoted by Rout.

Transfer characteristics:-The graph plotted between collector current (IC) and the base
current (IB) at different constant values of collector voltages (VCE).
Current gain :- The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current at
constant collector emitter voltage is called as current gain. It is also called as current
IB (mA)
(VCE) = 2v
VCE
IB = 250
IB = 200
(VCE) =3v
IB = 150
IC (mA)
IC (m A)
I C

I B
transfer ratio. It is denoted by: -
(VCE) = 3V
IB = 100
IB = 50
18
(VBE)
INPUT
(VCE)
0UTPUT
CHARACTERISTICS
IB (mA)
TRANSFER
CHARACTERIST
ICS
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:- An amplifier is a device which is used for increasing the

amplitude of variation of alternating voltage or current or power.
A transistor can be used as an amplifier. There are three configurations1. Common base amplifier
2. Common emitter amplifier
3. Common Collector Amplifier
Common Emitter Amplifier: - In common emitter configuration emitter is common to
both the base and collector.
Amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor: - The emitter is common to both the input
and output. The emitter is made forward bias by the battery V BB and collector emitter
circuit is
IC
made
reversed
C
bias
by
Amplified
IB
the
Voltage Signal
Input Voltage
n-p-n
B
battery
Signal
VCC
Thus the
RL
ICRL
E
input
V
resistance
CE
IE
is
low
and
the output
VBB
VCC
resistance
is
high. The
low input
voltage signal is plied across emitter base circuit and amplified output voltage is
obtained across collector emitter circuit.
Let IE , IB and IC are the emitter base and collector current so according to Kirchoffs lawIE = IB + IC ---------------------- (1)
If RL is the load resistance then I CRL will be voltage drop across it. If V CE is the voltage
across emitter collector then
VCE =VCC IC RL ---------------------(2)
The variation in input signal voltage cause the variation in emitter current which produce
the variation in collector current and hence in collector voltage. These variations in
collector voltage appear as amplified output-voltage. The input signal and output signal
are in opposite phase.
Phase relation between input and output signals: - The input signal and the output
signal are in opposite phase, which can be explained as below19

Suppose first half cycle of the input signal is +ve, which makes the base more +ve
thus ve forward bias of emitter will increase. It will increase the emitter current
consequently collector current also increases. Now according to equation (2) collector
voltage VCE shall decrease because ICRL increases i.e. collector will become less +ve i.e.
ve output signal will be obtained.
Now the second half cycle of a.c. input is ve. Due to which the emitter will be less
+ve hence emitter current will decrease it. The collector current as a result voltage drop
across load resistance RL will be decrease and hence according to equation (2) the
collector voltage VCE will increase i.e. +ve half of output-applied voltage is obtained. Thus
corresponding to ve half of a.c. input +ve output half cycle would be obtained. Thus in
common emitter amplifier the input and output signals are in opposite phase.
Current Gain: - It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change
I C
I B
in base current at constant emitter base voltage. It is denoted .

Voltage Gain: - It is defined the ratio of the change in the output voltage to the change
in input voltage. It is
denoted by AV.
AV
Vout I C Rout
Vin
I B Rin
AV
I C Rout
I B Rin
Since > so the A V ac Resistance Gain voltages gain in common emitter

amplifier is very large as compared to that in common base amplifier.
A.C. Power Gain:-It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to change in the
input power. It is denoted by AP i.e.Change in output power
Change in input power
PO
AP
Pi
AP
I c 2 RO
I B 2 Ri
AP
AP 2 resistance gain
> so the power gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared to that in
common base amplifier.
Trans conductance:- It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector current (I C
) to the change in emitter base voltage (V BE) at constant collector voltage. It is denoted
I c
by gm i.e.
gm
VBE
20
gm
VCE
I C
I B
I B
VBE
g m ac
1
Rin
Relation Between and : We know that

I E I B IC
or I E I B I C
divide by I C on both sides
I E
I B
1
I C
I C
1
1
1
1
1
LogicGate : These are the building blocks of digital circuits

Types of Gates:
AND Gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used
to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB.
OR Gate
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+)
is used to show the OR operation.
NOT Gate
21

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also
known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as
A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs.
Universal Gates
NAND Gate
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND
gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The
small circle represents inversion.
NOR Gate
This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates
are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small
circle represents inversion.
Combinational Gates
X-OR
Gate
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are
high. An encircled plus sign () is used to show the X-OR operation.
X-NOR Gate
22

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the X-OR gate. It will give a low output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an X-OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.
Table
1:
Logic
Gate
Symbols
Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the NOT gate together with all possible input/output combinations
for the other gate functions.
Table 2: Logic gates representationusing the Truthtable
23

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SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 2014

Energy bands in solids