UP 2 CH 35 Diffraction PDF

1
Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)
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35 Diffraction
This image shows a pattern of light and dark bands produced when monochromatic light passes
the inner and outer edges of a razor blade. The lines of alternating maximum and minimum
intensity are the result of interference, but the interfering waves did not come from light passing
through two or more slits.
Evidence Is In This Chapter

Where in this chapter can you find experimental evidence and logical reasoning that is used to
develop and support the idea that the pattern of light and dark bands visible in this image of a
razor blade is the result of interference of light waves?
Figure 35-1
Figure 35-5
Discussion pages 3-9

Figure 35-4
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Introduction
In Chapter 34 we defined diffraction as the flaring of a wave as it emerges from a narrow slit. In
this chapter we will learn that diffracted light can produce an interference pattern, called a
diffraction pattern, in some surprising situations. The opening photo of the razor blade is an
example. There is only one slit present yet interference seems to occur. In addition, there also
seem to be interference effects at the outer edge. We
Learning Outcomes
Qualitatively and quantitatively describe the location of the dark bands in a single slit
diffraction pattern and their relation to physical parameters including slit width and
wavelength. (35-1)
Predict how the intensity versus angular position graph produced by a narrow single slit
will change when physical parameters of the system change and calculate the intensity at
particular locations. (35-2)
Qualitatively and quantitatively describe double slit interference patterns for wider slits
as a combination of single slit diffraction and double slit interference. (35-3)
Calculate the dispersion, resolvability and location of bright bands produced by a
diffraction grating. (35-4)
Apply Braggs law to determine the atomic spacing in a crystal given information about
the x-ray diffraction pattern. (35-5)
Qualitatively and quantitatively describe the diffraction pattern produced by a circular
opening or lens and identify the conditions under which two point sources can be
resolved. (35-6)
Critical Ideas to Remember

Rays, superposition, interference, coherent, Huygen, plane waves, wavelets,
monochromatic
When a wave passes through a slit it will spread out or flare on the outgoing side of the slit.
This is called diffraction. The narrower the slit, the more the wave spreads out. That is, the
narrower the slit, the greater the diffraction. For example, see Fig. 35-2 or 34-8.
35-1 Diffraction with a Single Slit

When light passes through a slit diffraction of the light waves can produce a pattern that
reminds us of the interference patterns seen in Chapter 34. Surprisingly, this can happen
even when there is only one slit.
When monochromatic light from a distant source, or laser light, passes through a single narrow
slit a special pattern is sometimes observed on the viewing screen. Examples are shown in the
opening photo of the razor blade and Fig. 35-1. We call such a pattern a diffraction pattern. A
diffraction pattern consists of a broad and very bright central maximum and a number of
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narrower and less bright maxima (called secondary or side maxima) to both sides. In between
the maxima are dark bands or minima. The alternating light and dark bands in this pattern look
like those we saw in the interference patterns discussed in Chapter 34. However, we have only a
single slit here so it is not obvious how interference could be occurring. Nonetheless, we will
apply our interference model, which is based on the concept of superposition of waves, and see if
it can explain how this pattern arises.
How
Do We
Know?
Fig. 35-1 A diffraction pattern produced when monochromatic light passes through a single slit.
In order to apply our interference model to analyze a single slit diffraction pattern lets
consider light waves of wavelength that are diffracted by a single slit of width a that is several
times larger than the wavelength of the light. Recall that, according to Huygens principle, when
an incoming plane wave hits a narrow slit (a slit with width a that is smaller than the
wavelength) a single new wave or wavelet is formed as shown in Fig. 35-2a. What happens if
the slit is wider than the wavelength of the incoming wave? In this case, a collection of
wavelets form at points along the slit as shown in Fig. 35-2b. The wavelets from different points
within the slit travel different path lengths to the viewing screen. Consequently, applying our
interference model from Chapter 34 leads us to predict that the new waves will produce an
interference pattern of bright and dark fringes that is consistent with the diffraction pattern of
Fig. 35-1.
When a plane wave passes through a slit one or more new waves, called wavelets, are generated.
If the width of the slit is less than the wavelength of the incoming wave then just one wavelet is
formed. However, if the width of the slit is greater than the wavelength of the incoming wave
then several wavelets are formed at points along the slit.
New
image
need
along the
lines of
this but
not
identical
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The wavelets produced from a
single slit superimpose and
interfere. Under the right
conditions this can produce an
interference pattern (the
diffraction pattern) even in the
case of a single slit.
Figure 35-2: A wave passes through a slit. (a) When the slit is narrow, the extent of diffraction is great. That is,
the wave flares (vertically) a great deal. However, there is only a single wavelet produced on the outgoing side of
the slit. (b) When the slit is wider, diffraction is reduced. (The wave does not flare vertically as much.) In addition,
several wavelets are produced on the outgoing side of the slit.
How
Do We
Know?
In order to confirm that it is appropriate to apply an interference model to explain diffraction

patterns, we will develop an expression for the location of fringes using this model and then
compare our theoretical predictions to experimental observations. However, because there can
be many wavelets that interfere to produce a diffraction pattern, diffraction is more
mathematically challenging than two slit interference. We get around this complication by
focusing only on finding equations for the dark fringes. In order to do this, lets consider light
waves of wavelength that are diffracted by a single slit of width a that is several times larger
than the wavelength of the light. The slit is in an otherwise solid screen B, as shown in cross
section in Fig. 35-3a. Because the slit is wider than the wavelength, a collection of wavelets
form at points along the slit as shown in Fig. 35-2b.
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The wavelength is the

distance between wave
fronts.
Notice that the slit
width a is much larger
than the wavelength.
FIGURE 35-3 A slit of width a with a length that extends into and out of the page is located in an otherwise opaque
screen B. Incoming wave fronts are parallel to the screen (a) Wavelets from the top points of two zones of width
a/2 undergo totally destructive interference at point P1 on viewing screen C.(b) For distance to the screen D >> a,
we can approximate rays r1 and r2 as being parallel, at angle to the central axis.
As shown in Fig. 35-3, wavelets from different points within the slit travel different path
lengths to the viewing screen. Consequently, applying our interference model from Chapter 34
leads us to predict that the new waves may produce an interference pattern of bright and dark
fringes on the viewing screen. We can justify the central bright fringe seen in Fig. 35-1 by
noting that the wavelets from all points in the slit travel about the same distance to reach the
center of the pattern and thus are in phase there. As for the other bright fringes, we can say only
that they are approximately halfway between adjacent dark fringes.
To find the dark fringes, we shall use a clever and simplifying strategy that involves pairing
up all the rays coming through the slit and then finding what conditions cause the wavelets of the
rays in each pair to cancel each other. Figure 35-3a shows how we apply this strategy to locate
the first dark fringe, at point P1. First, we mentally divide the slit into two zones of equal widths
a/2. Then we extend to P1 a light ray r1 from the top point of the top zone and a light ray r2 from
the top point of the bottom zone. A central axis is drawn from the center of the slit to screen C,
and P1 is located at an angle to that axis.
The wavelets of the pair of rays r1 and r2 are in phase within the slit because they originate
from the same wavefront passing through the slit. However, to produce the first dark fringe they
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must be out of phase by /2 when they reach P1. This phase difference is due to their path length
difference, with the wavelet of r2 traveling a longer path to reach P1 than the wavelet of r1. To
display this path length difference, we find a point b on ray r2 such that the path length from b to
P1 matches the path length of ray r1. Then the path length difference between the two rays is the
distance from the center of the slit to b.
When viewing screen C is near screen B, as in Fig. 35-3a, the diffraction pattern on C is
difficult to describe mathematically. However, we can simplify the mathematics considerably if
we arrange for the distance between the slit and screen D to be much larger than the slit width a.
Then we can approximate rays r1 and r2 as being parallel, at angle to the central axis (Fig. 353b). We can also approximate the triangle formed by point b, the top point of the slit, and the
center point of the slit as being a right triangle with one of the angles inside that triangle being .
See Fig. 35-3b. The path length difference between rays r1 and r2 is then equal to (a/2) sin .
a
Consequently, for destructive interference we must have sin .

2
2
We can repeat this analysis for any other pair of rays originating at corresponding points in
the two zones (say, at the midpoints of the zones) and extending to point P1. Each such pair of
rays has the same path length difference (a/2) sin . Setting this common path length difference
equal to /2 (our condition for the first dark fringe), we have
sin = ,
2
2
which gives us
a sin
first minimum for D
a.
(35-1)
For slit width a and wavelength , a sin tells us the angle of the first dark fringe above
and (by symmetry) below the central axis.
We find the second dark fringes above and below the central axis as we found the first dark
fringes, except that we now divide the slit into four zones of equal widths. Using the same
reasoning as above, we find that
sin = ,
4
2
which gives us
a sin = 2
for the second minimum.
second minimum for D
(35-2)
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We could now continue to locate dark fringes in the diffraction pattern by splitting up the
slit into more zones of equal width. We would always choose an even number of zones so that
the zones (and their waves) could be paired. If we did this, we would find that the dark fringes
above and below the central axis can be located with the following general equation:
a sin = m ,
for m=1, 2,3,...
.
(35-3)
Angular Location of Dark Fringes in Single Slit Diffraction Pattern
How
Do We
Know?
Comparisons of a sin = m (Eq. 35-3) with experimental observations confirm that the
expression correctly predicts the location of the dark bands in a diffraction pattern. This
increases our confidence that diffraction patterns, even those from single slits, can be correctly
understood as an interference phenomenon.
Diffraction is a special case of interference. As is the case with other examples of interference,
diffraction patterns result when waves with different phases combine at a given location.
Sometimes people wonder when they should use the word diffraction rather than the
word interference. There is no firm answer to this question. In this book, if the combining
waves originate from a small number of coherent sourcesas in a double-slit experiment with
the slit width a much less than the wavelength (a<< )we will call the process interference.
If the combining waves originate in a single wavefrontas in a single-slit experimentwe will
call the process diffraction. We find this distinction useful for students who are first learning
about these phenomena because both effects often are present simultaneously. However,
Our distinction between interference and diffraction is somewhat arbitrary and is not adhered to
by all scientists.
How Does the Single Slit Diffraction Pattern Change as the Width of the Slit
Changes?
Further evidence that interference of light waves is responsible for the diffraction patterns we
have discussed is the fact that the expression a sin = m (Eq. 35-3) correctly predicts the range
of conditions under which we see an interference pattern associated with a single slit. For
example, your everyday experiences should tell you that we dont see light and dark bands when
light passes through most cracks. The expression we have derived for single slit diffraction must
be consistent with this observation.
It is easiest to see how our everyday experience and other observations are consistent with
the expression a sin = m if we rewrite it as
How
Do We
Know?
sin =
m
.
a
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For most slits we encounter in our everyday lives, the slit width a is much greater than the
wavelength for visible light. In this case, sin will approach zero for all physically meaningful
values of m. This indicates that all the dark bands are compressed into the point where the slit is
projected onto the viewing screen (the central axis). Because there are bright bands half way
between each dark band, and all the bands are compressed together, the diffraction pattern
becomes invisible in this case. All we see is a bright spot where the light has passed through the
slit. This is what our everyday experience tells us to expect for a wide slit.
As shown in Fig. 35-4, if we narrow the slit while holding the wavelength constant, we
begin to increase the angle at which the first dark fringes appear. That is, the extent of the
diffraction (the extent of the flaring and the width of the pattern) is greater for a narrower slit.
This is also consistent with our earlier discussions of diffraction. (See Figs. 34-8 and 35-2 for
example.)
However, this trend only continues until the slit width is narrowed to equal the wavelength.
At this point, (a = ), the expression
sin =
m
a
gives sin equal to one for m equal to one. This tells us that the angular location of the first dark
fringes is 90. Since the first dark fringes mark the two edges of the central bright fringe, that
bright fringe would cover even an infinitely long viewing screen. That is, there is no pattern of
light and dark bands visible, only a single, spread out bright spot that decreases in intensity
moving outward from the center.
m
Lastly, the expression sin =
is undefined if the slit width a is less than the
a
wavelength . The expression is undefined because sin would be greater than one in that case
and that, of course, cannot occur. This mathematical result is consistent with the fact we dont
see single slit diffraction effects when we use vanishingly narrow slits as in Chapter 34. A
vanishingly narrow slit acts as a point source of a single wavelet and thus no interference is
possible.
The diffraction (or interference) pattern associated with a single slit is only visible when
the slit is significantly wider than the wavelength of the light,
is approximately zero. Within this range of slit widths,

a
the central bright spot widens as the slit is narrowed and fewer bands are visible.
but not so wide that
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Actual image on viewing screen.

Slit width
100
Narrower slit
but width
still >
How Do
We
Know?
Graph of intensity vs. angular position.

Fig. 35-4 (a) Red laser light passes through a narrow slit that is wider than the wavelength of the red light. The
actual diffraction pattern and a graph of intensity versus angular position are shown. For a very wide slit the image is
simply the image of the slit. (b) The slit is narrowed but is still wider than the wavelength of red light. Notice that
the central maximum widens becoming wider than the slit and the number of side maxima decrease. For a very
narrow slit the image becomes a bright spot covering the entire screen with no dark bands visible.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/sinslitd.html (R. Nave)
Diffraction at an Edge
Diffraction of light is not limited to situations involving light passing through a narrow
opening such as a slit. It also occurs when light passes an edge, such as the edges of the razor
blade whose diffraction pattern is shown in the opening photo. Note the lines of maxima and
minima that run approximately parallel to the edges, at both the inside edges of the blade and the
outside edges. This diffraction pattern occurs because when the light passes the vertical edge at
the left of the razor blade, it flares left and right and undergoes interference, producing the
pattern along the left edge.
As we have seen in this section, diffraction finds a ready explanation in the wave theory of
light. However, this theory, originally advanced in the late 1600s by Huygens and used 123 years
later by Young to explain double-slit interference, was very slow in being adopted. This is
largely because it ran counter to Newtons theory that light was a stream of particles.
Newtons view was the prevailing view in French scientific circles of the early 19th century,
when Augustin Fresnel was a young military engineer. Fresnel, who believed in the wave theory
of light, submitted a paper to the French Academy of Sciences describing his experiments with
light and his wave-theory explanations of them.
In 1819, the Academy, dominated by supporters of Newton and thinking to challenge the
wave point of view, organized a prize competition for an essay on the subject of diffraction.
Fresnel won. The Newtonians, however, were neither converted nor silenced. One of them, S. D.
Poisson, pointed out the strange result that if Fresnels theories were correct, then light waves
should flare into the shadow region of a sphere as they pass the edge of the sphere, producing a
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bright spot at the center of the shadow. The prize committee arranged to have Dominique Argo
test Poissons prediction. He discovered (see Fig. 35-5) that the predicted Fresnel bright spot, as
we call it today, was indeed there!* Nothing builds confidence in a theory so much as having one
of its unexpected and counterintuitive predictions verified by experiment.
How
Do We
Know?
FIGURE 35-5 A photograph of the diffraction pattern produced by a disk. Note the concentric diffraction rings and
the Fresnel bright spot at the center of the pattern. This experiment is essentially identical to that arranged by the
committee testing Fresnels theories, because both the sphere they used and the disk used here have a cross section
with a circular edge.
CheckPoint 35-1
We produce a diffraction pattern on a viewing screen by means of a long narrow slit illuminated
by blue light. Does the pattern expand away from the bright center (the maxima and minima shift
away from the center) or contract toward it if we (a) decrease the slit width ? (b) switch to
yellow light?
Example 35-1:
White Light, Red Light
A slit of width a is illuminated by white light (which consists of all the wavelengths in the
visible range).
(a) What slit width should you choose if the first minimum for red light of wavelength 650 nm
is to appear at = 5?
(b) For the slit width you determine in (a), what is the wavelength of the light whose first side
diffraction maximum is at 5, thus coinciding with the first minimum for the red light?
SOLUTION
Categorization
This problem is about single-slit diffraction. Therefore, we will apply principles of interference
which are fundamentally superposition of waves.
* Since Poisson predicted the spot and Argo discovered it, an alternate name is the Poisson-Argo bright spot.
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Interpretation
Here is a picture to help us put the problem and its parameters into perspective:
Figure 35-6 A typical diagram used to help one think about a single-slit diffraction problem with relevant
information for this problem shown.
Computation
The fundamental physical principles for this problem are:
Light exhibits wave-like properties including interference resulting from the
superposition of waves with differing phases.
The relative phases of interfering waves determine the resulting wave intensity.
Path length difference (and changes in phase that occur at an interface) determine the
relative phase of the waves.
(a) A Key Insight for this problem is that diffraction occurs separately for each wavelength
present in the light that passes through the slit. The locations of the minima of the diffraction
pattern are given by a sin = m (Eq. 35-3). When we set m = 1 (for the first minimum),
substitute the given values of and (=650 nm for red light) and rearrange we get a slit width a
of
1 650 nm
m
sin
sin 5
7500 nm 7.5 m.
(Answer)
(b) Our next Key Insight is to assume that the first side maximum for any wavelength is about
halfway between the first and second minima for that wavelength. Those first and second
minima can be located with a sin = m (Eq. 35-3) by setting m = 1 and m = 2,
respectively. Thus, the first side maximum can be located approximately by setting m = m
= 1.5. Then Eq. 35-3 becomes
a sin = m .
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We could simply solve this for and substitute known values. Instead, lets insert our
algebraic solution for the slit width from above.
m
so
a
sin
a sin m sin sin

m
m
m
1

650 nm
m
1.5
433 nm
(Answer)
Looking at Fig. 33-X which shows the visible spectrum, we see that light of this wavelength is
violet.
Expect and Check
Expect: Diffraction of visible light is not something we encounter in our day-to-day
experiences. One reason for this is that in order for the dark bands of an interference pattern to
be visible, the light must pass through a slit that is on the order of its wavelength. For our
answer, we should expect the slit width to be larger than (but not too much larger than) the
wavelength of red light.
Check: Our answer for the slit width, a = 7.5 m, is very narrow. For comparison, note that a
fine human hair may be about 100 m in diameter. While it is narrow, our answer for the slit
width is about 10 times larger than the wavelength of the red light (650 nm) which is close
enough to produce a visible diffraction pattern.
35-2 Intensity in a Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern

An interference model allows us to correctly predict the intensity curve for single slit
diffraction.
In Section 35-1 we learned how to find the positions of the minima and the maxima in a singleslit diffraction pattern. Now we turn to a more general problem: Finding an expression for the
intensity I of the pattern as a function of , the angular position of a point on a viewing screen.
To do this, we divide the slit of Fig. 35-2a into N zones of equal widths x small enough that
we can assume each zone acts as a source of Huygens wavelets. We wish to superimpose the
wavelets arriving at an arbitrary point P on the viewing screen, at angle to the central axis, so
that we can determine the amplitude E of the magnitude of the electric field of the resultant
wave at P. The intensity of the light at P is then proportional to the square of that amplitude.
To find E, we need the phase relationships among the arriving wavelets. The phase
difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is given by
2
(phase difference)
path length difference .

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For point P at angle , the path length difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is x sin
, so the phase difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is
2

x sin .

(35-4)
We assume that the wavelets arriving at P all have the same amplitude E. To find the
amplitude E of the resultant wave at P, we add the amplitudes E via phasors. To do this, we
construct a diagram of N phasors, one corresponding to the wavelet from each zone in the slit.
How
Do We
Know?
2
For point P0 at = 0 on the central axis of Fig. 35-2a,
x sin (Eq. 35-4) tells

us that the phase difference between the wavelets is zero; that is, the wavelets all arrive in
phase. Figure 35-7a is the corresponding phasor diagram; adjacent phasors represent wavelets
from adjacent zones and are arranged head to tail. Because there is zero phase difference
between the wavelets, there is zero angle between each pair of adjacent phasors. The amplitude
E of the net wave at P is the vector-like sum of these phasors. This arrangement of the phasors
turns out to be the one that gives the greatest value for the amplitude E. We call this value Emax;
that is, Emax is the value of E for = 0.
We next consider a point P that is at a small angle to the central axis. The
2
expression
x sin (Eq. 35-4) now tells us that the phase difference between

wavelets from adjacent zones is no longer zero. Figure 35-7b shows the corresponding phasor
diagram; as before, the phasors are arranged head to tail, but now there is an angle between
adjacent phasors. The amplitude E at this new point is still the vector sum of the phasors, but it
is smaller than the amplitude in Fig. 35-7a, which means that the intensity of the light is less at
this new point P than at P
FIGURE 35-7 Phasor diagrams for N = 18 phasors, corresponding to the division of a single slit into 18 zones.
Resultant amplitudes E are shown for (a) the central maximum at = 0, (b) a point on the screen lying at a small
angle to the central axis, (c) the first minimum, and (d) the first side maximum
If we continue to increase , the angle between adjacent phasors increases, and eventually
the chain of phasors curls completely around so that the head of the last phasor just reaches the
tail of the first phasor (Fig. 35-7c). The amplitude E is now zero, which means that the intensity
of the light is also zero. We have reached the first minimum, or dark fringe, in the diffraction
pattern. The first and last phasors now have a phase difference of 2 rad, which means that the
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path length difference between the top and bottom rays through the slit equals one wavelength.
Recall that this is the condition we determined for the first diffraction minimum.
As we continue to increase , the angle between adjacent phasors continues to increase,
the chain of phasors begins to wrap back on itself, and the resulting coil begins to shrink.
Amplitude E now increases until it reaches a maximum value in the arrangement shown in Fig.
35-7d. This arrangement corresponds to the first side maximum in the diffraction pattern.
If we increase a bit more, the resulting shrinkage of the coil decreases E, which means that
the intensity also decreases. When is increased enough, the head of the last phasor again meets
the tail of the first phasor. We have then reached the second minimum.
We could continue this qualitative method of determining the maxima and minima of the
diffraction pattern but, instead, we shall now turn to a quantitative method.
The expression a sin = m tells us how to locate the minima of the single-slit
diffraction pattern. However, as we see in Fig. 35-2a the intensity I of the pattern varies as a
function . We can quantify these intensity as
sin
I I max
,

2
How
Do We
Know?
where
(35-5)
1
a
sin .
2
Intensity as a Function of Angle for Single-Slit Diffraction
(35-6)
The symbol here is just a convenient connection between the angle that locates a point on the
viewing screen and the light intensity I at that point. I max is the greatest value of the intensity I
in the pattern and occurs at the central maximum (where = 0), and is the phase difference
(in radians) between the top and bottom rays from the slit width a.
The expression for intensity we found above (Eq. 35-5) is consistent with experimental
observations of intensity patterns for diffracted light, including those shown in Fig. 35-4.
CheckPoint 35-2
Light of wavelength, 650 nm is used in two separate single-slit diffraction experiments. Fig. 358 shows the results as graphs of intensity I versus angular position for the two diffraction
patterns. (a) Are the slit widths larger or smaller than 650 nm? (b) Is the slit wider in
experiment A or experiment B?
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B
A
Fig. 35-8: CheckPoint 35-2
Example 35-2:
Maxima Intensities
What are the intensities of the first three secondary maxima (side maxima) in the single-slit
diffraction pattern, measured relative to the intensity of the central maximum?
SOLUTION
Categorization
Problems involving interference and diffraction of light waves are fundamentally problems
about the superposition of light waves. We can use the concept of superposition to develop an
expression for the intensity of a single-slit diffraction pattern. We did so in Section 35-2.
Interpretation
In Section 35-2 we discussed the use of superposition principles and the expression
sin
,
I max (Eq. 35-5). A graph of this function is shown in Fig. 35-9 which helps us
visualize the relative amplitudes of the side maxima.
I
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Fig 35-9: Graph of the relative intensities of (one half of) a single-slit diffraction pattern. This graph contains the
three side maxima as well as the central maximum. It was generated by calculating
I
I max
sin
(Eq. 35-5)

2
for a range of values of .
As in Worked Example 35-1, we will assume that the maxima lie approximately halfway
between the minima.
Computation
sin
From I I max
(Eq. 35-5) we find the locations of the secondary maxima are given by

1
m ,
for m = 1,2,3,...,
2
with in radian measure.

Thus, we get
2

1
sin m
2
I
2
sin
,
for m 1, 2,3,....

1
I max
m 2
The first of the secondary maxima occurs for m = 1, and its relative intensity is
17
I1
I max
1
sin 1 2
1
2
Draft 1
sin1.5 2

1.5
2
4.5 10 4.5%.
For m = 2 and m = 3 we find that

I2
1.6%
I max
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and
I3
I max
0.83%.
(Answer)
(Answer)
Expect and Check

Expect: From the graph in Fig 35-9, we expect the I1/Imax value to be roughly 0.05. (The other
two side maxima are harder to estimate because they are so low.) Also, we see that the relative
intensities of the successive maxima decrease very rapidly.
Check: Our first answer of 0.045 matches our expectation quite well. Also, our three answers-4.5%, 1.6%, and 0.83%--exhibit a very clear trend of being both significantly weaker than the
central maxima and becoming progressively weaker as we move outward from the central
maxima.
35-3 Diffraction with Two Slits

The diffraction pattern associated with double slits is a double slit interference pattern
contained within the envelope of a single slit diffraction pattern.
When we discussed interference in the double-slit experiments of Chapter 34, we implicitly
assumed that the slits were narrow compared to the wavelength of the light illuminating them;
that is, a << . For such narrow slits, the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of either slit
covers the entire viewing screen. Consequently, we could ignore single slit diffraction effects
and instead focus on interference between wavelets formed by the two slits. In this case, the
interference of light from the two slits produces bright fringes that all have approximately the
same intensity. (Look back at Fig. 34-15).
However, in practice, the condition a << for visible light is rarely met and the interference
of light from two slits produces bright fringes that do not all have the same intensity. That is, the
intensities of the fringes produced by double-slit interference (as discussed in Chapter 34) are
modified by diffraction of the light passing through each slit (as discussed in this chapter). With
diffraction effects taken into account, the intensity of a double-slit interference pattern is given
by
sin
I I max cos
,

2
(35-7)
Intensity as a Function of Angle for Double-Slit Diffraction
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in which
d
sin
(35-8)
and
a
sin .
(35-9)
Recall that d is the distance between the centers of the slits and a is the slit width.
sin
I
I
cos
max
Note carefully that the right side of

2
(Eq. 35-7) is the
product of Imax and two factors. One factor is associated with interference and one factor is
associated with diffraction. (1) The interference factor cos2 is due to the interference between
d
sin as above. (2) The diffraction factor
two slits with slit separation d where
sin
I max
(Eq. 35-5) is due to diffraction by a single slit of width a where, as before,

1
a

sin (Eq. 35-6) . In other words,
2
A double-slit interference pattern with slit widths on the order of the wavelength is a
double slit interference pattern limited by a single slit diffraction pattern.
As an example, consider the intensity plot of Fig. 35-10a. This plot is like the intensity plot
for double slit interference that was shown in Fig. 34-15. Figure 35-10a suggests the double-slit
interference pattern that would occur if the slits were infinitely narrow (for a << ). All the
bright interference fringes would have the same intensity. The intensity plot of Fig. 35-10b is
that for diffraction by a single actual slit; the diffraction pattern has a broad central maximum
and weaker secondary maxima at 1.7. The plot of Fig. 35-10c suggests the interference pattern
for two actual slits. That plot was constructed by using the curve of Fig. 35-10b as an envelope
on the intensity plot in Fig. 35-10a. The positions of the fringes are not changed; only the
intensities are affected.
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Double slit interference pattern

for vanishingly narrow slits.
How
Do We
Know?
Single slit diffraction pattern

produced by a slit with a 50
Double slit interference pattern for slits with the same separation as in (a)
but widths as in (b) (a 50 ). The pattern is the double-slit interference
pattern limited by single-slit diffraction effects. The intensity curve for
single slit diffraction, shown in (b), acts as an envelope for the double-slit
interference fringes, shown in (a).
FIGURE 35-10: Intensity versus angular position plots for reddish-orange incident light ( = 623 nm) in (a) A
double-slit interference experiment with vanishingly narrow slits (b) A single-slit diffraction experiment with a slit
of width a =0.031 mm (a 50 ). (c) A double-slit interference pattern for slits with the same separation as in (a)
and widths as in (b) (a 50 ). Note that the first minima of the diffraction pattern of (b) eliminate the double-slit
fringes that would occur near 1.2 in (c).
Figure 35-11a shows an actual intensity pattern in which both double-slit interference and
single-slit diffraction are evident. As one would predict, if one slit is covered the single-slit
diffraction pattern of Fig. 35-11b results. Note the correspondence between the predicted
intensity graphs of Figs. 35-10 and the actual experimental results of Fig. 35-11. In comparing
these figures, bear in mind that 35-11 has been deliberately overexposed to bring out the faint
secondary maxima and that two secondary maxima (rather than one) are shown.
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(a)
How
Do We
Know?
(b)
FIGURE 35-11 (a) The diffraction/interference pattern for a double-slit with slit widths on the order of the
wavelength. Here, the interference fringes appear within the bright bands of the single-slit diffraction pattern. This
experimental result is consistent with what we predicted based on the expression
sin
I I max cos
(Eq. 35-7) as shown in Fig. 35-10c. (b) The diffraction pattern for a single slit
appears if one of the slits is covered.
CheckPoint 35-3
(a) How would Fig. 35-11b change if one used the same wavelength light but the slit width was
increased slightly? (b) How would Fig. 35-11a change if one used the same wavelength
light and slit width but the slit separation was increased slightly?
Example 35-3:
Bright Fringes
Lets consider a double slit with an unusually small spacing. Suppose the wavelength of the
light source is 405 nm, the slit separation is 19.44 m, and the slit width is 4.050 m. Consider
the interference of the light from the two slits and also the diffraction of the light through each
slit.
(a) How many bright interference fringes are within the central peak of the diffraction
envelope?
(b) How many bright fringes are within either of the first side peaks of the diffraction
envelope?
SOLUTION
Categorization
This problem is going to involve bringing together the concepts of interference and diffraction.
Interpretation
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Heres a sketch of the interference pattern that shows the effects of single-slit diffraction
pattern on the two-slit interference pattern. It also highlights the bright interference fringes
related to the questions.
Wiley: In the main figure: Please
remove the numbers 6, 7, 8. They
dont add anything.
In the insert figure: Please remove Imax
and accompanying connecting line. It
is not correct. Also, the horizontal
dashed line is superfluous, so please
remove that as well.
FIGURE 35-12 One side of the intensity plot for a two-slit interference experiment; the diffraction envelope is
indicated by the dotted curve. The smaller inset shows (vertically expanded) the intensity plot within the first and
second side peaks of the diffraction envelope.
Computation
The basic ideas are, once again:
Light exhibits wave-like properties including interference and diffraction.
Lets begin by analyze the two basic mechanisms responsible for the optical pattern produced
in the experiment:
Single-slit diffraction: The Key Insight here is that the limits of the central peak are the first
minima in the diffraction pattern due to either slit, individually. (See Fig. 35-12.) The angular
locations of those minima are given by Eq. 35-3 (a sin m ). Lets write this equation as
a sin = m1 , with the subscript 1 referring to the single-slit (one-slit) diffraction. For the first
minima in the diffraction pattern, we substitute m1 =1, obtaining
a sin = .
(35-10)
Double-slit interference: A Key Insight here is that the angular locations of the bright fringes
of the double-slit interference pattern are given by Eqs. 34-7 and 34-8 (from Chapter 34),
which we can combine to write
d sin = m2 ,
for m2 1, 2,3,....
(35-11)
Here the subscript 2 refers to the double-slit (two-slit) interference.
Another Key Insight is that we can locate the first diffraction minimum within the double-slit
fringe pattern by dividing Eq. 35-11 by Eq. 35-10 (above) and solving for m2. By doing so and
then substituting the given data, we obtain
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d 19.44 m
4.8.
a 4.050 m
This calculation tells us that the bright interference fringe for m2 = 4 fits into the central peak of
the single-slit diffraction pattern, but the fringe for m2 =5 does not. Within the central
diffraction peak we have the central bright fringe (m2 = 0), and four bright fringes (up to m2 =
4) on each side of it. Thus, a total of nine bright fringes of the double-slit interference pattern
are within the central peak of the diffraction envelope. (Answer)
(b) The Key Insight here is that the outer limits of the first side diffraction peaks are the
second diffraction minima, each of which is at the angle given by a sin = m1 with m1
:
a sin = 2
(35-12)
Dividing d sin = m2 (Eq. 35-11) by Eq. 35-12, we find
2d 2 19.44 m
m2
9.6.
a
4.050 m
This tells us that the second diffraction minimum occurs just before the bright interference
fringe for m = 10 in d sin = m2 (Eq. 35-11). Within either first side diffraction peak we have
2
the fringes from m2 = 5 to m2 = 9 for a total of five bright fringes of the double-slit interference
pattern (shown in the inset of Fig. 35-12).
Expect and Check
Expect: Because single-slit diffraction patter and the two-slit interference pattern are fairly
regular near the center, we would expect the number of bright fringes within two adjacent
peaks of the diffraction envelope to be about the same.
Check: For both (a) and (b) the number of peaks we determined to be on one side of the center
was the same, five.
Note: In practice, actually seeing the peaks labeled 4, 5, and 9 in Fig. 35-12 might be difficult
because they lie so close minima of the diffraction envelope.
35-4 Diffraction Gratings

Scientists often use a more elaborate form of the double slit arrangement we have studied, one
with numerous slits, to analyze light and objects that emit and absorb light.
One of the most useful tools in the study of light and of objects that emit and absorb light is the
diffraction grating. A diffraction grating is a device that uses interference phenomena to
seperate a beam of light by wavelength. A diffraction grating is a more elaborate form of the
double-slit arrangement of Fig. 34-11. This device has a much greater number N of slits, often
called rulings, perhaps as many as several thousand per millimeter. An idealized grating
consisting of only five slits is represented in Fig. 35-13. When monochromatic light is sent
through the slits, it forms narrow interference fringes that can be analyzed to determine the
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wavelength of the light. (Diffraction gratings can also be opaque surfaces with narrow parallel
grooves arranged like the slits in Fig. 35-13. Light then scatters back from the grooves to form
interference fringes rather than being transmitted through open slits.)
FIGURE 35-13 An idealized diffraction grating, consisting of only five rulings, that produces an interference pattern
on a distant viewing screen C.
With monochromatic light incident on a diffraction grating, if we gradually increase the

number of slits from two to a large number N, the intensity plot changes from the typical doubleslit plot of Fig. 35-10c to a much more complicated one and then eventually to a simple graph
like that shown in Fig. 35-14a. The pattern you would see on a viewing screen using
monochromatic red light from, say, a helium-neon laser, is shown in Fig. 35-14b. The maxima
are now very narrow (and so are called lines); they are separated by relatively wide dark regions.
We use a familiar procedure to find the locations of the bright lines on the viewing screen.
We first assume that the screen is far enough from the grating so that the rays reaching a
particular point P on the screen are approximately parallel when they leave the grating (Fig. 3515). Then we apply to each pair of adjacent rulings the same reasoning we used for double-slit
interference. The separation d between rulings is called the grating spacing. (If N rulings occupy
a total width w, then d =w/N.) The path length difference between adjacent rays is again d sin
(Fig. 35-15), where is the angle from the central axis of the grating (and of the diffraction
pattern) to point P. A line will be located at P if the path length difference between adjacent rays
is an integer number of wavelengthsthat is, if
d sin = m ,
for m= 0,1, 2,...
(35-13)
Angular location of bright lines produced by a diffraction grating
(measured relative to the central axis)
where is the wavelength of the light. Each integer m represents a different line; hence these
integers can be used to label the lines, as in Fig. 35-14. The integers are then called the order
numbers, and the lines are called the zeroth-order line (the central line, with m = 0), the firstorder line, the second-order line, and so on.
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FIGURE 35-14 A diffraction grating illuminated with a single wavelength of light. (a) The intensity plot produced by
a diffraction grating with a great many rulings consists of narrow peaks, here labeled with their order numbers m.(b)
The corresponding bright fringes seen on the screen are called lines and are here also labeled with order numbers m.
Lines of the zeroth, first, second, and third orders are shown.
If we rewrite d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) as =sin -1 (m/d) we see that, for a given diffraction
grating, the angle from the central axis to any line (say, the third-order line) depends on the
wavelength of the light being used. Thus, when light of an unknown wavelength is sent through a
diffraction grating, measurements of the angles to the higher-order lines can be used
in d sin = m to determine the wavelength. Even light of several unknown wavelengths can be
distinguished and identified in this way. We cannot do that with a double-slit arrangement even
though the same equation and wavelength dependence apply there. In double-slit interference,
the bright fringes due to different wavelengths overlap too much to be distinguished.
FIGURE 35-15 The rays from the rulings in a diffraction grating to a distant point P are approximately parallel. The
path length difference between each two adjacent rays is d sin , where is measured as shown. (The rulings extend
into and out of the page.)
Width of the Lines

A gratings ability to resolve (separate) lines of different wavelengths depends on the width of
the lines. We shall here derive an expression for the half-width of the central line (the line for
which m = 0) and then state an expression for the half-widths of the higher-order lines. We
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measure the half-width of the central line as the angle hw from the center of the line at = 0
outward to where the line effectively ends and darkness effectively begins with the first
minimum (Fig. 35-16). At such a minimum, the N rays from the N slits of the grating cancel one
another. (The actual width of the central line is, of course 2(hw), but line widths are usually
compared via half-widths.)
In Section 35-1 we were also concerned with the cancellation of a great many rays, there due
to diffraction through a single slit. We obtained a sin = m (Eq. 35-3), which, because of the
similarity of the two situations, we can use to find the first minimum here. It tells us that the first
minimum occurs where the path length difference between the top and bottom rays equals . For
single-slit diffraction, this difference is a sin . For a grating of N rulings, each separated from
the next by distance d, the distance between the top and bottom rulings is Nd (Fig. 35-17), so the
path length difference between the top and bottom rays here is Nd sin hw. Thus, the first
minimum occurs where
Nd sin hw .
FIGURE 35-16 The half-width hw of the central line is measured from the center of that line to the adjacent
minimum on a plot of I versus like Fig. 35-14a.
Because hw is small, sin hwhw (in radian measure). Substituting this into
Nd sin hw gives the half-width of the central line as
hw
Nd
(half-width of central line).
This expression can be generalized for any other line as

hw
Nd cos
half-width of line at .
(35-14)
Note that for light of a given wavelength and a given ruling separation d, the widths of the lines
decrease with an increase in the number N of rulings. Thus, of two diffraction gratings, the
grating with the larger value of N is better able to distinguish between wavelengths because its
diffraction lines are narrower and so produce less overlap. But the line width of a monochromatic
light beam is determined by the number of slits that the beam encounters. In a diffraction grating
spectrometer, a collimating telescope can be used to illuminate all N slits of the grating.
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FIGURE 35-17 The top and bottom rulings of a diffraction grating of N rulings are separated by distance Nd. The top
and bottom rays passing through these rulings have a path length difference of Nd sin hw, where hw is the angle
to the first minimum. (The angle is here greatly exaggerated for clarity.)
The Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

Diffraction gratings are widely used to determine the wavelengths that are emitted by sources of
light ranging from lamps to stars. Figure 35-18 shows a simple grating spectroscope in which a
grating is used for this purpose. Light from source S is focused by lens L1 on a vertical slit S1
placed in the focal plane of lens L2. The light emerging from tube C (called a collimator) is a
plane wave and is incident perpendicularly on grating G, where it is diffracted into a diffraction
pattern, with the m = 0 order diffracted at angle = 0 along the central axis of the grating.
We can view the diffraction pattern that would appear on a viewing screen at any angle
simply by orienting telescope T in Fig. 35-18 to that angle. Lens L3 of the telescope then focuses
the light diffracted at angle (and at slightly smaller and larger angles) onto a focal plane FF
within the telescope. When we look through eyepiece E, we see a magnified view of this focused
image.
By changing the angle of the telescope, we can examine the entire diffraction pattern. For
any order number other than m = 0, the original light is spread out according to wavelength (or
color) so that we can determine, with d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) , just what wavelengths are being
emitted by the source. If the source emits a number of discrete wavelengths, what we see as we
rotate the telescope horizontally through the angles corresponding to an order m is a vertical line
of color for each wavelength, with the shorter-wavelength line at a smaller angle m = 0 than the
longer-wavelength line.
For example, the light emitted by a hydrogen lamp, which contains hydrogen gas, has four
discrete wavelengths in the visible range. If our eyes intercept this light directly, it appears to be
white. If, instead, we view it through a grating spectroscope, we can distinguish, in several
orders, the lines of the four colors corresponding to these visible wavelengths. (Such lines are
called emission lines.) Four orders are represented in Fig. 35-19. In the central order (m = 0), the
lines corresponding to all four wavelengths are superimposed, giving a single white line at = 0.
The colors are separated in the higher orders.
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The third order is not shown in Fig. 35-19 for the sake of clarity; it actually overlaps the
second and fourth orders. The fourth-order red line is missing because it is not formed by the
grating used here. That is, when we attempt to solve d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) for the angle for
the red wavelength when m = 4, we find that sin is greater than unity, which is not possible.
The fourth order is then said to be incomplete for this grating; it might not be incomplete for a
grating with greater spacing d, which will spread the lines less than in Fig. 35-19. Figure 35-20 is
a photograph of the visible emission lines produced by cadmium.
FIGURE 35-18 A simple type of grating spectroscope used to analyze the wavelengths of light emitted by source S.
FIGURE 35-19 The zeroth, first, second, and fourth orders of the visible emission lines from hydrogen. Note that the
lines are farther apart at greater angles. (The lines are also dimmer and wider, although that is not shown here. Also,
the third order line is eliminated for clarity.)
How
Do We
Know?
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FIGURE 35-20 The visible emission lines of cadmium, as seen through a grating spectroscope.
FIGURE 35-21The fine rulings, each 0.5 m wide, on a compact disc function as a diffraction grating. When a small
source of white light illuminates a disc, the diffracted light forms colored lanes that are the composite of the
diffraction patterns from the rulings.
Dispersion
To be useful in distinguishing wavelengths that are close to each other (as in a grating
spectroscope), a grating must spread apart the diffraction lines associated with the various
wavelengths. The spreading of diffraction lines from various wavelength light is called
dispersion and is defined as
(35-15)
Dispersion Defined
Here is the angular separation of two lines whose wavelengths differ by . The greater D is,
the greater is the distance between two emission lines whose wavelengths differ by .
How is the dispersion of a grating related to the line spacing and other characteristics of
the device? The expression d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) is the expression for the locations of the
lines in the diffraction pattern of a grating. If we regard and as variables and take
differentials of this equation. We find
d cos d m d ,
where the differentials d and d are placed in parentheses to distinguish them from the product
of the center to center slit spacing d and the angle or wavelength . For small enough angles,
we can write these differentials as small differences, obtaining
d cos m , (Eq. 35 16)
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.
d cos
or
Recall that the dispersion D is defined in Eq. 35-15 as D
. Consequently, we find
m
.
(35-17)
d cos
Dispersion of a diffraction grating
Thus, to achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller grating spacing d and work
in a higher order m. Note that the dispersion does not depend on the number of rulings. The SI
unit for D is the degree per meter or the radian per meter.
Resolving Power
To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together we need to make the lines
distinguishable, and so the line should be as narrow as possible. Expressed otherwise, the grating
should have a high resolving power R, defined as
(35-18)
Resolving power defined
Here () is the mean wavelength of two emission lines that can barely be recognized as separate,
and is the wavelength difference between them. The greater R is, the closer two emission
lines can be and still be resolved.
Again, we would like to relate this characteristic to design aspects of the grating that we
can control. Our differential expression d cos m , (Eq. 35 16) from above is an
expression for the locations of the lines in the diffraction pattern formed by a grating. Here is
the small wavelength difference between two waves that are diffracted by the grating, and is
the angular separation between them in the diffraction pattern. If is to be the smallest angle
that will permit the two lines to be resolved, it must (by Rayleighs criterion) be equal to the
half-width of each line, which is given by
hw
Nd cos
Eq.
35 14
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If we substitute hw as given here for in d cos m , (Eq. 35 16) , we find that
m ,
from which it follows that
Nm.
R Nm .
(35-19)
Resolving power of a grating

Consequently, we find that to achieve high resolving power, we must spread out the light beam
so it is incident on many rulings (large N in Eq. 35-19).
Comparing Dispersion and Resolving Power

It is easy to confuse resolving power with dispersion so we take a moment clear to compare and
contrast them. Table 35-1 shows the characteristics of three gratings, all illuminated with light of
wavelength = 589 nm, whose diffracted light is viewed in the first order (m = 1 in
d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) . You should verify that the values of dispersion D and resolving power
m
R as given in the table can be calculated with D
(Eq. 35-17) and
d cos
R Nm (Eq. 35-19) , respectively. (In the calculations for D, you will need to convert radians
per meter to degrees per micrometer.)
TABLE 35- 1 Three Gratingsa
Specifications
Calculated Values
Grating
d(nm)
D(/m)
10 000
2540
13.4
23.2
10 000
20 000
2540
13..4
23.2
20 000
10 000
1370
25.5
46.3
10 000
Data are for = 589 nm and m = 1.
For the conditions noted in Table 35-1, gratings A and B have the same dispersion and A and
C have the same resolving power.
Figure 35-22 shows the intensity patterns (also called line shapes) that would be produced by
these gratings for two lines of wavelengths 1 and 2, in the vicinity of = 589 nm. Grating B,
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with the higher resolving power, produces narrower lines and thus is capable of distinguishing
lines that are much closer together in wavelength than those in the figure. Grating C, with the
higher dispersion, produces the greater angular separation between the lines.
Narrower peaks as
compared to A-indicates
higher resolving power
Greater separation of peaks

as compared to A-indicates
higher dispersion.
FIGURE 35-22: The intensity patterns for light of two wavelengths sent through the gratings of Table 35-1. Grating
B has the highest resolving power and grating C the highest dispersion.
CheckPoint 35-4
The figure shows lines of different orders produced by a diffraction grating in monochromatic red light. If we switch
to monochromatic light of a longer wavelength will the resolving power of the device increase or decrease? Will the
dispersion increase or decrease? Describe changes you would expect to see in the line pattern produced as
compared to Fig. 35-23.
Fig. 35-23 CheckPoint 35-4.
Example 35-4:
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating has 1.26 104 rulings uniformly spaced over 25.4 mm (so there are 496
lines/mm). It is illuminated at normal incidence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp.
This light contains two closely spaced emission lines (known as the sodium doublet) of
wavelengths 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm.
(a) Using the dispersion of the grating, calculate the angular separation between the doublet
lines in the first order.
(b) What is the least number of rulings a grating can have and still be able to resolve the
sodium doublet in the first order?
SOLUTION
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Categorization
This problem involves looking at how the interference pattern from a diffraction grating
depends on the wavelength of the light.
Interpretation
The geometry of this problem is important, so a picture would certainly help:
Figure 35-24: The light from the sodium source shines (at normal incidence) on the diffraction grating. The
interference maxima of the two different wavelengths of the doublet are resolved by the grating at two slightly
different angles.
Knowns: The width of the grating: w = 25.4 mm

The number of lines (or rulings): N = 1.26 104 rulings
The wavelengths of each of the sodium doublet emission lines: 1 = 589.00 nm and 2 =
589.59 nm
Computation
The basic principles are:
Light exhibits wave-like properties.
One Key Insight is that the angular separation between the two lines in the first order
depends on their wavelength difference and the dispersion D of the grating where the
dispersion is defined as D (Eq. 35-15). A second Key Insight is that the dispersion D
depends on the angle and can be evaluated using D = m/dcos (Eq. 35-17). So we need to
start by first determining the location of the first maximum of one of the wavelengths of the
doublet.
The maxima produced by the diffraction grating can be determined with d sin = m (Eq. 3513). The grating spacing d for this diffraction grating is
w 25.4 103 m
N
1.26 104
2.016 106 m 2016nm.
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The first-order maximum corresponds to m = 1. Substituting these values for d and m into d sin
= m (Eq. 35-13) and rearranging leads to
1 589.00 nm
m
sin -1
sin -1
d
2016 nm
16.99
Another Key Insight is that we can assume that, in the first order, the two sodium lines occur
close enough to each other for us to evaluate D at the angle = 16.99 we found above for the
shorter wavelength line. Then Eq. 35-17 gives the dispersion as
m
1
D
d cos 2016nm cos16.99

5.187 104 rad/nm.
From the definition of dispersion, D (Eq. 35-15), we then have
D 5.187 104 rad/nm 589.59nm-589.00nm

3.06 104 rad = 0.0175
(Answer)
You can show that this result depends on the grating spacing d but not on the number of rulings
of the grating.
(b) One Key Insight here is that the resolving power R of a grating in any order m is physically
set by the number of rulings N in the grating. According to Eq. 35-19 these parameters are
related by R = Nm. A second Key Insight is that the least wavelength difference resolvable
depends on the average wavelength and the resolving power R of the grating, according to the
definition of the resolving power, R /(Eq. 35-18).
One last Key Insight is that the sodium doublet to be barely resolved, must be the
difference between their wavelengths, 0.59 nm, and must be their average wavelength,
589.30 nm. Putting these ideas together, we find that the least number of rulings for a grating
to resolve the sodium doublet is
m m
589.30nm
999rulings.
1 0.59nm
(Answer)
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Expect and Check

Expect: We determined the angular separation between the two maxima to be about 0.02o. That
is big enough that we could simply calculate the angular location of the first maxima of the two
wavelengths individually and compare them. We already know that the angular location of the
shorter wavelength is 16.99o. So we can predict that the calculation for location of the first
maxima of the other wavelength should be about 16.99o + 0.02o = 17.01o.
Check: If we repeat the calculation for the location of the first maximum of the longer
wavelength as we did for the shorter wavelength we get
1 589.59 nm
m
sin -1
sin -1
d
2016 nm
17.01 ,
which is exactly where we anticipated it should be based on our answers to the problem.
Expect: Our answer for the number of rulings on the diffraction grating should be realistic.
Typically, diffraction gratings are manufactured with hundreds or thousands of lines. If we
expect our diffraction grating to work, it must at least be in that regime.
Check: In (b) we found that our diffraction grating needs about 1000 lines, so that is in the
ballpark of what we would expect.
35-5 X-Ray Diffraction

Diffraction occurs with electromagnetic waves outside the visible spectrum too. X-ray
diffraction is often used to analyze the structure of crystals.
X rays are electromagnetic radiation whose wavelengths are of the order of 1 (= 0.1 nm = 10 10
m). Compare this with a wavelength of 550 nm (= 5.5 10 -7 m) at the center of the visible
spectrum. Figure 35-25 shows that x rays are produced when electrons escaping from a heated
filament F are accelerated by a potential difference V and strike a metal target T.
A standard optical diffraction grating cannot be used to discriminate between different
wavelengths in the x-ray wavelength range. For = 1 (= 0.1 nm) and d = 3000 nm, for
example, d sin = m (Eq. 35-13) shows that the first-order maximum occurs at
sin -1
1 0.1mn 0.0019 .
m
sin -1
d
3000nm
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FIGURE 35-25: X rays are generated when electrons leaving heated filament F are accelerated through a potential
difference V and strike a metal target T. The window W in the evacuated chamber C is transparent to x rays.
This is too close to the central maximum to be practical. A grating with d = is desirable, but,
since x-ray wavelengths are about equal to atomic diameters, such gratings cannot be constructed
mechanically.
In 1912, it occurred to German physicist Max von Laue that a crystalline solid, which
consists of a regular array of atoms, might form a natural three-dimensional diffraction grating
for x rays. The idea is that, in a crystal such as sodium chloride (NaCl), a basic unit of atoms
(called the unit cell) repeats itself throughout the array. In NaCl four sodium ions and four
chlorine ions are associated with each unit cell. Figure 35-26a represents a section through a
crystal of NaCl and identifies this basic unit. The unit cell is a cube measuring a0 on each side.
How
Do We
Know?
When an x-ray beam enters a crystal such as NaCl, x rays are scatteredthat is, redirected
in all directions by the crystal structure. In some directions the scattered waves undergo
destructive interference, resulting in intensity minima; in other directions the interference is
constructive, resulting in intensity maxima. This process of scattering and interference is a form
of diffraction, although it is unlike the diffraction of light traveling through a slit or past an edge
as we discussed earlier.
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FIGURE 35-26: (a) The cubic structure of NaCl, showing the sodium and chlorine ions and a unit cell (shaded). (b)
Incident x rays undergo diffraction by the structure of (a). The x rays are diffracted as if they were reflected by a
family of parallel planes, with the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence, both angles measured relative
to the planes (not relative to a normal as in optics). (c) The path length difference between waves effectively
reflected by two adjacent planes is 2d sin . (d) A different orientation of the incident x rays relative to the structure.
A different family of parallel planes now effectively reflects the x rays.
Although the process of diffraction of x rays by a crystal is complicated, the maxima turn out
to be in directions as if the x rays were reflected by a family of parallel reflecting planes (or
crystal planes) that extend through the atoms within the crystal and that contain regular arrays of
the atoms. (The x rays are not actually reflected; we use these fictional planes only to simplify
the analysis of the actual diffraction process.)
Figure 35-26b shows three of the family of planes, with interplanar spacing d, from which
the incident rays shown are said to reflect. Rays 1, 2, and 3 reflect from the first, second, and
third planes, respectively. At each reflection the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are
represented with . Contrary to the custom in optics, these angles are defined relative to the
surface of the reflecting plane rather than a normal to that surface. For the situation of Fig. 3526b, the interplanar spacing happens to be equal to the unit cell dimension a0.
Figure 35-26c shows an edge-on view of reflection from an adjacent pair of planes. The
waves of rays 1 and 2 arrive at the crystal in phase. After they are reflected, they must again be
in phase, because the reflections and the reflecting planes have been defined solely to explain the
intensity maxima in the diffraction of x rays by a crystal. Unlike light rays, the x rays have
negligible refraction when entering the crystal; moreover, we do not define an index of refraction
for this situation. Thus, the relative phase between the waves of rays 1 and 2 as they leave the
crystal is set solely by their path length difference. For these rays to be in phase, the path length
difference must be equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength of the x rays.
By drawing the dashed perpendiculars in Fig. 35-26c, we find that the path length difference
is 2d sin . In fact, this is true for any pair of adjacent planes in the family of planes represented
in Fig. 35-26b. Thus, we have, as the criterion for intensity maxima for x-ray diffraction,
2d sin = m,
for m= 1, 2,3,... ,
(35-20)
Braggs Law for X-Ray Diffraction of Crystals
where m is the order number of an intensity maximum. This expression which relates the
interplanar spacing d to characteristics of the diffraction pattern is called Braggs law after
British physicist W. L. Bragg, who first derived it. (He and his father shared the 1915 Nobel
Prize for their use of x rays to study the structures of crystals.) The angle of incidence in Fig. 3526 is called a Bragg angle.
Regardless of the angle at which x rays enter a crystal, there is always a family of planes
from which they can be said to reflect so that we can apply Braggs law. In Fig. 35-26d, the
crystal structure has the same orientation as it does in Fig. 35-26a, but the angle at which the
beam enters the structure differs from that shown in Fig. 35-26b. This new angle requires a new
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family of reflecting planes, with a different interplanar spacing d and different Bragg angle , in
order to explain the x-ray diffraction via Braggs law.
Figure 35-27 shows how the interplanar spacing d can be related to the unit cell dimension
a0. For the particular family of planes shown there, the Pythagorean theorem gives
5d 5a0 ,
or
d =
a0
5
Figure 35-27 suggests how the dimensions of the unit cell can be found once the interplanar
spacing has been measured by means of x-ray diffraction.
FIGURE 35-27: A family of planes through the structure of Fig. 35-26a, and a way to relate the edge length a0 of a
unit cell to the interplanar spacing d
X-ray diffraction is a powerful tool for studying both x-ray spectra and the arrangement of
atoms in crystals. To study spectra, a particular set of crystal planes, having a known spacing d,
is chosen. These planes effectively reflect different wavelengths at different angles. A detector
that can discriminate one angle from another can then be used to determine the wavelength of
radiation reaching it. The crystal itself can be studied with a monochromatic x-ray beam, to
determine not only the spacing of various crystal planes but also the structure of the unit cell.
35-6 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture

Diffraction occurs with a circular opening too and limits the ability of optical instruments to
distinguish between objects that are close together.
In this last section we consider diffraction by a circular aperture. A circular aperture is a
circular opening, such as a circular lens, through which light can pass. In the next chapter,
Chapter 36, we will focus on image formation including the images formed by lenses. What is
important to carry forward to that chapter from this is that diffraction can impact the nature of
the image formed by lenses.
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Figure 35-28 shows the image of a distant point source of light that has passed through a
circular aperture. As you can see, the image is not a point as expected based on the point source
of light. Instead, the image is a circular disk surrounded by several progressively fainter
secondary rings. Comparison of Fig. 35-28 with any of the previous images of diffraction leaves
little doubt that diffraction occurs with circular openings as well as rectangular slits.
Careful analysis of the diffraction images produced by circular apertures shows that the first
minimum for the diffraction pattern is located by
sin =1.22
.
(35-21)
d
First Minimum in the Diffraction Pattern for a Circular Aperture
where the angle is the angle from the central axis to any point on that (circular) minimum and d
is the diameter of the aperture.
How
Do We
Know?
FIGURE 35-28 The diffraction pattern of a circular aperture. Note the central maximum and the circular secondary
maxima. The figure has been overexposed to bring out these secondary maxima, which are much less intense than
the central maximum.
Compare this expression with
sin =
first minimum single slit ,
(Eq. 35-1)
which locates the first minimum for a long narrow slit of width a. The main difference is the
factor 1.22, which enters because of the circular shape of the aperture.
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Resolvability of Circular Apertures

The fact that images formed by circular lenses can involve diffraction patterns is important when
we wish to resolve, or distinguish, two distant point objects whose angular separation is small.
Figure 35-29 shows three example cases for two distant point objects (perhaps stars) with small
angular separation. In Figure 35-29a, the objects are not resolved because of diffraction. That is,
their diffraction patterns (mainly their central maxima) overlap so much that the two objects
cannot be distinguished from a single larger point object. In Fig. 35-29c the are fully resolved. In
the middle case, shown in Fig. 35-29b, the two point sources are separated by the minimum
amount necessary to distinguish that there are two point sources rather than a larger single
source. This occurs when the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of one source is
centered on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other. The minimum angular
separation of point sources that allows an observer to detect that there is more than one source is
sin =1.22
(Eq. 35-21)
d
called the Rayleighs criterion for resolvability. From
, two objects
that are barely resolvable by this criterion must have an angular separation R of
R sin -1
1.22
.
d
Because the angles involved are small, we can replace sin R with R expressed in radians and
write:
R 1.22
Rayleighs criterion circular aperture .
(35-22)
FIGURE 35-29 At the top, the images of two point sources (stars), formed by a lens. At the bottom, representations
of the image intensities. In (a) the angular separation of the sources is too small for them to be distinguished; in (b)
they can be marginally distinguished, and in (c) they are clearly distinguished. Rayleighs criterion is just satisfied in
(b), with the central maximum of one diffraction pattern coinciding with the first minimum of the other.
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Rayleighs criterion for resolvability is only an approximation, because resolvability depends

on many factors, such as the relative brightness of the sources and their surroundings, turbulence
in the air between the sources and the observer, and the functioning of the observers visual
system. Experimental results show that the least angular separation that can actually be resolved
by a person is generally somewhat greater than the value given by Rayleighs criterion
R 1.22
R 1.22
(Eq. 35-22) . However, for the sake of calculations here, we shall take
as being a precise criterion:
If the angular separation between the sources is greater than R,
we can resolve the sources; if it is less, we cannot.
If we want to resolve objects of very small angular separation, we have to limit diffraction
effects. If we are using an external lens or lens system such as a magnifying glass or telescope
to make the observation we can do this according to R 1.22
(Eq. 35-22) , either by

d
increasing the lens diameter or by using light of a shorter wavelength. For this reason ultraviolet
light is often used with microscope. Because of its shorter wavelength, it permits finer detail to
be examined than would be possible for the same microscope operated with visible light. It turns
out that under certain circumstances, a beam of electrons behaves like a wave. In an electron
microscope such beams may have an effective wavelength that is 10-5 of the wavelength of
visible light. They permit the detailed examination of tiny structures, like that in Fig. 35-30, that
would be blurred by diffraction if viewed with an optical microscope using visible light.
FIGURE 35-30 A false-color scanning electron micrograph of red blood cells traveling through an arterial branch.
CheckPoint 35-5
Suppose you can barely resolve two red dots, due to diffraction by the pupil of your eye. If we
increase the general illumination around you so that the pupil decreases in diameter, does the
resolvability of the dots improve or diminish? Consider only diffraction. (You might experiment
to check your answer.)
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Example 35-5:
Circular Lens
A circular lens with diameter d = 5 cm forms images of distant point objects. Considering
diffraction by the lens, what is the minimum separation distance between two point objects so
their separate images can be resolved?
SOLUTION
Characterization
This problem focuses on the concept that there are physical limits on resolvability associated
with diffraction effects.
Interpretation
The limits on resolvability are expressed in the Rayleighs criterion. The wavelength of light is
going to be relevant here, but is not given. Lets assume a wavelength = 550 nm.
Computation
The basic principle is that lenses have limited angular resolving power. For circular lenses this
is given by the Rayleigh criterion:
R 1.22
Substituting the given data, we obtain
R 1.22
d
550 10 9 m
1.22
1.3 105 rad.
5 102 m
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How Do We Know?
Use evidence and reasoning presented in this chapter to explain how you know that the
diffraction pattern (light and dark bands) visible in this image of a razor blade is the result of
interference of diffracted light waves.
Where to find
Evidence-Based Model Development in Chapter 34

Figure 34-2
Figure 34-10
Figure 34-18
Figure 34-3
Figure 34-19
Figure 34-7
Figure 34-14
Discussion page 34
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Conceptual Questions
1 You are conducting a single-slit diffraction experiment with light of wavelength . What appears, on a distant viewing
screen, at a point at which the top and bottom rays through the slit have a path length difference equal to (a) 5 and (b)
4.5?
2 In a single-slit diffraction experiment, the top and bottom rays through the slit arrive at a certain point on the viewing
screen with a path length difference of 4.0 wavelengths. In a phasor representation like those in Fig 35-7, how many
overlapping circles does the chain of phasors make?
3 For three experiments, Fig. 35-31 gives the parameter of Eq. 35-9 versus angle for two-slit interference using light
of wavelength 500 nm. The slit separations in the three experiments differ. Rank the experiments according to (a) the
slit separations and (b) the total number of two-slit interference maxima in the pattern, greatest first. Hint for Part b:
Look back at Chapter 34
Figure 35-31 Question 3.
4 For three experiments, Fig. 35-32 gives of Eq. 35-6 versus angle in one-slit diffraction using light of wavelength
500 nm. Rank the experiments according to (a) the slit widths and (b) the total number of diffraction minima in the
pattern, greatest first.
5 Figure 35-33 shows four choices for the rectangular opening of a source of either sound waves or light waves. The
sides have lengths of either L or 2L, with L being 3.0 times the wavelength of the waves. Rank the openings according
to the extent of (a) left-right spreading and (b) up-down spreading of the waves due to diffraction, greatest first.
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6Light of frequency f illuminating a long narrow slit produces a diffraction pattern. If we switch to light of frequency
1.3f, does the pattern expand away from the center or contract toward the center?
7 Light of frequency f illuminating a long narrow slit produces a diffraction pattern. Does the pattern expand or contract
if, instead, we submerge the equipment in clear corn syrup?
8 At night many people see rings (called entoptic halos) surrounding bright outdoor lamps in otherwise dark
surroundings. The rings are the first of the side maxima in diffraction patterns produced by structures that are thought
to be within the cornea (or possibly the lens) of the observer's eye. (The central maxima of such patterns overlap the
lamp.) (a) Would a particular ring become smaller or larger if the lamp were switched from blue to red light? (b) If a
lamp emits white light, is blue or red on the outside edge of the ring?
9 (a) For a given diffraction grating, does the smallest difference in two wavelengths that can be resolved increase,
decrease, or remain the same as the wavelength increases? (b) For a given wavelength region (say, around 500 nm), is
greater in the first order or in the third order?
10 Figure 35-34 shows a red line and a green line of the same order in the pattern produced by a diffraction grating. If we
increased the number of rulings in the gratingsay, by removing tape that had covered the outer half of the rulings
would (a) the half-widths of the lines and (b) the separation of the lines increase, decrease, or remain the same? (c)
Would the lines shift to the right, shift to the left, or remain in place?
Figure 35-34 Questions10 and 11.
11 For the situation of Question 9 and Fig. 35-34, if instead we increased the grating spacing, would (a) the half-widths of
the lines and (b) the separation of the lines increase, decrease, or remain the same? (c) Would the lines shift to the
right, shift to the left, or remain in place?
12 (a) Figure 35-35a shows the lines produced by diffraction gratings A and B using light of the same wavelength; the
lines are of the same order and appear at the same angles . Which grating has the greater number of rulings? (b)
Figure 35-35b shows lines of two orders produced by a single diffraction grating using light of two wavelengths, both
in the red region of the spectrum. Which lines, the left pair or right pair, are in the order with greater m? Is the center
of the diffraction pattern located to the left or to the right in (c) Fig. 35-35a and (d) Fig. 35-35b?
Figure 35-35 Question12.
13 Figure 35-36 shows the bright fringes that lie within the central diffraction envelope in two double-slit diffraction
experiments using the same wavelength of light. Are (a) the slit width a, (b) the slit separation d, and (c) the ratio d/a
in experiment B greater than, less than, or the same as those quantities in experimental A?
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Estimation Questions
These questions require estimations, going to external sources for information or both.
14. If the resolution of human vision were limited by diffraction, what is the maximum distance
from which a human could resolve millimeter marks on a ruler?
15. What is the maximum height from which a person can see the Great Wall of China? Is that
height typically considered in space?
16. Estimate the linear separation of two objects on the planet Mars that can just be resolved
under ideal conditions by an observer on Earth using the naked eye.
17. The wings of tiger beetles (Fig. 36-xx) are colored by interference due to thin cuticle-like
layers. In addition, these layers are arranged in patches that are 60 m across and produce
different colors. The color you see is a pointillistic mixture of thin-film interference colors
that varies with perspective. Approximately what viewing distance from a wing puts you at
the limit of resolving the different colored patches?
FIGURE 35-37 Problem 17.
18. The wall of a large room is covered with acoustic tile in which small holes are drilled 5.0 mm
from center to center. How far can a person be from such a tile and still distinguish the
individual holes?
19. Roughly what will be the diameter of the green disk that this laser pointer will shine on a
wall 100 m away?
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20. How far must this typical house fly be from your nose before a single element of its
compound eye system could potentially resolve your face and recognize that humans have
only two simple eyes?
21. The painting featured at the opening of this chapter is quite large: 207.6 cm 308 cm. The
work is currently owned by The Art Institute of Chicago, and hangs in a gallery like all of the
other painting on display. Given that you can stand roughly a few meters from the painting
and with the impression that the image is continuous, not a collection of very carefully
arranged tiny dots, estimate the minimum number of colored dots on the canvass.
Exercises
SEC. 35-1 SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
22. Narrow Slit Light of wavelength 633 nm is incident on a narrow slit. The angle between the
first diffraction minimum on one side of the central maximum and the first minimum on the
other side is 1.20. What is the width of the slit?
23.
24. Distance Between Monochromatic light of wavelength 441 nm is incident on a narrow slit.
On a screen 2.00 m away, the distance between the second diffraction minimum and the central
maximum is 1.50 cm. (a) Calculate the angle of diffraction of the second minimum. (b) Find
the width of the slit.
25. First and Fifth The distance between the first and fifth minima of a single-slit diffraction
pattern is 0.35 mm with the screen 40 cm away from the slit, when light of wavelength 550 nm is
used. (a) Find the slit width. (b) Calculate the angle of the first diffraction minimum.
26. Central Maximum A slit 1.00 mm wide is illuminated by light of wavelength 589 nm. We
see a diffraction pattern on a screen 3.00 m away. What is the distance between the first two
diffraction minima on the same side of the central diffraction maximum?
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SEC. 35-2 INTENSITY IN SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

27. Monochromatic Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm is incident on a slit with
width 0.025 mm. The distance from the slit to a screen is 3.5 m. Consider a point on the screen
1.1 cm from the central maximum. (a) Calculate for that point. (b) Calculate. (c) Calculate
the ratio of the intensity at this point to the intensity at the central maximum.
28
29
30
SEC. 35-3 DIFFRACTION WITH TWO SLITS

31. Bright Fringes Suppose that the central diffraction envelope of a double-slit diffraction
pattern contains 11 bright fringes and the first diffraction minima eliminate (are coincident with)
bright fringes. How many bright fringes lie between the first and second minima of the
diffraction envelope?
32. Slit Separation In a double-slit experiment, the slit separation d is 2.00 times the slit width
w. How many bright interference fringes are in the central diffraction envelope?
33. Eliminate Bright Fringes (a) In a double-slit experiment, what ratio of d to a causes
diffraction to eliminate the fourth bright side fringe? (b) What other bright fringes are also
eliminated?
34. Two Slits Two slits of width a and separation d are illuminated by a coherent beam of light
of wavelength . What is the linear separation of the bright interference fringes observed on a
screen that is at a distance D away?
35. How Many (a) How many bright fringes appear between the first diffraction-envelope
minima to either side of the central maximum in a double-slit pattern if = 550 nm, d = 0.150
mm, and a = 30.0 m? (b) What is the ratio of the intensity of the third bright fringe to the
intensity of the central fringe?
36. Intensity Vs. Position Light of wavelength 440 nm passes through a double slit, yielding a
diffraction pattern whose graph of intensity I versus angular position is shown in Fig. 35-40.
Calculate the (a) slit width and (b) slit separation. (c) What values of m are represented in Fig.
35-40.
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FIGURE 35-40 Exercise 36.
SEC. 35-4 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

37. Calculate d A diffraction grating 20.0 mm wide has 6000 rulings. (a) Calculate the distance
d between adjacent rulings. (b) At what angles will intensity maxima occur on a viewing
screen if the radiation incident on the grating has a wavelength of 589 nm?
38. Visible Spectrum A grating has 315 rulings/mm. For what wavelengths in the visible
spectrum can fifth-order diffraction be observed when this grating is used in a diffraction
experiment?
39. How Many Orders A grating has 400 lines/mm. How many orders of the entire visible
spectrum (400 700 nm) can it produce in a diffraction experiment, in addition to the m = 0
order?
40. Confuse a Predator Perhaps to confuse a predator, some tropical gyrinid beetles (whirligig
beetles) are colored by optical interference that is due to scales whose alignment forms a
diffraction grating (which scatters light instead of transmiting it). When the incident light rays
are perpendicular to the grating, the angle between the first-order maxima (on opposite sides of
the zeroth-order maximum) is about 26 in light with a wavelength of 550 nm. What is the
grating spacing of the beetle?
41. Normal Incidence A diffraction grating is made up of slits of width 300 nm with separation
900 nm. The grating is illuminated by monochromatic plane waves of wavelength = 600 nm at
normal incidence. (a) How many maxima are there in the full diffraction pattern? (b) What is the
width of a spectral line observed in the first order if the grating has 1000 slits?
42. Visible Spectrum Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are arbitrarily chosen as
430 and 680 nm. Calculate the number of rulings per millimeter of a grating that will spread the
first-order spectrum through an angle of 20.
43. Gaseous Discharge Tube With light from a gaseous discharge tube incident normally on a
grating with slit separation 1.73 m, sharp maxima of green light are produced at angles =
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17.6, 37.3, 37.1, 65.2, and 65.0. Compute the wavelength of the green light that best fits
these data.
44. D Line The D line in the spectrum of sodium is a doublet with wave-lengths 589.0 and 589.6
nm. (See Worked Example 35-4.) Calculate the minimum number of lines needed in a grating
that will resolve this doublet in the second-order spectrum.
45. Hydrogen Deuterium Mix A source containing a mixture of hydrogen and deuterium
atoms emits red light at two wavelengths whose mean is 656.3 nm and whose separation is 0.180
nm. Find the minimum number of lines needed in a diffraction grating that can resolve these
lines in the first order.
46. Smallest Wavelength A grating has 600 rulings/mm and is 5.0 mm wide. (a) What is the
smallest wavelength interval it can resolve in the third order at = 500 nm? (b) How many
higher orders of maxima can be seen?
47. Sodium Doublet With a particular grating the sodium doublet (see Worked Example 35-4) is
viewed in the third order at 10 to the normal and is barely resolved. Find (a) the grating spacing
and (b) the total width of the rulings.
SEC. 35-5 X-RAY DIFFRACTION

48. Second-Order Reflection X rays of wavelength 0.12 nm are found to undergo second-order
reflection at a Bragg angle of 28 from a lithium fluoride crystal. What is the interplanar spacing
of the reflecting planes in the crystal?
49. NaCl Crystal An x-ray beam of a certain wavelength is incident on a NaCl crystal, at 30.0
to a certain family of reflecting planes of spacing 39.8 pm. If the reflection from those planes is
of the first order, what is the wavelength of the x rays?
50. Two Beams An x-ray beam of wavelength A undergoes first-order reflection from a crystal
when its angle of incidence to a crystal face is 23, and an x-ray beam of wavelength 97 pm
undergoes third-order reflection when its angle of incidence to that face is 60. Assuming that the
two beams reflect from the same family of reflecting planes, find the (a) interplanar spacing and
(b) wavelength A.
51. Reflection Planes In Fig. 35-41, first-order reflection from the reflection planes shown
occurs when an x-ray beam of wavelength 0.260 nm makes an angle of 63.8 with the top face of
the crystal. What is the unit cell size a0?
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FIGURE 35-41 Exercise 51.
52. X-Ray Beam In Fig. 35-42, an x-ray beam of wavelengths from 95.0 pm to 140 pm is
incident at 45 to a family of reflecting planes with spacing d = 275 pm. At which wavelengths
will these planes produce intensity maxima in their reflections?
53. NaCl In Fig. 35-42, let a beam of x-rays of wavelength 0.125 nm be incident on an NaCl
crystal at an angle of 45.0 to the top face of the crystal and a family of reflecting planes. Let the
reflecting planes have separation d = 0.252 nm. Through what angles must the crystal be turned
about an axis that is perpendicular to the plane of the page for these reflecting planes to give
intensity maxima in their reflections?
FIGURE 35-42 Exercises 52 and 53.
SEC. 35-6 DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR APERTURE

54. Entopic Halos At night many people see rings (called entopic halos) surrounding bright
outdoor lamps in otherwise dark surroundings. The rings are the first of the side maxima in
diffraction patterns produced by structures that are thought to be within the cornea (or possibly
the lens) of the observers eye. (The central maxima of such patterns overlap the lamp.) (a)
Would a particular ring become smaller or larger if the lamp were switched from blue to red
light? (b) If a lamp emits white light, is blue or red on the outside edge of the ring? (c) Assume
that the lamp emits light at wavelength 550 nm. If a ring has an angular diameter of 2.5,
approximately what is the (linear) diameter of the structure in the eye that causes the ring?
55. Headlights The two headlights of an approaching automobile are 1.4 m apart. At what (a)
angular separation and (b) maximum distance will the eye resolve them? Assume that the pupil
diameter is 5.0 mm, and use a wavelength of 550 nm for the light. Also assume that diffraction
effects alone limit the resolution so that Rayleighs criterion can be applied.
56. An Astronaut An astronaut in a space shuttle claims she can just barely resolve two point
sources on the Earths surface, 160 km below. Calculate their (a) angular and (b) linear
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separation, assuming ideal conditions. Take = 540 nm and the pupil diameter of the astronauts
eye to be 5.0 mm.
57. Moons Surface Find the separation of two points on the Moons surface that can just be
resolved by the 200 in. (= 5.1 m) telescope at Mount Palomar, assuming that this separation is
determined by diffraction effects. The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 3.8 105 km.
Assume a wavelength of 550 nm for the light.
58. Radar System The radar system of a navy cruiser transmits at a wavelength of 1.6 cm, from
a circular antenna with a diameter of 2.3 m. At a range of 6.2 km, what is the smallest distance
that two speedboats can be from each other and still be resolved as two separate objects by the
radar system?
59. Millimeter-Wave Radar Millimeter-wave radar generates a narrower beam than
conventional microwave radar, making it less vulnerable to antiradar missiles. (a) Calculate the
angular width of the central maximum, from first minimum to first minimum, produced by a 220
GHz radar beam emitted by a 55.0-cm-diameter circular antenna. (The frequency is chosen to
coincide with a low-absorption atmospheric window.) (b) Calculate the same quantity for the
ships radar described in Exercise 58.
60. Discovery In June 1985, a laser beam was sent out from the Air Force Optical Station on
Maui, Hawaii, and reflected back from the shuttle Discovery as it sped by, 354 km overhead. The
diameter of the central maximum of the beam at the shuttle position was said to be 9.1 m, and the
beam wavelength was 500 nm. What is the effective diameter of the laser aperture at the Maui
ground station? (Hint: A laser beam spreads only because of diffraction; assume a circular exit
aperture.)
Problems
61. Single Slit A single slit is illuminated by light of wavelengths a and b, chosen so the first
diffraction minimum of the a component coincides with the second minimum of the b
component. (a) What relationship exists between the two wavelengths? (b) Do any other minima
in the two diffraction patterns coincide?
62. Diffraction by Crystal Figure 35-43 is a graph of intensity versus angular position for the
diffraction of an x-ray beam by a crystal. The beam consists of two wavelengths, and the spacing
between the reflecting planes is 0.94 nm. What are the two wavelengths?
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63. Show That Light is incident on a grating at an angle as shown in Fig. 35-44. Show that
bright fringes occur at angles that satisfy the equation
d sin sin m ,
for m = 0,1,2,....
(Compare this equation with d sin = m (Eq. 36-22) ) Only the special case = 0 has been
treated in this chapter.
64. Plot A grating with d = 1.50 m is illuminated at various angles of incidence by light of
wavelength 600 nm. Plot, as a function of the angle of incidence (0 to 90), the angular deviation
of the first-order maximum from the incident direction. (See Problem 63.)
65. Square Crystal Consider a two-dimensional square crystal structure, such as one side of the
structure shown in Fig. 35-26a. One interplanar spacing of reflecting planes is the unit cell size
a0. (a) Calculate and sketch the next five smaller interplanar spacings. (b) Show that your results
in (a) are consistent with the general formula
a0
h k2
2
where h and k are relatively prime integers (they have no common factor other than unity).
66. Not Possible Prove that it is not possible to determine both wavelength of incident radiation
and spacing of reflecting planes in a crystal by measuring the Bragg angles for several orders.
67. Allegheny Observatory (a) What is the angular separation of two stars if their images are
barely resolved by the Thaw refracting telescope at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh?
The lens diameter is 76 cm and its focal length is 14 m. Assume = 550 nm. (b) Find the
distance between these barely resolved stars if each of them is 10 light-years distant from Earth.
(c) For the image of a single star in this telescope, find the diameter of the first dark ring in the
diffraction pattern, as measured on a photographic plate placed at the focal plane of the telescope
lens. Assume that the structure of the image is associated entirely with diffraction at the lens
aperture and not with lens errors.
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68. SovietFrench Experiment In a joint Soviet French experiment to monitor the Moons
surface with a light beam, pulsed radiation from a ruby laser ( = 0.69 m) was directed to the
Moon through a reflecting telescope with a mirror radius of 1.3 m. A reflector on the Moon
behaved like a circular plane mirror with radius 10 cm, reflecting the light directly back toward
the telescope on the Earth. The reflected light was then detected after being brought to a focus by
this telescope. What fraction of the original light energy was picked up by the detector? Assume
that for each direction of travel all the energy is in the central diffraction peak.
69. Values of (a) Show that the values of at which intensity maxima for single-slit diffraction
occur can be found exactly by differentiating Eq. 35-5 with respect to and equating the result
to zero, obtaining the condition tan = (b) Find the values of satisfying this relation by
plotting the curve y = tan and the straight line y = and finding their intersections or by using
a calculator with an equation solver to find an appropriate value of (or by using trial and error).
(c) Find the (noninteger) values of m corresponding to successive maxima in the single-slit
pattern. Note that the secondary maxima do not l6e exactly halfway between minima.
70. Spectrum Is Formed A grating has 350 rulings per millimeter and is illuminated at normal
incidence by white light. A spectrum is formed on a screen 30 cm from the grating. If a hole 10
mm square is cut in the screen, its inner edge being 50 mm from the central maximum and
parallel to it, what is the range in the wavelengths of the light that passes through the hole?
71. Dispersion Show that the dispersion of a grating is D = (tan )/ .
72. Resolving Power A diffraction grating has resolving power R = () / = Nm. (a) Show
that the corresponding frequency range f that can just be resolved is given by f = c/Nm . (b)
From Fig. 35-18, show that the times required for light to travel along the ray at the bottom of
the figure and the ray at the top differ by an amount t = (Nd/c) sin . (c) Show that (f)( t) =
1, this relation being independent of the various grating parameters. Assume N 1.
73. Two Adjacent Maxima Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a diffraction
grating. Two adjacent maxima occur at angles given by sin = 0.2 and sin = 0.3. The fourthorder maxima are missing. (a) What is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) What is the
smallest slit width this grating can have? (c) Which orders of intensity maxima are produced by
the grating, assuming the values derived in (a) and (b)?
74. Off Central Axis A 0.10-mm-wide slit is illuminated by light of wavelength 589 nm.
Consider a point P on a viewing screen on which the diffraction pattern of the slit is viewed; the
point is at 30 from the central axis of the slit. What is the phase difference between the Huygens
wavelets arriving at point P from the top and midpoint of the slit?
75. Explain Quantitatively If you double the width of a single slit, the intensity of the central
maximum of the diffraction pattern increases by a factor of 4, even though the energy passing
through the slit only doubles. Explain this quantitatively.
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76. Changing Interference Consider a plane wave of monochromatic green light, = 500 nm,
that is incident normally upon two identical narrow slits (the widths of the individual slits are
much less than ). The slits are separated by a distance d = 30 m. An interference pattern is
observed on a screen located a distance L away from the slits. On the screen, the location nearest
the central maximum where the intensity is zero (i.e., the first dark fringe) is found to be 1.5 cm
from this central point. Let this particular position on the screen be referred to as P1. (a)
Calculate the distance, L, to the screen. Show all work. (b) In each of the parts below, one
change has been made to the problem above (in each case, all parameters not explicitly
mentioned have the value or characteristics stated above). For each case, explain briefly whether
the light intensity at location P1 remains zero or not. If not, does P1 become the location of a
maximum constructive interference (bright) fringe? In each case, explain your reasoning.
(1) One of the two slits is made slightly narrower, so that the amount of light passing through it
is less than that through the other.
(2) The wavelength is doubled so that = 1000 nm.
(3) The two slits are replaced by a single slit whose width is exactly 60 m.
77. Sound Waves Sound waves with frequency 3000 Hz and speed 343 m/s diffract through the
rectangular opening of a speaker cabinet and into a large auditorium. The opening, which has a
horizontal width of 30.0 cm, faces a wall 100 m away (Fig. 35-45). Where along that wall will a
listener be at the first diffraction minimum and thus have difficulty hearing the sound? (Neglect
reflections).
FIGURE 35-45 Problem 77
78. Hearing and Seeing Around a Corner We can make the observation that we can hear
around corners (somewhat) but not see around corners. Estimate why this is so by considering a
doorway and two kinds of waves passing through it: (1) a beam of red light ( = 660 nm), and
(2) a sound wave playing an A (f = 440 Hz). (See Fig. 35-46.) Treat these two waves as plane
waves passing through a slit whose width equals the width of the door. (a) Find the angle that
gives the position of the first dark diffraction fringe. (b) From that, assuming you are 2 m back
from the door, estimate how far outside the door you could be and still detect the wave. (See the
picture for a clarification. The distance x is desired.)
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79. Circular Obstacle A circular obstacle produces the same diffraction pattern as a circular
hole of the same diameter (except very near = 0). Airborne water drops are examples of such
obstacles. When you see the Moon through suspended water drops, such as in a fog, you
intercept the diffraction pattern from many drops.
The composite of the central diffraction maxima of those drops forms a white region that
surrounds the Moon and may obscure it. Figure 35-47 is a photograph in which the Moon is
obscured. There are two, faint, colored rings around the Moon (the larger one may be too faint to
be seen in your copy of the photograph). The smaller ring is on the outer edge of the central
maxima from the drops; the somewhat larger ring is on the outer edge of the smallest of the
secondary maxima from the drops (see Fig. 35-47). The color is visible because the rings are
adjacent to the diffraction minima (dark rings) in the patterns. (Colors in other parts of the
pattern overlap too much to be visible.)
(a) What is the color of these rings on the outer edges of the diffraction maxima? (b) The colored
ring around the central maxima in Fig. 35-47 has an angular diameter that is 1.35 times the
angular diameter of the Moon, which is 0.50. Assume that the drops all have about the same
diameter. Approximately what is that diameter?
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1

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Evidence Is In This Chapter

Discussion pages 3-9

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Critical Ideas to Remember

35-1 Diffraction with a Single Slit

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

In order to confirm that it is appropriate to apply an interference model to explain diffraction

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

The wavelength is the

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Consequently, for destructive interference we must have sin .

first minimum for D

second minimum for D

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

is approximately zero. Within this range of slit widths,

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Actual image on viewing screen.

Graph of intensity vs. angular position.

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

35-2 Intensity in a Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Intensity as a Function of Angle for Single-Slit Diffraction

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Fig. 35-8: CheckPoint 35-2

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

for a range of values of .

with in radian measure.

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

For m = 2 and m = 3 we find that

Expect and Check

35-3 Diffraction with Two Slits

Intensity as a Function of Angle for Double-Slit Diffraction

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Note carefully that the right side of

(Eq. 35-7) is the

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Double slit interference pattern

Single slit diffraction pattern

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

appears if one of the slits is covered.

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

35-4 Diffraction Gratings

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

With monochromatic light incident on a diffraction grating, if we gradually increase the

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Width of the Lines

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

(half-width of central line).

This expression can be generalized for any other line as

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

The Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

Understanding Physics: Ch. 35 (Diffraction)

d cos m , (Eq. 35 16)