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Nuclear energy
Introduction
While virtually the whole world stands against the development and use of nuclear
weapons, attitudes vary when it comes to the development and use of nuclear energy.
Proponents of nuclear energy tout it as a form of clean energy since it releases
virtually none of the harmful CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuel.
However,constructionof nuclear power plants does emit great amounts of CO2, as
construction instruments and processes, such as trucks, cranes, frontend loaders, etc.,
rely on other sources of energy especially fossil fuels.
In addition, the health and environmental costs of nuclear energy are horrific. The
possibility of accidents, such as that of Chernobyl or Three Mile Island, the threat of
nuclear terrorism, the potentional for horizontal nuclear proliferation, the damaging
effects from the entire nuclear cycle, from uranium mining to nuclear waste, all indicate
that the risks of nuclear energy far outweigh the benefit.
Nuclear energy is a hot button political issue. Iraq andNorth Koreamanaged to develop
clandestine nuclear weapons programs under the guise of "peaceful" nuclear energy,
only for their weapons programs to be discovered later. (Iraq's program was dismantled
mostly through the Gulf War and the ensuing inspections by IAEA.)
The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom opposes the use of nuclear
energy. The Reaching Critical Will project seeks to provide you with all of the
information you need to deepen your understanding of this controversial issue. Below
you'll find all the facts you need to know about nuclear energy technology, its
environmental consequences, its political and historical background, and the current
issues surrounding it today. You will also find helpful links to more indepth information
on the particular aspects of nuclear energy and politics.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Nuclear energy is
problematic at each
stage of its cycle:
1. Uranium mining.Uranium is extracted from underground and open pit mines. For
every ton of uranium oxide produced, thousands of tons of wastes, or tailings, are left
behind. Often the tailings are simply dumped on the land near the mine and left to the
effects of the elements. Wind carries radon gas and radioactive dust from these tailings
for many miles. Contaminated rainwater enters the soil, the watershed, and, eventually,
the food chain, endangering the health of people, animals, and the planet. Uranium
mining on indigenous and tribal peoples' lands has devastated local communities and
environments in North America, Australia, Africa, and Asia.
2. Enrichment.After mining the uranium mineral is refined to uranium oxide, called
yellowcake. This natural uranium is processed and then enriched. Industrial processes
enrich uranium by concentrating the amount of its fissile isotopes to 3% or more for use

as reactor fuel. Uranium can be further enriched for use in nuclear weaponthe
technology used to enrich uranium to 3% is the same as is used to enrich it to 20%, the
level necessary for use in a nuclear weapon.
3. Reprocessing.Reprocessing is a chemical reaction that separates plutonium and
uranium from fuel which has been irradiated in reactors. The plutonium is important for
weapons production, while the uranium is basically a byproduct that can be recycled as
fuel. Because reprocessing is also part of the civilian nuclear fuel cycle, reprocessing is
a key link between civilian nuclear power and nuclear weapons production. Thus, the
existence of a reprocessing plant is what gives a country the ability to produce
plutonium for nuclear weapons. Fourfifths of the plutonium in the world today has been
produced by commercial nuclear power reactors. This spread of plutonium through
nuclear power has increased the number of potential nuclear weapons states to 46. The
five declared nuclear weapons nationsChina, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and
the United Statesare only oneninth of the real "nuclear club".(Jan Thomas et al,Safe
Energy Handbook, Plutonium Free Future, Santa Barbara, CA: INOCHI, 1997.)
4. Radioactive waste.By the year 2000, the nuclear industry had created 201,000 tons
of highly radioactive irradiated (used) fuel rods. Waste from nuclear energy production
must be safely and securely stored for between 10,000 years and 240,000 years in order
to prevent health and environmental disasters from radioactive contamination. None of
the 44 countries with nuclear reactors has a solution to the waste problem. The wastes
are either kept in "temporary", aboveground storage facilities or buried in shallow pits.
Wastes have been dumped directly into the ground, lakes and oceans of the world. A
2003 MIT study projected that, if the world expands its nuclear energy production to
1,000 gigawatts by 2050 (an increase of 2% per year), a new storage facility equal to the
currently planned capacity of Yucca Mountain would have to be created somewhere in
the world about every three to four years to permanently store the spent nuclear fuel.
(John Deutch and Ernest J. Moniz et al, The Future of Nuclear Power: An
Interdisciplinary MIT Study, Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2003.)Also seeHow Stuff Works'
illustrated explanationof nuclear energy production.
Politics of Nuclear Energy
Background
1. Atoms for Peace.Dwight Eisenhowers landmark speech made to the United Nations
General Assembly on 8 December 1953 addressed the worlds widespread fear and
discontent over recently developed atomic technology and weapons. His speech
proposed that a nuclear regulatory agency be created, which led to the establishment of
theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Eisenhower sought to transform nuclear
technology into a peaceful and humanitarian pursuit by focusing on nuclear energy
development however, his promotion of nuclear energy led to its proliferation through
the US and the world.Full text of Atoms for Peace
For more information, see articles by theArms Control Associationand theBulletin of
Atomic Scientists.
2. The Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (NPT).Developed as a means to curb and
control the production and proliferation of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons
materials, this treaty enteredintoforce in 1970. While imposing restrictions on nuclear
weapons development, Article IV of the NPT establishes access to nuclear technology
for peaceful purposes as an inalienable right. Please see thefull textof Article IV
andfurther discussionof Article IV and its legacy.

3. The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).TheCTBT, negotiated by the Conference

on Disarmament and presented to the UN General Assembly in September 1996, is the
first treaty to ban all nuclear explosions. The CTBT took an important leap forward in
disarmament legislation by including nuclear test explosions in the ban. What is
particularly interesting about the CTBT is that it can only enter into force once all 44
states with nuclear energy reactors sign and ratify the treaty regardless of whether they
have, or are pursuing, nuclear weapons. This requirement, established in Annex II of the
CTBT, was an unprecedented acknowledgement of the link between nuclear weapons
and nuclear energy capabilities. As of yet, this Treaty has not been ratified by all Annex
II states.
Current Controversies
Countries such as Iraq,Iran, andNorth Koreahave brought the connection between
nuclear energy and nuclear weapons into the international spotlight. As the media
coverage grows around these stories, it is important to remember the cold hard facts
about the types of nuclear technology each country actually possesses. Please visit the
IAEA'ssitefor a profile of each country, or Reaching Critical Wills ownannual shadow
reportfor more comprehensive information.
Iraq
After the first Gulf War, IAEA inspectors discovered a clandestine nuclear weapons
program in Iraq, which Iraq had maintained was intended strictly for peaceful nuclear
purposes. The IAEA, operating under the Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement (a weak
verification regime mandatory under the NPT), had failed to effectively detect Iraqs
clandestine program. This IAEA failure led to the development of the Model Additional
Protocol, a much more stringent and intrusive inspections regime. More and more
States are beginning to support the idea of the Model Additional Protocol as a
precondition to the NPT Article IV entitlement.
Doubts over Iraqs nuclear weapons program during the second Bush administration lead
to further IAEA inspections. While the United Nations and many States around the world
wanted to continue inspections, the second Bush administration felt that inspections
would not be able to provide conclusive answers. As a result, the US decided to initiate
the current war without approval from the UN.
For more information, please see theArms Control Association.
North Korea
The events surrounding North Koreas attempts at developing nuclear weaponry from
nuclear energy capabilities illustrates the dangers of nuclear energy proliferation. One
particularly interesting aspect of the USs reactions to North Koreas nuclear
developments is in how markedly different it is from its reaction to allegations about
Iraqs nuclear development.
Iran
Under the NPT, all countries are allowed to develop nuclear power for peaceful uses,
under the inspection of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). They are also
allowed to enrich uranium to the level needed to make fuel for nuclear power, again
under the IAEA's monitoring. However, the same technology can be used to enrich
uranium further in order to make nuclear weapons. Whether or not Iran is secretly
developing or intending to develop nuclear weapons, by hiding its uranium enrichment
programme for 18 years from the IAEA Iran has violated the NPT and alarmed the

international community.
Nuclear Energy and Climate Change
FACT: The phenomenon known as global warming has beendocumented by scientists.
CO2 buildup in the atmosphere causes solar energy to be trapped thus raising the
average global temperature and causing potentially harmful climate and ecological
change.
FACT: A reduction of CO2 emissions generated by human activity is necessary to slow
or at least reduce the contribution of human activity to this ecologically menacing
phenomenon.
FACT:70% of world electricity comes from Fossil Fuels.About 16% of the worlds
electricity comes from Nuclear Power and 14% from Renewable Resources.
FICTION: Increased use of nuclear energy should be the solution to dependence on
fossil fuels and thus help reduce global CO2 emissions.
FACT: Nuclear power usage has environmental, health, and security risks that make it
an undesirable substitute for fossil fuels. Many sources of renewable energy do not pose
such great risks, and thus should be explored.
FICTION: Nuclear power is a Clean Source of Energy that can safely and effectively be
used to produce electricity without CO2 emissions.
FACT:Researchhas shown that taking into account the entire nuclear fuel cycle,
between 34 and 60 grams of CO2 are emitted per generated kilowatt hour (kWh).
Estimates place the CO2 per unit of energy at 45 times higher than the average
quantities of CO2 produced from renewable energy sources.
FACT: Nuclear energy is not a clean source of energy because it produces massive
amounts of toxic, radioactive waste. In the US, this currently amounts to 2,000 metric
tons of highly radioactive waste per year.
FACT: Waste from nuclear energy production must be safely and securely stored for
between 10,000 years and 240,000 years in order to prevent health and environmental
disasters from radioactive contamination.
FACT: The Three Mile Island, and Chernobyl disasters caused environmental, economic,
health, social damage to the areas and communities in the regions.