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Biological Macromolecules
and Lipids
Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the common properties of large biological
molecules
2. Identify and distinguish the four major classes of
macromolecules in terms of their monomers, structures,
chemical properties and major functions
3. Describe the four levels of protein structure and
explain how covalent & noncovalent bonds stabilize
biomolecules
4. Apply examples to explain the relationship between
amino acids and protein structure (e.g. Enzyme, sickle
cells)
5. Understand the profound impacts of genomics and
proteomics on the future of biology and other areas.
2
Lecture Outline
1. Macromolecules are polymers, built from
monomers
2. Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
3. Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic
molecules
4. Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting
in a wide range of functions
5. Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express
hereditary information
6. Genomics and proteomics have transformed
biological inquiry and applications
3
Monomers
Polymer
Dehydration reaction/
Condensation reaction
Hydrolysis
Enzymes required
Short polymer
Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes
a water molecule,
forming a new bond.
Longer polymer
(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer
2
Diverse Polymers
Hydrolysis adds
a water molecule,
breaking a bond.
Fig 5.2
(Carbonyl group)
Sugars
Monosaccharides
molecular formulas:
(CH2O)n
Glucose (C6H12O6) :
Glyceraldehyde
Dihydroxyacetone
aldose
classification
The location of the
carbonyl group:
aldose
ketose
ketose
D- form
number of carbons
Ribose
Ribulose
epimers at C-4
dextrose = D-(+)-Glc
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose
-
(~ 2/3)
anomer,
anomeric carbon
10
-D-glucopyranose
-D-glucopyranose
11
11
Gal(14)Glc
reducing end
reducing sugar
hydrolyzed by lactase (human), -galactosidase (bacteria)
Lactose intolerance
12
Glucose
Glucose
Maltose
reducing sugar
12
glycosidic
1 linkage 2
Glucose
Fructose
Sucrose
non-reducing sugar 13
Polysaccharides (Glycans)
Serve as storage and structural roles
The architecture and function of a polysaccharide
are determined by its sugar monomers and the
positions of its glycosidic linkages
14
Storage Polysaccharides
Starch, polymers of glucoses in plants: (14)
amyloseThe simplest form, & amylopectin
Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts
and other plastids
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose, polymers of glucoses in plant cell walls.
but the glycosidic linkages differ from starch; (14)
Chitin, in the exoskeleton of arthropods and cell walls
of many fungi
15
Amylases
( glucose monomer)
(14)
Cellulases
( glucose monomer)
Cellulose:
(14)
16
Figure 5.6
Storage structures
(plastids)
containing starch
granules in a potato
tuber cell
largely helical
Amylose (unbranched)
Amylopectin Glucose
(somewhat monomer
branched)
50 m
(a) Starch
Glycogen
granules in
muscle
tissue
Cell
wall
1 m
(b) Glycogen
Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall
Plant cell,
10 m
surrounded
by cell wall
Glycogen (branched)
Microfibril
0.5 m
(c) Cellulose
18
19
Figure 5.8
The structure
of the chitin
monomer
N-acetylglucosamine
units, in -1,4 linkage
is used to
Chitin
make a strong
and flexible
surgical
thread.
20
Glycoproteins
21
proteoglycan
glycosaminoglycan, GAG )
heparin
proteoglycan
glycosaminoglycanGAG
(Hyaluronic acid)
23
24
Lipid Functions
Energy storage
Cell membrane
Signaling molecule
25
Lipids
the one class of large biological molecules that does not
include true polymers
consist mostly of hydrocarbons; hydrophobic
The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids,
and steroids
26
Fats
Fats are
constructed
from glycerol
and fatty acids
A fatty acid
consists of a
carboxyl group
attached
to a long carbon
skeleton
Fig 5.10
The synthesis and
structure of a fat, or
triacylglycerol
Fatty acid
(in this case, palmitic acid)
Glycerol
(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of
a fat
Ester linkage
(,or triglyceride
28
29
Trans-fatty acid
cis-fatty acid
30
Hydrophobic tails
Hydrophilic head
Phospholipids
Choline
Phosphate
Glycerol
In a phospholipid, two
fatty acids and a
phosphate group are
attached to glycerol
The two fatty acid tails
are hydrophobic, but the
phosphate group and its
attachments form a
hydrophilic head
Fatty acids
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tails
Steroids
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton
consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in
animal cell membranes
Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels
in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease
Fig 5.14 Cholesterol, a steroid
37
Sex hormones
39
40
Classification
42
Defensive proteins
Enzyme
Virus
Bacterium
Storage proteins
Transport proteins
Ovalbumin
Figure 5.15
Amino acids
for embryo
Cell membrane
Figure 5.15-b
Hormonal proteins
Receptor proteins
High
blood sugar
Insulin
secreted
Normal
blood sugar
Receptor
protein
Signaling
molecules
Structural proteins
Function: Movement
Function: Support
Actin
Myosin
Collagen
Muscle tissue
100 m
Connective
tissue
60 m
Substrate
(sucrose)
Glucose
OH
Enzyme
(sucrase)
H2O
Products
HO
Fructose
carbon
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
Figure 5.16
Nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Side chain
(R group)
Glycine
(Gly or G)
Alanine
(Ala or A)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Valine
(Val or V)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Tryptophan
(Trp or W)
Proline
(Pro or P)
Serine
(Ser or S)
Threonine
(Thr or T)
Cysteine
(Cys or C)
Tyrosine
(Tyr or Y)
Asparagine
(Asn or N)
Glutamine
(Gln or Q)
Aspartic acid
(Asp or D)
Glutamic acid
(Glu or E)
Lysine
(Lys or K)
Arginine
(Arg or R)
Histidine
(His or H)
Making a
polypeptide chain
Figure 5.17
Peptide bond
Peptide bond
New peptide
bond forming
Side chains
Back-bone
Amino end
(N-terminus)
Peptide
bond
Carboxyl end
(C-terminus)
Figure 5.16
Groove
Figure 5.17
Antibody protein
Primary structure
Primary structure
the sequence of
amino acids in a
protein
is determined by
inherited genetic
information
Amino
acids
Amino end
Carboxyl end
Tertiary
structure
Quaternary
structure
Hydrogen bond
helix
pleated sheet
strand
Hydrogen
bond
Transthyretin
protein
Transthyretin
polypeptide
Secondary structure
helix
pleated sheet
Hydrogen bond
strand, shown as a
flat arrow pointing
toward the carboxyl end
Hydrogen bond
Figure 5.20c
Figure 5.20e
Tertiary structure
Transthyretin
polypeptide
Hydrogen
bond
Disulfide
bridge
Polypeptide
backbone
Hydrophobic
interactions and
van der Waals
interactions
Ionic bond
Transthyretin protein
(four identical polypeptides)
Heme
Iron
subunit
subunit
subunit
subunit
Hemoglobin
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Normal hemoglobin
Primary
Structure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Secondary
and Tertiary
Structures
Quaternary
Structure
Function
Molecules do not
associate with one
another; each carries
oxygen.
Normal
hemoglobin
subunit
Red Blood
Cell Shape
10 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Exposed
hydrophobic
region
Sickle-cell
hemoglobin
subunit
10 m
Figure 5.22
Denaturation
and renaturation
of a protein.
Cap
Hollow
cylinder
Chaperonin
(fully assembled)
Fig 5.23
Polypeptide
Correctly
folded
protein
Determine a
proteins
structure
X-ray
crystallography
nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy
Bioinformatics
EXPERIMENT
Diffracted
X-rays
X-ray
source X-ray
beam
Crystal
Digital detector
X-ray diffraction
pattern
RESULTS
RNA
DNA
RNA
polymerase II
69
DNA
1 Synthesis of
mRNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into
cytoplasm
Ribosome
3 Synthesis
of protein
Polypeptide
Figure 5.25-3
Amino
acids
Sugar-phosphate backbone
5 end
Pyrimidines
5C
3C
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous
base
Purines
5C
1C
5C
3C
Phosphate
group
3C
Sugar
(pentose)
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
(b) Nucleotide
Sugars
3 end
(a)
Polynucleotide,
or nucleic acid
Deoxyribose (in DNA)
Figure 5.26
(c)
Nucleoside components
Nucleotide Polymers
Nucleotides are linked together to build a
polynucleotide
Adjacent nucleotides are joined by a
phosphodiester linkage, which consists of a
phosphate group that links the sugars of two
nucleotides
These links create a backbone of sugar-phosphate
units with nitrogenous bases as appendages
The sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA
polymer is unique for each gene
Figure 5.27
Sugar-phosphate
backbones
Hydrogen bonds
(a) DNA
Figure 5.26
MAKE CONNECTIONS
Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology
Paleontology
Evolution
Hippopotamus
Medical Science
Conservation Biology
Species
Interactions
80
Rhesus
monkey
Gibbon
Summary
An immense variety of biological polymers with
diverse functions can be built from a small number
of specific class of monomers.
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
are four major categories of biological
macromolecules in living organisms.
Can you compare the common and diverse
characteristics of the four major large biological
molecules in terms of structure and function?
Importance of genomics and proteomics
(1)
(2)
DNA
double helix Helix Sheet
conformation
(3)
(4)
(5)