Operator Formalism I

6.1

Momentum operator

In eqs. 5/(47-48) found

Z
Z
2
dx|(x)| = dp|f (p)|2

(1)

suggesting that if |(x)|2 is the probability density for finding

the particle in spatial range [x, x + dx], then |f (p)|2 is prob.
density for finding particles momentum in range [p, p + dp].
Plane wave p = eipx/h is state of definite momentum. Define
momentum operator

(2)
p = i
h ,
x
verify pp = pp, note difference between operator p and
eigenvalue p. Compare with H = E for state of definite
energy.
6.2

Expectation values

or, how the probabilistic nature of affects physically measurable quantities.

Consider statistical ensemble of systems with 1 particle described by . Prob. particle in d3r at r is dP = |(r, t)|2d3r.

Calculating averages
Calculate avg. value by summing over all possible values of
something, weighted with prob. of each. For example, mean
value of particles position:
Z
< r >= r d3r
(3)
if normalized. Called expectation value of r because it is at
< r > you would expect to find particle, on avg. Expectation
val. of any operator A is just
Z

< A >= A(r)

d3 r
(4)
Avg. value of momentum (need to use momentum prob. dens.
|f (p)|2:
<p> =
=

d3p f (p)pf (p)

(5)
d3pd3r1d3r2
ip(r2 r1 )/
h

(r
)(r
)pe
(6)
1
2
(2h)3

Simplify by writing
peip(r2r1)/h = +i
h2eip(r2r1)/h

(7)

where 2 grad wrt r2.

Integrate by parts in 3D: note for 2 functions g(r), h(r) which
fall off suff. rapidly at |r| ,
Z
Z
3
d rgh = d3r(g)h
(8)
since the surface term gh| vanishes. So rewrite (6) as
d3pd3r1d3r2
ip(r2 r1 )/
h

(r
)(i
h

)(r
)e
(9)
< p >=
1
2
2
(2
h)3
Z

Now perform int. over p, gives (2h)3(r2 r1), =

Z

< p > = d3r (r)

p(r),
p ih

(10)
(11)

looks just like eqn. (3) for position operator. Have found
a way to represent physical observable momentum in posiR
tion representation. Can show further < p2 >= d3r p2,
R
in general < f (p) >= d3r f (
p), provided f (p) can be
expanded in a power series. (check!).
6.3

Inner products

Generalize representation of momentum, position, energy as

operators on function to any physical observable. For maps onto some new function 0, and is
mally, operator O
linear:

+ O
0
O(
+ 0) = O
(12)

 and 0 are elements of a general linear function space

(like a vector space). We define a norm and scalar product on
this space just as for ordinary vectors.
Definition. Inner product of two functions , :
Z
(, ) d3r (r)(r)
(13)
has following properties:
(, + ) = (, ) + (, )
(, ) = (, )
(, ) = (, )

(14)
(15)
(16)

Notation allows us to collect previous results in succinct way:

normalization condition 1
expectation values: < r >
<p>
<H>

6.4

=
=
=
=
..

(, )
(, r)
(, p)
(, H)

(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)

Hermitian adjoint

Q: under what conditions can we expect general linear opera to represent a physical observable? First must demand
tor O
must be real.
expectation value (, O)
of operator O
obeys
Definition. Adjoint O
, ) = (, O)

(O
(21)
4

Examples:
1. a const. = =
= :
2. O
x

dr =
d r
x
x

so
( ) =
x
x
Z

(22)
(23)

= O

3. (O)

then p = i
h x
= ih x
= p. p is said
so if p = i
h x
to be self-adjoint or Hermitian.
= P + O

4. (P + O)

=O
P
5. (P O)
= (O,
), then (, O)
= (O,
) so O

6. If (, O)
is self-adjoint. Check this!
7. From (16) get
= (O,
)
(, O)
)
= (, O

(24)
(25)

= (, O
)
(, O)

(26)

so in particular
is self-adjoint, O
= O,
then (, O)real

so that if O
. All
observables wil be represented by self-adjoint operators.
5

6.5

Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions

be a linear operator, and an eigenfunction of Q

with
Let Q
= q. If Q
is Hermitian, Q
=Q

eigenvalue q, i.e. Q
then several properties follow:
1. All eigenvalues q are real! Start with
) = (, Q)

(Q,
= q,
Q

(27)
(28)

(q, ) = (, q)
q (, ) = (, )q =

(29)
(30)

then

q = q

(31)

2. Eigenfunctions belonging to different eigenvalues are orthogonal. If

1
Q
2
Q
then
1 , 2 )
(Q
q1(1, 2)

= q11
= q22,

(32)
(33)

= (1, Q)
= q2(1, 2),

(34)
(35)

so if q1 6= q2, then (1, 2) = 0 and the two fctns said to

be orthogonal.
6

3. Linearly independent eigenfunctions belonging

to the same eigenvalue q can be made orthogonal. (Example: recall we studied eigenvalues of 3D SHO
in problem set, showed degeneracynumber of eigenfunctions corresponding to given eigenvalue was N 2/2+3N/2+
1. )
Functions 1...m are linearly ind. if only soln. to Pm
n=1 n =
0 is cn = 0. Suppose
n = qn, n = 1, . . . m.
Q
(36)
It might be that (m, n) 6= mn for this choice of the n,
n = qn for
but can always find new set of n obeying Q
which (m, n) = mn using Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization (as in linear algebra!):
Let 1
2
with chosen s.t.
(1, 2)
let 3
and require
(1, 3)

= 1
= 2 + 1

(37)
(38)

= (1, 2) + (1, 1) = 0 (39)

= 3 + 2 + 1
(40)
= (2, 3) = 0.

(41)

Last line is two equations determining 2 unknowns and

. And so on. . .
commute, [P , Q]
= 0, can find set of
4. If P and Q

simultaneous eigenfunctions of P and Q.

7

Simple case: suppose every eigenfctn. of P corresponds to

different eigenvalue (nondegenerate). For all such eigenfctns.,
P = p
so
P ) = Q(p)

Q(
=0
if [P , Q]

P (Q)
= p(Q).

(42)
(43)
(44)

is eigenfctn. of P with eigenvalue p. But there

So Q
is only one such lin. ind. fctn by assumption, so must
, means also eigenfctn. of Q!

have Q
If 2 or more eigenfctns {}n correspond to same p, more
complicated construction necessary to find set {n} which
Not terribly enare simultaneous eigenfctns. of P and Q.
lightening (see Peebles for details) but be aware it can
commute,
always be done. Point: if operators P and Q
observable quantities p and q can be determined with arbitrary precision simultaneously! Not true in general,
e.g. [
pi, xj ] = ih.
Example: SHO wavefunctions Use wave functions were somewhat familiar with, 1D SHO energy eigenfctns given by
1
x 21 xx 2
1/2 Hn( )e 0
n(x) = n
(45)
(2 n!x0 )
x0
s

where x0 =

is the length scale we have encountered

8

before, and the Hn are specific polynomials which arise in the

solution of the S.-eqn. for higher n. H0 = 1 and H1 = 2x.
1. Check: energy eigenfunctions belonging to different eigenvalues are orthogonal.
(1, 0) = 0

but (0, 0) = 1, etc.

(46)

2. Check: are these momentum eigenfunctions too?

12 xx 2
(47)
p0 = i
h 0 xe 0
x
so no, its not simultaneously an eigenfunction of momentum. We dont expect this, since
p2
1
[H, p] = [
+ m 2x2, p] = m 2[x2, p] 6= 0
2m 2

(48)

3. Linearly independent eigenfunctions belonging to the same

eigenvalue q can be made orthogonal. The 1D SHO wavefunctions arent degenerate = cant discuss this case.
9

But 3D SHO homework problem showed energies are

EN = h
(n1 + n2 + n3 + 3/2), N = n1 + n2 + n3 (49)
and eigenfunctions are
n1,n2,n3 = n1 (x)n2 (y)n3 (z)

(50)

i.e., one for each possible combination n1, n2, n3. Consider
100, 010, and 001. Each has N = 1, corresponding to
an energy E1 = 5h/2.
Physically they correspond to oscillator with one quantum
of excitation energy vibrating in x, y, or z directions, respectively. For isotropic potential, energies must be equal
(degenerate), so degeneracy is 3 for the eigenvalue E1.
They are already orthogonal, e.g.
Z

d3r1(x)0(x)0(y)1(y)|0(z)|2
(51)
= (1, 0)1D (0, 1)1D (0, 0)1D = 0

(100, 010) =

because the 1st two factors vanish.

10