Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 16 April 2015
Received in revised form
15 July 2015
Accepted 19 July 2015
Available online 8 August 2015
This paper presents a hybrid system consisting of a 100 kWe micro gas turbine (MGT) that juxtaposes the
energy production of a photovoltaic (PV) plant whose yearly yield is available by on eld measurements.
The aim of the work is to model and investigate the behavior and the performance of a hybrid MGT-PV
system under the topical constraint of rming renewable power and hence of guaranteeing a reliable
power production to the grid. We propose a solution for the sizing of the PV plant and two strategies for
the management of the hybrid system in order to guarantee a reliable day-ahead hourly forecast of the
electric power that can be actually produced by the plant under whatever ambient condition. The results
ascertain the advantages of the upgraded system in terms of natural gas consumption (16%) and and
NOX (~ 33%) with a higher local emission of CO. In particular, the proposed hybrid system: i) solves the
problem due to the unpredictability of PV energy production; ii) grants a signicant reduction of the
primary fuel usage and specic energy cost; but iii) increases the level of local pollutants, since it internalizes the emissions previously generated in a centralized power plant to produce the amount of
electricity of the hybrid system.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Hybrid system
Smart grids
MGT
PV
Distributed generation
Renewable capacity rming
1. Introduction
In the transition from the existing grid to the future smart grids
the higher penetration of renewable energies [1] could arise concerns about the stability and operation of the electric grid which is
not designed to deal with the intermittent and variable nature of
renewable, particularly wind and solar, resources. According to
Wang et al. [2] capacity rming is fundamental to address the issues of load prole following and power balancing, capacity rming
to reduce renewables' variable output. California ISO (CAISO)
conducted a study [3] on issues related to the integration of
renewable energy and found that accurate forecasts (both dayahead and hour-ahead) of renewable energy production are
fundamental both for reliable operation of the grid and for scheduling the energy production of other power plants. The issue of
accurate forecasts of renewable energy generation was also
addressed by Silva et al. [4] who proposed a methodology for
227
PMGT
min
PMGT
PMGT
max Tamb
(1)
Pa Pd
PMGT
PPV
PMGT
PPV
(2)
228
(3a)
>0
(3b)
PMGT
PMGT_min PPV
PPV
(4)
which indicates that if during the day the actual PV plant power
yield (PPV_a) is different from the one dened the day ahead, the
difference has to be compensated by varying the actual MGT power
output.
- Eventually, condition iii) implies that the PV power output
cannot be stored nor dissipated in any condition and thus the
maximum size of the PV plant that can be backed up by the
given MGT comes out by verifying equation (4) in the worst
possible conditions, i.e. when PMGT_max is at the minimum
possible (this occurs in the hottest day for the installation site),
PMGT a PMGT max Tamb max , and the PV plant, due to a bad
turn in the weather conditions, is unable to produce the expected power, PPV d > 0 but PPV a 0.
The size of the PV plant, PPV, in accord with the imposed criteria
is:
max
Tamb
max
PMGT_min
(5)
If the PV plant power was greater than that expressed in (5) the
MGT wouldn't be able to compensate its variations in the worst
ambient condition; otherwise, if it was lower the fossil to renewable power ratio wouldn't be minimized. Fig. 1 graphically summarizes the constraints in plant sizing.
the grid has to be drawn on the basis of an accord with the grid
management authority.
In here two management strategies are considered for dispatch
scheduling:
the day-ahead declaration of a daily constant power;
the day-ahead declaration of an hourly constant power.
The power scheduling in both cases may be based on the
availability of a day-ahead forecast of the solar radiation or of the
ambient temperature.
According to condition iii) the day-after PV power production,
PPV_d, should be set equal to the maximum power which can be
produced by the PV plant, PPV_max_f, under the hypothesis of a
perfect forecast of all the boundary condition (solar radiation,
ambient temperature, ) inuencing its output.
PPV
PPV_max_f
When PPV
(6)
> 0, the power dened for all the hybrid plant is:
Pd PMGT_min PPV_max_f
(7)
(8)
i.e. during the year the MGT guarantees the whole amount of the
declared power in any ambient condition.
As a matter of fact, a perfect forecast of the PV production is
impossible to be realized; on the contrary, ambient temperature
forecast is much more reliable and less affected by sudden unpredictable variations than solar radiation one [32,33]. Consequently, a
day-ahead declaration of the plant power has to be made taking
into account ambient temperature forecast. In this case the choice
may be that of declaring the maximum power that the MGT can
dispatch at the maximum forecasted temperature (Tamb_max_f) in
the day or in the hour considered:
Pd PMGT_max Tamb_max_f
(9)
During the day the MGT power output will be diminished of the
amount produced by the PV plant.
Again, with a size of the PV in accord with equation (5), the
declared power of the hybrid plant will be granted in any ambient
condition. This scenario allows to perform a realistic forecast of the
plant output and a study of its outcome is performed in section 4. In
addition, it must be remarked that the error in the maximum power output estimation of an MGT is relatively low; in fact, a forecasting error of 1 C causes a variation of the maximum power
output of around 1.22% [28]; therefore, this can be easily taken into
account by including a declaration tolerance in the dispatchment
accord with the electric grid manager. As an example, a tolerance of
5% in the power output allows to concede an error on the forecast
of the ambient temperature of over 4 C.
3. Hybrid system's components
Fig. 1. Choice of the adequate size of the PV plant to couple with a microturbine.
229
230
231
Fig. 4. Power and specic consumption of MTG, PV and hybrid system (Strategy 1) in a cloudy summer day.
the MGT works at partial load: this entails both higher specic fuel
consumption and CO emissions (Fig. 2c). Also a smaller sized PV
plant could meet the constraints of guaranteed electric power
output but, obviously, with a larger share of the energy produced by
the MGT and a reduced concentration of CO at the exhaust.
For this reason it is useful to investigate the trend of natural gas
consumption and pollutants' concentration of the hybrid system as
a function of the size of the PV plant coupled with the MGT.
Furthermore, since the MGT has the maximum electrical efciency
at about 90% of the actual maximum output, we also investigated
Fig. 5. Power and specic consumption of MTG, PV and hybrid system (Strategy 2) in a cloudy summer day.
232
Fig. 6. Power and specic consumption of MTG, PV and hybrid system (Strategy 1) in a sunny summer day.
size of the plant and its power output is directly proportional to the
installed power.
Subsequently, the yearly performance of the hybrid plant was
estimated according to the following procedure: for each size of the
PV plant (in steps of 0.5 kWp), the required output of the MGT to
meet the guaranteed electric power output constraint, described in
Chapter 2, is calculated. On the basis of the MGT load and the
ambient conditions, the fuel consumption and the pollutants concentration is evaluated on an hourly basis using the aforementioned ANN methodology. In particular, the hybrid system
Fig. 7. Power and specic consumption of MTG, PV and hybrid system (Strategy 2) in a sunny summer day.
operation was evaluated for a whole year starting from the actual
PV production coming from an experimental campaign. The results
coming from this analysis are reported hereinafter.
Fig. 8 reports the trend of the natural gas consumption of the
MGT and the specic energy cost (according to Strategy 2) as a
function of the nominal size of the coupled PV plant. As expected,
the bigger the size of the PV plant, the lower the natural gas consumption and consequently the CO2 emission. As regards the economic issues, in order to assess the specic energy cost of the
hybrid system, typical values of the capital costs of the devices and
fuel costs in the Italian energy scenario have been considered. In
particular, for the MGT a capital cost of 120,000 V was considered
while for the PV system 1500 V/kWp was assumed, as suggested in
Ref. [34]. For what concerns the natural gas cost, the Italian tariff of
0.31 V/m3 for industrial applications have been used [35].
Considering a plant lifespan of 20 years, the specic energy cost
have been calculated as the sum of the capital costs and the fuel
cost divided by the amount of energy produced in the whole
period. The cost of the energy produced by the plant is 0.135 V/kWh
for the simple MGT system and it decreases if a PV system is
juxtaposed. For a PV size of 50 kW, the minimum specic energy
cost of 0.128 V/kWh is achieved, which underlines the advantages
of adopting a hybrid system.
Fig. 9 focuses on the trend of the pollutants produced by the
hybrid-system. It shows the trend of CO and NOx emissions as a
function of the nominal size of the PV plant coupled with the MGT.
The pollutants' concentration as a function of the MGT load were
obtained with the ANN methodology already presented by the
authors in Ref. [24].
The equations of the interpolated curves in Fig. 2c are reported
hereinafter:
CO [ppm] (4191.43 * PMGT^3) (5523.65 * PMGT^2) (1509.55 *
PMGT) 2868.44;
(10)
NOx [ppm] 14.18 * PMGT^2 15.97 * PMGT 6.84;
(11)
Fig. 8. Yearly fuel consumption and specic energy cost of the hybrid MGT-PV system
vs. PV plant nominal size according to Strategy 2.
233
Fig. 9. Yearly emissions of the hybrid MGT-PV system vs. PV plant nominal size according to Strategy 2.
Fig. 10. Yearly average specic consumption of the MGT vs. PV plant nominal size
according to Strategy 2.
234
Table 1
Comparison of the yearly performance of the studied management strategies.
Strategy 1
Strategy 2
MGT only
Hybrid PV
50 kWp
MGT only
Hybrid PV
50 kWp
303,640
303,640
0
79,311
261.2
361
52
303,640
249,890
53,750
66,557
266.4
2078
34
319,591
319,591
0
84,121
263.2
191
60
319,591
265,841
53,750
70,475
265.1
1667
40
References
[1] International Energy Agency. Clean energy progress report. 2011. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/CEM_Progress_
Report.pdf.
[2] Wang WM, Wang J, Ton D. Prospects for renewable energy e meeting the
challenges of integration with storage. In: Sioshansi Fereidoon P, editor. Smart
grid e integrating renewable, distributed & efcient energy. Academic Press;
2012.
[3] California ISO. Integration of renewable resources. November 2007. Available
at: http://www.caiso.com/1ca5/1ca5a7a026270.pdf.
[4] Silva M, Morais H, Vale Z. An integrated approach for distributed energy
resource short-term scheduling in smart grids considering realistic power
system simulation. Energy Convers Manag 2012;64:273e88.
[5] Chowdhury S, Chowdhury SP, Crossley P. Microgrids and active distribution
networks. The Institution of Engineering and Technology; 2009.
[6] Hwang Y. Potential energy benets of integrated refrigeration system with
microturbine and absorption chiller. Int J Refrig 2004;27:816e29.
[7] Kaikko J, Backman J. Technical and economic performance analysis for a
microturbine in combined heat and power generation. Energy 2007;32:
378e87.
[8] Bin Basrawi MF, Yamada T, Nakanishia K, Katsumata H. Analysis of the performances of biogas-fuelled micro gas turbine cogeneration systems (MGTCGSs) in middle- and small-scale sewage treatment plants: comparison of
performances and optimization of MGTs with various electrical power outputs. Energy 2012;38:291e304.
[9] Ismail MS, Moghavvemi M, Mahlia TMI. Current utilization of microturbines as
a part of a hybrid system in distributed generation technology. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2013;21:142e52.
[10] El-Khattam W, Salama MMA. Distributed generation technologies, denitions
and benets. Electr Power Syst Res 2004;71:119e28.
[11] Deshmukh MK, Deshmukh SS. Modeling of hybrid renewable energy systems.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12:235e49.
[12] Pearce JM. Expanding photovoltaic penetration with residential distributed
generation from hybrid solar photovoltaic and combined heat and power
systems. Energy 2009;34:1947e54.
[13] Rohani G, Nour M. Techno-economical analysis of stand-alone hybrid
renewable power system for Ras Musherib in United Arab Emirates. Energy
2014;64:828e41.
[14] Wu W, Christiana VI, Chen SA, Hwang JJ. Design and techno-economic optimization of a stand-alone PV (photovoltaic)/FC (fuel cell)/battery hybrid power system connected to a wastewater-to-hydrogen processor. Energy
2015;84:462e72.
[15] Mousavi SMG. An autonomous hybrid energy system of wind/tidal/microturbine/battery storage. Electr Power Energy Syst 2012;43:1144e54.
[16] Kalantar M, Mousavi SMG. Dynamic behavior of a stand-alone hybrid power
generation system of wind turbine, microturbine, solar array and battery
storage. Appl Energy 2010;87:3051e64.
[17] Pepermans G, Driesen J, Haeseldonckx D, Belmans R, Dhaeseleer W. Distributed generation: denition, benets and issues. Energy Policy 2005;33:
787e98.
235
[27] Caresana F, Comodi G, Pelagalli L, Vagni S. Micro gas turbines. In: Gas turbines.
InTech; 2010. p. 145e68. Available at: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/12089/
InTech-Micro_gas_turbines.pdf.
[28] Caresana F, Pelagalli L, Comodi G, Renzi M. Microturbogas cogeneration systems for distributed generation: effects of ambient temperature on global
performance and components' behavior. Appl Energy 2014;124:17e27.
[29] Renzi M, Caresana F, Pelagalli L, Comodi G. Enhancing micro gas turbine
performance through fogging technique: experimental analysis. Appl Energy
2014;135:165e73.
[30] Comodi G, Renzi M, Caresana F, Pelagalli L. Enhancing micro gas turbine
performance in hot climates through inlet air cooling vapour compression
technique. Appl Energy 2015;147:40e8.
[31] International Energy Agency. Photovoltaic Power System Program. Photovoltaic and Solar Forecasting: State of the Art. Report IEA PVPS T14 e 01:2013.
[32] California Renewable Energy Collaborative (CREC) California Renewable Energy Forecasting, Resource Data and Mapping, Appendix A: current state of
the art in solar forecasting. Available at: http://uc-ciee.org/downloads/
appendixA.pdf.
[33] Bird RE, Hulstrom RL. Simplied clear sky model for direct and diffuse insolation horizontal surfaces. 1981. SERI/TR-642-76.
[34] Institute for Solar Energy Systems, ISE, Photovoltaics Report. http://www.ise.
fraunhofer.de. (24th of October 2014), last access: June 2015.
per l'energia elettrica il gas e il sistema idrico, AEEGSI, http://www.
[35] Autorita
autorita.energia.it/it/index.htm, last access: June 2015.