Quantum Mechanics Souri

Lect 1
The passion begins
Souri Banerjee
souri@bits-pilani.ac.in
Handout
Quantum
Mechanics
Matter wave, Concept

of
wave
packet,
Uncertainty Principle,
Wave
function,
Schrodinger equation,
Linearity
and
superposition,
Operators
and
Expectation
values,
Particle in a box,
Finite potential well,
Banerjee
TunnelSourieffect.
46.1-46.7;
47.1-47.3
Beiser:
5.1-5.10
Beginning Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics is the

description of the behavior of
matter and light in all its detail
and, in particular , of the
happenings on an atomic scale
.Richard P. Feynman
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Essence of QM
Classical Physics: See & Touch
Quantum Physics:
Inaccessible to our senses
Understood in a sort of abstract
or imaginative fashion and not by
direct experience
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Essence of QM contd.
Classical Mechanics:
Completely Deterministic
Quantum Mechanics:
Act of measurement interferes
with system and modifies it
Probabilistic
Simple quantities become
matrices and operators
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Essence of QM contd.
Classical Physics:
Particles and Waves understood
as separate entities
Quantum Physics:
Particle and Waves described by
one set of equations
Wave-particle duality
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Physics that tune up QM
Black body radiation (1900)

Photo-electric Effect (1905)
H2 Spectrum (1913)
Compton Effect (1923)
Davisson Germer Experiment
(1927)
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Problem and Solutions

Problem arose in explanation for
phenomena involving small particles
(electrons, atoms) and their
interaction with EM fields
Ad hoc hypothesis and postulates
Planck, de Broglie
Physics need a reformation

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Journey Begins
Quantum Mechanics belongs to:
Werner Heisenberg:
Uncertainty Principle;
Accommodated indeterminism
Max Born:
Probabilistic approach;
Wave function
Erwin Schrodinger:
Wave Equation (1926-1927)
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Planck and de Broglie Hypothesis
Plancks :
E = h
de Broglies :
h
=
p
Energy specified
by frequency
h=6.63x10-34J.s
Wavelength
specified
by linear momentum
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Some Example
Calculate the de Broglie wave length
of a dust particle of mass 10-9 kg drifting
with vel 2 cm/s.
h
h
= =
p mv
6 . 63 10 J .s
=
9
2
( 10 kg )( 2 10 m / s )
34
= 3 . 3 10
23
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More Example
of a 46 g golf ball having vel 30m/s and
an electron with vel 107m/s
golf ball
h
34
=
= 4.8 10 m
mv
h
11
Radius
of
the
e =
= 7.3 10 m
H2 atom
mv
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More Example
of a 0.05eV neutron
h
= =
p
h
=
2 m0 K
hc
2
2 m0 c K
o
12.4 10 3 eV . A
Thermal Neutron =
6
2
(
940
10
eV )( 0.05 eV )
or
0
Slow Neutron
=Souri1Banerjee
.28
Concept of Wave Packets

Q. What is , sine or cosine wave?
Snap-shot
k=
Particle completely
non-localized in space
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Construction of Wave Packet

We need a Wave-Packet
Superposition of sine waves
=
Wave packet results from
superposition of many sine
waves of various k
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+
+
Technique
Fourier Integral :
( x ) = g( k ) cos( kx ) dk
It describes how the amplitudes
of the waves that contribute to
wave packet, vary with k
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Results of FT
k=
g
For Sine
Wave
k = 0
x
x
k
k0= 2/0
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k=
k 0
Property of a Wave Packet

1) can interfere with itself,
so that it can account for the
results of diffraction expts.
2) It is large in magnitude where
the particle is likely to be.
3) corresponds to a single
particle, not a statistical
distribution of number of quanta.
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Space and Time Packet

A true particle is localized in
space and time
Space Packet : Made of superposition
of waves of various
Time Packet : Made of superposition
of waves of various
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Home Study
Q. How does a wave-packet

propagate ?
Important terms:
Phase Velocity (vp)= /k

Group Velocity (vg)= d/dk
Wave-pkt moves with vg not with vp
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Some Facts
For space packets:
x .k 1
For time packets:
.t 1
Quantum Physics by Gasiorowicz; p27-29
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What it follows?
x .k 1
Through de Broglie
x .p h
h=h
2
34
= 1.0545 10 J .s
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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Uncertainty Principle
The Principle states:

It is impossible to specify precisely
and simultaneously the values of
both members of particular pairs of
physical variables that describe the
behavior of an atomic system
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Pairs of Variables
x . p x h (1)
.J z h (2)
E .t h
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(3)
Physical Meaning
x . p x h
A component of p of a particle
cannot be precisely specified
without loss of all knowledge of
the corresponding component of
its position at that time
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Other Ones
.J z h
Precise measurement of the angular
position of a particle in an orbit
carries with it the loss at that time
of all knowledge of the component
of angular momentum perpendicular
to the plane of the orbit
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The Last Term
E .t h
If a system maintains a particular
state of motion not longer than
a time t, the energy of the system
in that state is uncertain by at least
the amount E~h/t
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Energy-Time Uncertainty
.t 1
Through Planck
E .t h
h ~ 10
34
The smallness of h makes the

Uncertainty principle of interest
primarily to the atomic systems
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J .s
Lecture 2
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Comparison
Classical Mechanics:
Completely Deterministic
Quantum Mechanics:
Probabilistic
Simple quantities become
matrices and operators
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Wave-particle Duality
Classical Physics:
Particles and Waves understood
as separate entities
Quantum Physics:
Particle and Waves described by
one set of equations
Wave-particle duality
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Planck and de Broglie Hypothesis
Plancks :
E = h
de Broglies :
h
=
p
Energy specified
by frequency
h=6.63x10-34J.s
Wavelength
specified
by linear momentum
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Construction of Wave Packet

We need a Wave-Packet
Superposition of sine waves
=
Wave packet results from
superposition of many sine
waves of various k
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+
+
Fourier Integral and Transform

Fourier Integral :
= g ( k ) cos( kx ) dk
g
x
x
F-T
k
k0= 2/0
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Concept of Time Packet

Time Packet : Made of superposition
of waves of various
= g ( ) cos( t ) d
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Some Facts
For space packets:
x .k 1
For time packets:
.t 1
Quantum Physics by Gasiorowicz; p27-29
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From Space Packets
x .k 1
Through de Broglie
x .p h
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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From Time Packets
.t 1
Through Planck
E .t h
h ~ 10
34
The smallness of h makes the

Uncertainty principle of interest
primarily to the atomic systems
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J .s
The Principle states:

It is impossible to specify precisely
and simultaneously the values of
both members of particular pairs of
physical variables that describe the
behavior of an atomic system
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Pairs of Variables
x . p x h (1)
.J z h (2)
E .t h
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(3)
Thought Experiments
What is a thought experiment ?
Based on straight-forward logic.
We know the results that would be
obtained because there are many
experiments that have been done
Why thought experiment ?
Difficult to carry out for smallness
of scale
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Expt. with Bullets (Set up)

Might
be
a
box
Movable Detector
containing sand
x
Indestructible
Bullets
)
Gun
Backstop that
absorbs bullets
when they hit
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Experiment
We wish to find out :
What is the probability that a

bullet which passes thro the
holes will arrive at the back-stop
at a distance x from the center ?
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Certain Understanding
Why say probability?
Because we cannot say definitely
where any particular bullet goes
By probability we mean the chance
that the bullet arrives at detector
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Measurement
How you measure probability?

Assuming the gun shoots at the
same rate during measurement,
the probability is just proportional
to the number that reach detector
in some standard time interval
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Observations
Bullets arrive in identical lumps
P12=P1+P2
x
Gun
Probabilities added
P1
1
2
P2
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P12
Expt. With Light

x
I1
I12 I1+I2
I2
I12= I1+I2 + 2I1I2cos

Interference Term
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Intensities
NOT added
Expt. With Electrons

Detector Geiger Counter
connected to a loud-speaker
x
Electron Gun
1
2
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Thought Experiment
Expts with bullets and light can be
done but not with the electrons
Why ?
The setup should be of impossibly
small scale to show effects that we
are interested in
Thought Experiment
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Observations
1) We hear sharp clicks but
no half clicks
2) Clicks are erratic.
3) As detectors is moved around,
clicks gets faster or slower but
of same loudness
4) With two detectors, one or the
other clicks, never both at once
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Conclusion
Electrons arrive at the backstop in identical lumps
What is the probability that an
electron lumparrive at various
distance from x ?
Proportional to average
rate of clicks at that x
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The Result
x
P12
Electron
Gun
P12 not like what we obtain for bullets

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What is Happening?
Proposition :
Each electron either goes through
hole 1 or hole 2
Observed curve must be sum of
the effects of the electrons which
come thro hole 1 or 2
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Further Experiments
Block hole 1/2 and from clicking
rate get P1/P2
x
P1
P12
P1 + P2
Electron
Gun
P2
Is the proposition false ?

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What Next?
Next Attempt :
Try and locate the path
How ?
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Mystery
x
Electron
Gun
1
2
Light
Source
Every time we hear a click, we also

see a flash either near hole 1 or 2,
never both at once
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Mystery Continues
Our proposition is necessarily true

Then, why P12 P1+P2
Let us keep a track of the electrons

and find out what they are doing
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How?
Make two columns. When we hear
a click, put a count in column 1/
column 2 if we see a flash near
hole 1/hole 2
Every electron is recorded in two
classes: one which comes from hole
1 and those from hole 2
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What Else?
Repeat such measurement for
many values of x to get P1 and P2
Electron
Gun
P1
Light
Source
P2
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Total Probability
Q. What is the probability that
an electron will arrive at the
detector by any route ?
Pretend we never looked at the
light flashes and then add together
detector clicks we had in columns
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Surprising!
)
Electron
Gun
P1
Light
Source
P2
Then, P12 = P1+P2

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P12
What it Suggests?
Although we succeeded in watching
which hole electrons come through,
we no longer get the old P12
Ascertains Uncertainty Principle

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Fun Study
For interested people:

The Heisenberg Microscope
Purpose is to measure the position
of an electron
Ref: Gasiorowicz; p33-35

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Lecture 3
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Plan of Lecture
Introducing wave function

in more quantitative fashion
Schrodinger Equation
Some application of
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Classical Mechanics
A particle of mass m moving in
x direction under the action of

an external force F
2
d x
m 2 =F
dt
The solution contains all information
about the trajectory of the particle
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Task Cut Out

Q. What is the Quantum Mechanical
description of such a particle?
Development of a (differential)
equation and the corresponding
wave function (x,t) that would
represent the same particle
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Building Blocks
Plancks Hypothesis :
de Broglie
Hypothesis :
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E = h
= h
p=
= hk
Likely to be
(x,t) should include the notion
of the particle being Likely to be
It is large in magnitude where the

particle is likely to be and small
elsewhere
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Ideal Condition
Consider Free particle

No force acting on it
p is a constant of motion
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From de Broglie
p=
= hk
(x,t) should correspond to

a plane wave solution
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What Type of solutions?

Q. If a wave function (x,t) has
to represent a particle having
completely undetermined position
and traveling in +x direction with
precisely known momentum p and
kinetic energy E, what should be
the form of (x,t) ?
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Solution Types
cos( kx t )
sin( kx t )
i ( kx t )
e
i ( kx t )
e
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Form of Wave Equation

Two basic properties :
1) It must be linear, in order that
solutions of it can be made to
produce interference effect and
to permit the construction of a
wave packet
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The Other Property

2) The coefficients of the equation
must involve only constants as
h and the mass or the charge of
the particle and not parameters
of a particular kind of motion of
the particle (p, E, k and )
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Look for wave equn.

Traveling Wave-equation:
y 1 y
=
2
2
2
v t
x
2
Q. Can we accept it?

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Look Further
Property 1 is satisfied as the
differential equation is linear
What about the property 2 ?
Just Check !
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Wave equation
E
p
v = 2 = 2 =
2
k
p
4m
2
Involves parameters of
motion (E or p)
NOT ACCEPTED !
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Is that Enough?
You cannot afford to ignore
equations linking wave-particle
duality, the building blocks
hk
p Equivalent
=
E=
2m
2m
2
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What it Suggest?
hk
p Equivalent
=
E=
2m
2m
2
1st. derivative of time should be

related to 2nd. derivative of space
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What Comes Out?

Conventional wave equation can
not be regarded as an equation
for describing a wave function
( x ,t ) e
Why not
i ( kx t )
e
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i ( kx t )
Expected Type

2 =
t
x
2
1st. derivative of time relates

the 2nd. derivative of space
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Free particle Schrodinger Equation
( x ,t ) = 0e
i ( kx t )
2
=
2
x
..(2)
= i
t
..(3)
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..(1)
Derivation
From eq. 3
ih
= h
t
..(4)
From eq. 2
h h k
..(5)
=
2
2 m x
2m
2
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Relate
p
hk
=
= h
E=
2m 2m
2
..(6)
Eq 5 reads,
= h
2
2 m x
2
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..(7)
Combining eq. 4 and 7:
( x , t )
h ( x ,t )
=
i
h
2
2m
x
t
2
1-D time dependent

Schrodinger Eq.
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Comparison

2 =
t
x
2
ih
=
2m
It involves h
and m only
( x ,t )
h ( x ,t )
=
i
h
2
2m x
t
2
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Interpretation of
( x ,t ) = 0e
i ( kx wt )
1) (x,t) gives a complete quantum

mechanical description of a free
particle of mass m and K.E. E
2) (x,t) is, in general, complex
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Is Complex Complex?
That the wave function is Complex
is NOT the defect of the formalism
(x,t) being complex in general,
is not an observable quantity

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Role of Uncertainty
Position determination uncertain by
an amount ~ of linear dimension
of the wave function
(x,t) measures the probability
of finding a particle at a particular

position w.r.t. the origin of its region
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Borns Interpretation
Probability Real and non-negative
Define: Position Probability Density
P ( x , t ) = ( x , t ) ( x , t )
= ( x ,t )
Max Borns contribution

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Probability Density
P( x,t ) = ( x,t )( x,t ) = ( x,t )
P(x,t)dx is the probability of finding

a particle in dx centered at x, at a
time t
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Example
A particle limited to the x-axis has the wave
function =ax between x=0 and x=1. =0
elsewhere. Find the probability that the
particle can be found between x= 0.45 and
x=0.55
x2
x1
dx = a
0.55
2
x dx = 0.025 a
2
0.45
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Lecture 4
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Interpretation of
( x ,t ) = 0e
i ( kx t )
1) (x,t) gives a complete quantum

mechanical description of a free
particle of mass m and K.E. E
2) (x,t) is, in general, complex
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Is Complex Complex?
That the wave function is Complex
is NOT the defect of the formalism
(x,t) being complex in general, is
not an observable quantity and

should includelikely to be concept
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Borns Interpretation
Probability Real and non-negative
Define: Position Probability Density
P ( x , t ) = ( x , t ) ( x , t )
= ( x ,t )
Max Borns contribution

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Probability Density
P( x,t ) = ( x,t )( x,t ) = ( x,t )
P(x,t)dx is the probability of finding

a particle in dx centered at x, at a
time t
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Example 1
Evaluate the probability density for
a simple harmonic oscillator lowest
energy state wave function:
( x , t ) = Ae
Cm

2h
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2
x
1
2
iC
t
2 m
Solution
P = = A e
Cm
h
2
x
P independent of time but is not

Consequence of the fact that
the particle associated with
is in a single energy state
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Plot of P(x) vs. x
P=Ae
2
Cm
h
2
x
P is max at x=0
P(x)
x
0
This is where the

particle is most
likely to be found
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Example 2 (Home Assignment)

Calculate the normalization constant
and the probability density for a wave
function given by (at t=0): (compre. 04)
( x ) = Ae
Ans: A =
2 x2

2
1
2
ikx
Gaussian
Wave Packet
x
P=
e
2 2
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Change of Notion
QM deals with where the particle
is, without the particle being
thought of as what it made of
Notion of
Probabilistic
Wave-packet
interpretation
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Normalization
dV
=
1
Particle must
be somewhere
in space
If is a wave packet, the above

integral must converge and the
coefficient of adjusted to get
value of the integral equal to 1
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Problem
Normalize:
( x , t ) = Ae
Cm

2h
P dx = A e
2
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2
x
Cm
h
1
2
2
x
iC
t
2 m
dx = 1
Solution
Use:
Cm
h
2
x
dx =
( h )
1
2
2( Cm )
A=
( Cm )
( h )
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1
8
1
4
1
4
Final Result
( x ,t ) =
( Cm )
( h )
1
8
1
4
Cm

2h
2
x
1
2
iC
t
2 m
Normalized wave function

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Why Normalization?
Before normalization, amplitude of
the wave-function was arbitrary
The linearity of Sch. Eq. allows a
wave function to be multiplied by an
arbitrary constant and still remain a
solution to the equation
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Effect of Normalization
What has normalization done?

Normalization has the effect of
fixing the amplitude by fixing the
value of the multiplicative constant,
such as A
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Box Normalization
Normalize a free particle wave-function
dx
=
2
0
dx
=
1
must be zero Tackle it!

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Approximation of Free Particle
Free particle Ideal Case

Can we have a physical situation
very close to the ideal one ?
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A Physical Scenario
How about this?
A proton moving in a highly
mono-energetic beam emerging
from a cyclotron & hitting a target
nucleus inserted in the beam
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How?
From point of view of target
nucleus and in terms of distances
of the order of nuclear radius r,
the x position of a proton in the
beam, for all practical purposes,
completely unknown, i.e. x>>r`
proton near nucleus, plane wave
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Solve the Problem

The proton beam is limited on
one end by cyclotron and other
by laboratory wall (distance, L)
Normalize by restricting between
0 and L, taking =0 outside
L
Box
0 dx = 1 Normalization
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Expectation Value
We know what information we have
from probability density, regarding
Expectation value gives information
not only about position but also of
momentum, energy and all other
quantities characterizing its behavior
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What is Expectation?
Imagine you make a measurement
of the position of a particle at an
instant t, then, the probability of
finding it between x and x+dx is :
P( x ,t )dx = ( x ,t ) ( x ,t )dx
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Repeat Expt.
Repeat the same measurement a
number of times on identical system
(same wave function) at the same
value of t and record the observed
value of x where we find the particle
Some sort of Average position
of the particle
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Mathematical Expression
Average value is the Expectation
Value of x coordinate of the particle
at the instant t
In Mathematical Notation:
x = x P( x,t )dx
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Explanation
x = x P( x ,t )dx
Integrand is the value of x weighted

by probability of observing that value
Integration gives the average of
the observed value
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Final Form
The expectation value of position
coordinate is given by:
x = x dx
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From Other Way
x =
N x
N
i
Average position of the number of

identical particles distributed along
X axis in such a way, that there are
N1 particles at x1, N2 particles at x2,
N3 particles at x3 and so on.
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Associate Probability Density

For single particle, Ni at xi replaced
by Probability Pi that the particle be
Found in an interval dx at xi
x =
dx
dx
= x dx = xdx
2
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For other functions
= x dx
2
f ( x ) = f ( x ) dx
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Point to Note
If,
f = f ( x ,t )
Can we still use our definition?
V ( x , t ) = V ( x , t ) dx
OK, as all measurements made to

evaluate V(x,t) are made at same t
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Looking Deep
Q. Can we write the following?
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t ) dx
Or,
E = ( x, t ) E ( x, t ) dx
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Uncertainty Plays the Role

In QM, it is NOT possible to write p
as a function of x, since p and x can
not be simultaneously known with
complete precision
What is the way out?

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Operators Operate
For Free-particle
wave function:
= 0e
It associates the
dynamical variable
p with a differential
operator
i ( kx wt )
i
= p
x h
h
p =
i x
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Energy Operator
Again start with:
( x ,t ) = 0e
i ( kx wt )
E is written in
terms of a
differential
operator
= E
t
h
E = ih
t
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Operators
h
i x
)
E
ih
t
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Matching Classically
For Free-particle :
= 0e
i ( kx wt )
Evaluate:
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t ) dx
= 2 mE
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Words of Uncertainty
2
0
Independent of x
The particle is equally likely to

be found anywhere, i.e. x=
p=0; momentum precisely known
p = hk
Single value k
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Steady State Solution
( x ,t ) = 0e
= 0e
iE
h t
= 0 ( x )e
i ( kxwt )
ip
+ x
h
iE
t
h .(1)
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Lecture 5
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Mathematical Expression
Average value is the Expectation
Value of x coordinate of the particle
at the instant t
In Mathematical Notation:
x = x P( x,t )dx
Souri Banerjee
Final Form
The expectation value of position
coordinate is given by:
x = x dx
x = x P( x,t )dx
Souri Banerjee
For other functions
= x dx
2
f ( x ) = f ( x ) dx
Souri Banerjee
Looking Deep
Q. Can we write the following?
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t )dx
Or,
E = ( x , t ) E ( x , t )dx
*
Souri Banerjee
In Inherent Problem
Take for example:
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t )dx
*
To get the integral, the integrand

must be expressed as f(x,t)
Souri Banerjee
Uncertainty Plays the Role

In QM, it is NOT possible to write p
as a function of x, since p and x can
not be simultaneously known with
complete precision
What is the way out?

Souri Banerjee
Operators Operate
For Free-particle
wave function:
= 0e
It associates the
dynamical variable
p with a differential
operator
i ( kx t )
h
= hk
i x
h
p =
i x
Souri Banerjee
The Statement
The effect of multiplying the
function (x,t) by a dynamical
quantity p is same as the
effect of operating it with the
Differential operator:
h
i x
Souri Banerjee
Energy Operator
Again start with:
( x ,t ) = 0e
E is written in
terms of a
differential
operator
ih
i ( kx t )
= h
E = ih
t
Souri Banerjee
Operators
h
i x
)
E
ih
t
Souri Banerjee
Final Expressions
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t )dx
E = ( x , t ) E ( x , t )dx
*
Note: The order of * and

and the operator
Souri Banerjee
Order of , * and coordinate

Alternatives:
p =
p ( x , t ) ( x , t )dx
or
p = ( x , t ) ( x , t ) pdx
Souri Banerjee
See What Happens
p ( x , t ) ( x , t )dx
( )dx
i x
h
[ ]
i
Souri Banerjee
Move Ahead
h
[ ] = ?
i
Impose a mathematical demand on
that it must be normalizable
0, for x , y , z
Souri Banerjee
Non-sense
p =
p ( x , t ) ( x , t )dx
=0
Makes no sense
Souri Banerjee
Take the other one
p = ( x , t ) ( x , t ) pdx
= ( ) dx
i
x
No Meaning
Souri Banerjee
Matching Classically
For Free-particle :
= 0e
i ( kx t )
Evaluate:
p = ( x , t ) p ( x , t )dx
= 2 mE
Souri Banerjee
Extending for Generality

Are the operator relations only
for free particles ?
Take a particle in a potential V
2
p
+V = E
2m
Souri Banerjee
Trick
Replace dynamical quantities p
and E by differential operator
+ V = ih
2m
t
2
+ V = ih
2
2 m x
t
2
Operator Equation
Souri Banerjee
Give Life to the Equation

The operator equation has the
significance when applied to a
wave function (x,t)
h ( x ,t )
+ V ( x , t )
2
x
2m
Sch. Equation in
( x , t )
= ih
a general form
t
2
Souri Banerjee
Hamiltonian Operator
H
+
V
2
2 m x
2
Souri Banerjee
Example
Find <x>, <x2>, <px> and <px2> for
the Gaussian wave packet:
1
2
( x)=
e
1
2

Souri Banerjee
x2
2 2
ik 0 x
Step-I
x =
x
e
x2
2
dx
=0
Integrand is an odd function of x
Souri Banerjee
Step II
=
=
x
e
x2
2
dx
xe
Souri Banerjee
x2
2
dx
Step-III
Use:
x
e
2 n ax 2
1.3.5.....(2n 1)
dx =
n +1 n
2 a
a
Souri Banerjee
Putting Values
=
=
2
Souri Banerjee
Step IV
px = ( x ) ih ( x ) dx
x
( x )
= ih ( x )
dx
x
Souri Banerjee
Step Continues
= exp
+
ik
x
0
2
x x
2
+ ik0 x
= 2 + ik0 exp
2
2
Souri Banerjee
Expectation of px
( x )
= ih ( x )
dx
x
px
x
x
=
2 + ik0 exp 2

ih
p x = hk 0
Souri Banerjee
Last Evaluation
p = ( x ) ih ( x ) dx
x
2
h
2 2
= h k0 +
2
2
2
x
Work out yourself!
Souri Banerjee
Final Results
x =0
px = hk0
h
p =h k +
2
2
2
2
x
Souri Banerjee
2
0
Other Definitions
Standard Deviation:
x = ( x x )
2
1
2
p x = ( p p x )
2
x
Souri Banerjee
1
2
Final Result
1
2
0 =
x =
2
2
1
2
h
h
2 2
2 2
p x = h k0 +
h k0 =
2
2
2
2
x .px =
h Uncertainty
=
.
2 2 2 verified
h
Souri Banerjee
Steady State Solution
( x ,t ) = 0e
= 0e
iE
h t
= 0 ( x )e
i ( kxt )
ip
+ x
h
E= Total
energy of
the particle
iE
t
h .(1)
Souri Banerjee
Time independent Sch. Eq.

Putting (1) in Sch. Eq.
h d
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
=
E
(
x
)
+
2
2m dx
1) Not a partial diff. equation

2) (x) is called the stationary state
2
of the particle as does not
depend on time
Souri Banerjee
With Operator
h d
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
=
E
(
x
)
+
2
2m dx
H ( x ) = E ( x )
Souri Banerjee
Eigen Function Equation
H ( x ) = E ( x )
1) Eigen value equation. is the
eigen-function of the operator (H).
The multiplying constant E is the
corresponding eigen-value .
Souri Banerjee
Mathematical Demand on
1) must be normalizable.
vanishes at infinity
2) (x,t) = C11(x,t) + C2 2(x,t)
Linearity and superposition
Souri Banerjee
On Eigen Function
1) (x) must be finite and continuous
2) (x) must be single valued
3) 1st. Derivative of (x) in space
must be finite, continuous and
single-valued
Souri Banerjee
Lecture 6
Souri Banerjee
Eigen Function Equation
H ( x ) = E ( x )
Eigen value equation. is the
eigen-state of the operator (H).
The multiplying constant E is the
corresponding eigen-value .
Souri Banerjee
H
+
V
2
2 m x
2
Souri Banerjee
Mathematical Demand on
1) must be normalizable.
vanishes at infinity
You know why
Souri Banerjee
Condition 2
2) (x,t) = C11(x,t) + C2 2(x,t)

Linearity and superposition
Check !
Souri Banerjee
Statement
( x , t )
h ( x ,t )
+ V ( x , t ) = ih
2
x
2m
t
2
If 1(x,t) and 2(x,t) are the two

solutions of the above equation
for a particular V, then,
(x,t) = C11(x,t) + C2 2(x,t)

is also a solution to that equation
Souri Banerjee
Go ahead
Substitute the value of (x,t) in the
Schroedinger Equation:
h
1
2
( C1
) + V ( C 1 1 + C 2 2 )
+ C2
2
2
2m
x
x
1
2
) =0
ih ( C 1
+ C2
t
t
2
Souri Banerjee
Rearrange
1
h 1
+
C1 (
V
i
)
h
1
2
t
2 m x
2
2
2
h 2
+ C2 (
+ V 2 ih
)=0
2
2 m x
t
2
If linear combination is also a

solution, this equality should be
satisfied, which is so for all values
of C1 and C2
Souri Banerjee
Quiz
Convince yourself:
This essential result would not
been obtained if the Schroedinger
equation contained terms that
are NOT proportional to the first
power of (x,t) .
Souri Banerjee
Concepts on Eigen States

Consider :
1 ( x ) = C 1e
ikx
and
2 ( x ) = C 2e
ikx
Souri Banerjee
Insert Momentum Operator
ikx
p 1 ( x ) = ih ( C 1e )
x
= hk 1 ( x )
1(x,t) is an eigen state of the
momentum operator and eigen
value is + hk
Souri Banerjee
Insert Again
ikx
p 2 ( x ) = ih ( C 2 e )
x
= hk 2 ( x )
2(x,t) is also an eigen state of
the momentum operator and eigen
value is hk
Souri Banerjee
Use Linearity
( x ) = C 1e + C 2 e
ikx
ikx
Q. Is (x) also an eigen state of

the momentum operator?
Souri Banerjee
Check
ikx
ikx
p ( x ) = ih ( C 1e + C 2 e )
x
= ( + hk ) 1 ( x ) + ( hk ) 2 ( x )
(x) is a mixed state and it is not
an eigen state of momentum operator

Souri Banerjee
Mixed State
Q. What you expect with such
mixed states for,
p = p dx
Souri Banerjee
???
Use H
ikx
H 1 ( x ) =
( C 1e )
2
2 m x
2 2
hk
ikx
C 1e
=
2m
2 2
hk
1( x )
=
2m
2
1(x,t): An eigen state of H-operator

Souri Banerjee
On the Other State
h
ikx
H 2 ( x ) =
(
C
e
)
2
2
2 m x
2 2
hk
ikx
C 2e
=
2m
2 2
hk
2( x )
=
2m
2
2(x,t): Also an eigen state of H-operator

Souri Banerjee
On Mixed State
( x ) = C 1e + C 2 e
ikx
H ( x ) = ?
Souri Banerjee
ikx
Conclusion
h
ikx
ikx
+
H ( x ) =
(
C
e
C
e
)
1
2
2
2 m x
2 2
hk
=
( x)
2m
2
(x) is an eigen state of the
Hamiltonian operator but it is not an

eigen state of momentum operator
Souri Banerjee
Energy Eigen State

When a particle is in a state that
a measurement total energy leads
to single eigen value E,
( x , t ) = ( x )e
iEt
independent of time
(Stationary States)
Souri Banerjee
Two Energy State
( x , t ) = C 1 1 ( x )e
iE 1 t
+ C 2 2 ( x )e
iE 2 t
time dependent
(Non-stationary States)
An example: An electron that

is in the process of making a
transition from excited state to
the ground state
Souri Banerjee
On Eigen Function
(x) and its first derivative in
space must be finite, continuous
and single valued.
To ensure that the eigen function
be a mathematically well-behaved
function so that measurable quantities
evaluated from eigen functions are
also well behaved.
Souri Banerjee
Why the Condition?

Q. Why (x) and its first derivative
in space must be finite, continuous
and single valued ?
Probability density cannot
have more than one value
at a particular x and t.
Souri Banerjee
Clarification
If not
d ( x )
( x ) and
finite
dx
iEt
h
( x ,t ) = e ( x )
Also not
iEt
d ( x )
( x , t )
h
x
=e
dx
Souri Banerjee
finite
Conclusion
If (x) and its first derivative in
space are not finite, we wont be
able to arrive at finite and definite
values of measurable quantities
Expectation values of x, p, E etc.
involve and its first derivatives
Souri Banerjee
Continuity
In order that 1st. derivative of (x)
in space must be finite, it is necessary
that (x) be continuous
Any function always has an
infinite first derivative when
it has a discontinuity
Souri Banerjee
Other Way Round

Look at time-independent Sch. Eq.
d ( x ) 2m
[
]
=
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
2
2
dx
h
2
For finite V(x),

E and (x),
d ( x )
dx
d ( x ) must be
2
finite
dx
2
must be continuous
Souri Banerjee
Geometrical Interpretation
f(x)
Not Finite
x0
Souri Banerjee
Single Valued
f(x)
Not Single
valued
x0
Souri Banerjee
Continuity
f(x)
Not Continuous
x0
Souri Banerjee
Comments on Continuity
Is the continuity of the wave
function well and truly satisfied
every time?
Normalizing a particle in a box,
we do not have a continuous
derivative at the walls as (x)
is zero outside
Souri Banerjee
Real Life
Discontinuity arises from the fact
that we assume, walls are rigid,
that is V= at the walls
In real life, walls are never rigid
and there is no sharp change in
at the walls and the derivatives
are continuous
Souri Banerjee
Lecture 7
Souri Banerjee
Particle in a box
Find the quantum mechanical
description of a particle free to
move inside a one-dimensional
box of length L having rigid walls
V=
V=
x
0
Souri Banerjee
Conditions
1) Walls are rigid and the particle
is free within the boundaries of
the wall
V =
V =0
at the walls
inside the box
Souri Banerjee
Schroedinger Equation
d ( x ) 2m
[
]
=
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
2
2
dx
h
2
d ( x ) 2mE
+
(
x
)
=
0
2
2
h
dx
2
Souri Banerjee
Solution
..(1)
( x ) = A sin kx + B cos kx
2 mE
k = 2
h
Next task is to evaluate the
constants A and B using the
boundary conditions
2
Souri Banerjee
Boundary Conditions
Condition 1:
= 0 at x = 0
Wave-function must vanish at
the rigid walls
B=0
Souri Banerjee
2nd. Condition
= 0 at x = L
0 = A sin kL
Souri Banerjee
Inference
0 = A sin kL
But,
A0
Why ???
Souri Banerjee
Final Result
Mathematically,
sin kL = 0 = sin( n )
n = 0, 1,2,3
Souri Banerjee
Look Deep
kL = n
n
k=
L
n=0 means
k=0 which is
unacceptable
Souri Banerjee
Point to be Noted
n = 1,2,3
n =0 excluded!
Souri Banerjee
The Wave-function
n x
n ( x ) = An sin(
)
L
Normalize it!
Souri Banerjee
Final Form of Wave-Function
n( x ) =
n x
2
sin(
)
L
L
Why (x) is not complex ?

Souri Banerjee
Geometric Interpretation
n( x ) =
3
2
n x
)
sin(
L
L
|3|2
|2|2
|1|2
Souri Banerjee
Reading Figures
Check:
2
x2
|2|2
( x ) dx
x1
Between, say x1=0.45L

and x2=0.55L and n=1;
n=2
|1|2
x1
x2
L
Souri Banerjee
Pn=1 > Pn= 2
Energy
hk
h n
En =
=
2
2m
2 mL
2
n = 1 ,2 ,3......
Souri Banerjee
Note
h n
En =
2
2 mL
2
n = 1 ,2 ,3......
1) Energy levels are discrete

2) Lowest (ground)
energy state
(As n = 0 excluded)
Souri Banerjee
h
E1 =
2
2 mL
2
Zero Point Energy
h
E 1 0 =
2
2 mL
2
Zero Point
Energy
Consequence of Heisenberg
Souri Banerjee
Reasoning
If, E=0 then p=0
x =
But x cannot be greater than L
which prohibits E to become zero
Souri Banerjee
Energy Spacing
The spacing between the successive
energy levels:
h
2
2
[( n + 1 ) n ]
E =
2
2 mL
2 2
h
[
]
=
2
n
+
1
2
2 mL
2
Souri Banerjee
Interesting Point
h
[2 n + 1]
E =
2
2 mL
2
As L , E 0
Energy forms a continuum!
Discreteness of energy is an inherent
property of quantum mechanics
Souri Banerjee
Visualize
Origin of the band gap (Eg) and
formation of energy bands are
results of quantum mechanical
calculation of electron transport
through a crystal
Periodic Boundary Condition
Souri Banerjee
A Subtle Point
V=
V=
x
-L/2
+L/2
Where does the calculation differ?

Souri Banerjee
Work Out
Boundary Condition:
( x)=0
L
at x =
2
Souri Banerjee
Continue
L
L
0 = A sin k + B cos k
2
2
And
(1)
L
L
0 = A sin k + B cos k
2
2
Souri Banerjee
(2)
Continue
(1) + (2)
L
2 B cos k = 0
2
(3)
(1) - (2)
L
2 A sin k = 0
2
Souri Banerjee
(4)
What We get
L
2 B cos k = 0
2
L
2 A sin k = 0
2
A and B cannot be zero

simultaneously as the (x)
becomes zero everywhere
Souri Banerjee
Possibilities
1)
kL
A = 0 , cos
=0
2
2)
kL
B = 0 , sin
=0
2
Souri Banerjee
What Then?
From 1):
n
kL
cos
= 0 = cos
2
2
n = 1 ,3 ,5...odd
n
k=
L
Souri Banerjee
Wave Functions
n( x ) =
n x
2
) n odd
cos(
L
L
n( x ) =
nx n even
2
)
sin(
L
L
Choose proper (x) depending

the particles state
Souri Banerjee
An Example
Ground-state wave function for
an electron trapped inside a box
bounded by L/2 and +L/2 is:
n( x ) =
x
2
)
cos(
L
L
Souri Banerjee
Calculate Expectation Value

Expectation value of p for the 1st
excited state:
p = ( x , t )( ih ) ( x , t )dx
x
L 2
L 2
2
x
x
) sin(
= ( ih )( )( ) cos(
)dx
L L L 2
L
L
L 2
Souri Banerjee
Final Result
L 2
L 2
cos(
x
L
) sin(
x
L
)dx
Integrand is an odd function as it

is product of an even function and
an odd function
p =0
Souri Banerjee
????
Recollect
p 1 / 2 ( x ) = hk 1 / 2 ( x )
For,
1 / 2 ( x ) = C1 / 2e
( + / ) ikx
Unhindered Plane waves

Souri Banerjee
The Situation Here

Here you put the rigid walls so
that particle is confined between
-L/2 and +L/2
It must bounce back and forth and
constantly reversing momentums
sign and giving standing wave
Souri Banerjee
Solution We Expect
( x)~e e
ikx
n( x ) =
ikx
2
n x
sin(
)
L
L
Standing wave solution

Souri Banerjee
Expectation
p ( x ) = ( + hk ) 1 ( x )
+ ( hk ) 2 ( x )
It is equally probable that the

sign of p is either + or -
p = p dx = 0
Souri Banerjee
Check
2
n x
p n ( x ) = ( ih )
sin(
)
x L
L
2 n
n x
= ( ih )
cos
L L
L
pn n ( x )
n(x) is not an eigen state of the
momentum operator as expected

Souri Banerjee
Home Assignment
Take:
x
2
cos e
L
L
( x ,t ) =
iEt
L < x<+L
2
2
Find <x>, <x2>, <px> and <px2> for

the above wave function and verify
uncertainty principle
Souri Banerjee
Lecture 8
Souri Banerjee
Finite Potential well

V=
V=
V(x)
V=V0
V=V0
E
x
-L
+L
-L
+L
Square Well where increase in pot.

energy at the walls is abrupt but finite
Souri Banerjee
Defining Well Well

V(x)
V=V0
V=V0
E
x
-L
Conditions:
1)
V( x ) =V0 x < L; x > L

= 0 L< x < L
+L
2) The particle with total energy

E<V0 moves freely inside the well
Souri Banerjee
Classical Mechanics
V=
V=
V(x)
V=V0
V=V0
E
x
-L
+L
-L
+L
The motion of a classical particle

with E<V0 is same for both potentials
Souri Banerjee
In QM
Life is different in QM
Where is the difference?
One should consider an existence
of (x) outside the well as well
Souri Banerjee
Quantum Mechanics
Why we should have solutions
outside the well?
We did not take it for the

particle trapped inside a box
of length L with rigid walls
Souri Banerjee
Ideal vs. Real

Rigid walls demand V= at the
walls but now we have finite V
The finiteness, along with continuity
conditions on and d/dx for all
values of x, are strictly obeyed and
taken into consideration
Souri Banerjee
In Real Life
1) Condition,=0 at the walls is lifted
2) For the finiteness of at the
boundary and imposing the
continuity conditions, one would
expect (x) to exist outside the
well and (x), outside and inside
must join smoothly at the walls
Souri Banerjee
Regions
V(x)
V=V0
V=V0
I
II
III
x
-L
+L
All three regions to be studied

and matched at the walls
Souri Banerjee
Region-II
Things that do NOT change:
1) Wave eqn. inside the region
d ( x ) 2mE
+
(
x
)
=
0
2
2
h
dx
2
2) The general solution
Souri Banerjee
Region-II
Things that change:
change
1) The values of the constants A
and B as boundary conditions
are different
2) The eigen function will take
a different look.
Souri Banerjee
Task in Hand
When V is finite, since Sch. Eq. is
unaltered inside the well, we have to
supplement the general solution for
L<x<+L by a solution for x> L
Remember:
The condition that E<V0 is known
as bound state condition
Souri Banerjee
Region I and III

The Wave-eqn for region I and III:
d ( x ) 2m
+
(
E
V
)
(
x
)
=
0
0
2
2
h
dx
2
( x ) = Ce
+ De
2m(V0 E )
=
Where,
h
Souri Banerjee
Matching
Region-II
( x ) = A sinx + B cosx
1)
2 mE
= 2
h
2
Region-I and III
( x ) = Ce
+ De
2m(V0 E )
=
h
2
Souri Banerjee
2)
Some More Conditions

Rewrite Equation 1:
( x ) = Ce
+ De
Impose: vanishes at infinity

D=0, for eq.1) to be solution for x>L
and
C=0, for eq. 1) to be solution for x<-L
Souri Banerjee
Wave-Functions
( x ) = Ce
( x ) = De
For x>L
For x<-L
( x ) = A sinx + B cosx
For L>x>L
Souri Banerjee
Plot of Wave Functions

3
L
Souri Banerjee
Evaluating Constants
Impose other requirements on
eq. 1 and 2 that and d/dx
must be continuous at x = L
Souri Banerjee
What We Get
A sinL + B cos L = Ce
A cos L B sinL = Ce
Set-I
A sinL + B cos L = De
A cos L B sinL = De
Souri Banerjee
Set-II
Some Manipulation
2 A sinL = ( C D )e
2A cos L = ( C D )e
2 B cos L = ( C + D )e
Set-III
2B sinL = ( C + D )e
Souri Banerjee
Set-IV
What Then
If, A 0 and C D:
cot L =
3)
If, B 0 and C -D:
tanL =
Souri Banerjee
4)
Comment
1) It is impossible for eq.3) and 4)
to be valid at once as it would
make imaginary, negative
2) We do not want A, B, C and D
all to vanish
3) We want one of the constants
to remain unspecified
Souri Banerjee
What We have
Solutions divided in two classes:
1)
A = 0,
C = D , tanL =
2)
B = 0,
C = D , cot L =
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How to Proceed?
While solving, there is an apparent
discrepancy in the no. of eq. to be
satisfied and no. of constants that
has to be adjusted
Total energy E is treated as an
additional constant that can be
adjusted, as needed
Souri Banerjee
The Result
The procedure works but only
for certain values of E
Energy will be quantized
to a set of eigen values
For these values of E does Sch.
Eq have acceptable solution
Souri Banerjee
Problem 1 (Beiser ch5, 14)

A box extends from x=x0 to x= x0+L.
Does the wave function for the particle
inside box differ from what it was for
x=0 and x=L?
Would the energy level be different?
Souri Banerjee
Problem 2 (Beiser ch5, 16)

A rigid-walled box extends from L to
+L is divided into three sections by
rigid interior walls at x and x, where
x<L. Each section contains one particle
in its ground state. What is the total
energy of the system as a function of x?
Souri Banerjee
Lecture 9
Souri Banerjee
Barrier Tunneling
Objective:
What will happen to a particle
moving with total energy E if it
strikes at potential step?
Souri Banerjee
Two Cases
V(x)
V(x)=V0
Particles motion
V ( x ) = V0
II
Case I:
E > V0
Case II:
E < V0
Souri Banerjee
=0
x>0
x<0
Looking Classically
Particle approaching the wall (at
x=0) freely from left, feels a force
-dV/dx and change direction
Note: The force is impulsive and
hence change in momentum
is not affected by idealization
Souri Banerjee
What Then?
The subsequent motion of the
particle after experiencing the
force at x=0 depends on E and V0
This is true both classically
and quantum mechanically
Souri Banerjee
How?
Since total energy E is constant,
classical mechanics says that the
particle with E < V0 cannot enter
x>0 region
2
p
+V( x ) <V( x )
For x>0, E =
2m
2
p
<0
2m
Souri Banerjee
In QM
Since the potential at the step is
finite, (x) exists in region II and
Schroedinger equation must be
solved to determine the motion
of the particle in region II
Souri Banerjee
Schroedinger Equations
The Sch. Eq. For two regions:
Region-I
d 1 ( x ) 2mE
+
(
x
)
=
0
1
x
<
0
2
2
h
dx
2
d II ( x ) 2m
+
(
E
V
)
(
x
)
=
0
0
II
2
2
2
dx
Region-II
Souri Banerjee
x >0
Solutions
Region-I
x <0
I ( x ) = Ae
Region-II
ik 1 x
+ Be
ik 1 x
2 mE
k = 2
h
2
1
x >0
II ( x ) = Ce
k2 x
+ De
k 2x
2m(V0 E )
k =
2
h
2
2
Souri Banerjee
Constants
II ( x ) = Ce
k2 x
+ De
C=0
II ( x ) = De
Souri Banerjee
k 2x
k 2x
Apply Continuity
Let us apply continuity condition
of (x) at x=0
(De )
k 2x
x =0
= A(e
ik 1 x
x =0
+ B (e
D = A+ B
Souri Banerjee
ik 1 x
.1)
x =0
Derivatives are Continuous

Let us apply continuity condition
of d(x)/dx at x=0
k 2 D(e
k2 x
x =0
= ik1 A(e
ik 1 x
ik1 B (e
ik 2
D = A B
k1
Souri Banerjee
x =0
ik 1 x
.2)
x =0
Proceed Further
1) + 2) A = D 1 + ik 2
2
k1
1) - 2)
ik 2
D
B = 1
2
k1
A and B determined in terms of D

Souri Banerjee
Expression for wave Function

For particle with E<V0
ik 2 ik x
ik 2 ik x D
D
e + 1
e
I ( x ) = 1 +
k1
2
k1
2
1
x0
II ( x ) = De
k2 x
Souri Banerjee
x0
Important point
Note the presence of the constant
D in both the Eigen functions
Time-independent Sch.Eq. is linear
in (x) and so sol. of any amplitude
are allowed by the equation and it
is finally fixed by normalization
Souri Banerjee
Reflection
Region-I
x 0
( x ) = Ae
ik 1 x
+ Be
ik 1 x
Classical Prediction
Origin of Reflection Coefficient R
Souri Banerjee
Reflection Coefficient
Obviously, R depends on ratio B/A,
which specifies the amplitude of
the reflected part of the wave w.r.t
the amplitude of the incident wave
In QM language
BB
R=
AA
Souri Banerjee
Value of R
BB
R=
AA
( 1 ik 2 k1 ) ( 1 ik 2 k1 )
=
( 1 + ik 2 k1 ) ( 1 + ik 2 k1 )
=1
Souri Banerjee
Things to Note
1) R=1 ; In agreement with the
prediction of classical mechanics
2) D was unspecified and we are
not bothered to go through the
normalization procedure. The
quantity of interest contain D in
both numerator and denominator
Souri Banerjee
Other Side
II ( x ) = De
k2 x
x0
The wave function penetrates

in the classically forbidden zone
Souri Banerjee
Barrier Potential
V=V0
Particles motion
II
V ( x ) = V0
=0
III
0< x<L
x < 0 or x > L
Souri Banerjee
Solutions
Region-I
I ( x ) = Ae
ik1 x
+ Be
x<0
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ik 1x
Inside Barrier
Region-II
II ( x ) = Ce
k2 x
+ De
k 2x
0< x< L
Note C=0 in not accepted for barrier
having a finite width
Souri Banerjee
Outside Barrier
Region-III
III ( x ) = Fe
ik1 x
+ Ge
ik1 x
x > L
Souri Banerjee
Condition
Since the particle is incident from
the left, right side of the barrier
can have only transmitted wave
Set G=0 ,
III ( x ) = Fe
Souri Banerjee
ik 1 x
Transmittance
Define transmission coefficient T,
which specifies the probability that
a particle will be transmitted
Probability Flux
(probability/unit time/unit area)
Souri Banerjee
Probability Flux
Probability Flux depends on:
1) Intensity of the wave
2) Velocity of the particle
Souri Banerjee
Velocity Dependence
dA
The probability that

the particle cross
the end is:
v dt dA
v
vdt
Probability/unit time/unit area

Souri Banerjee
Transmission Coefficient
Transmission Coefficient T for
Region-III
(Transmission probability)
v3 F F
T=
v1 A A
Souri Banerjee
Use the Same Trick

Trick 1: I = II
d I d II
=
dx
dx
Trick 2: II = III
at x=0
d II d III
=
at x=L
dx
dx
F
And solve for
A
Souri Banerjee
Some Assumptions
1) V0 >> E
k 2 k1
>
k1 k 2
k 2 k1 k 2

k1 k 2 k1
Souri Banerjee
2 mE
k = 2
h
2
1
2m(V0 E )
k =
2
h
2
2
Other One
2) Barrier is wide enough that
II is severely weakened
between x=0 and x=L
k 2 L >> 1
e
k2 L
>> e
k2 L
Souri Banerjee
Calculations
A 1 ik 2 ( ik + k
e
= +
F 2 4 k1
1
v 3 = v1
Souri Banerjee
)L
Expression for T
2 k L
F F
16
T = =
e
2
A A 4 + ( k 2 k1 )
Note velocities from top and

bottom cancel each other
Souri Banerjee
Final Result
E 2 k L
E
2 k L
e
T = 16 1 e
V0 V0
2
For particle with E and incident on

on a barrier whose height (V0) is
greater than E, has finite probability
to penetrate the barrier
This is Tunneling
Souri Banerjee
Nature of Wave
Souri Banerjee
Words about Penetration
II ( x ) = De
k2 x
= D De
2 k 2 x
The probability of finding the

particle for x>0 is appreciable
only in a region starting at x=0
and penetration distance x=1/k2
Souri Banerjee
What Then?
h
1
x = =
k2
2 m ( V0 E )
In classical limit the product of m
and (V0-E) is so large compared h2
that x is immeasurably small
Souri Banerjee
Examples
Estimate x for a very small dust
particle of radius 10-6m and density
104kg/m3 moving at v=10-2m/s, if it
impinges on a potential step of
height equal to twice its KE in the
region to the left of the step.
Souri Banerjee
Solution
4 3
14
m = r = 4 10 kg
3
1
18
2
KE = mv = 2 10 J = ( V0 E )
2
h
19
x =
2 10 m
2 m ( V0 E )
Souri Banerjee
Physical Example
1) Current flowing between two Al
wires, twisted and joined.
2) Emission of alpha particle from
certain radioactive nuclei. KE of
alpha particle ~ few MeV and the
nuclear potential is ~25 MeV.
3) Single Electron Transistor
Souri Banerjee
Some Interesting Facts

For EM waves of frequency moving
through a medium with refractive
index is given by
d 2
+
(
x
)
=
0
2
dx
c
2
(x) specifies magnitude of E

or B
Souri Banerjee
Compare
Comparing with Sch. Eq.
( x ) =
c
2
2m
(
E
V
(
x
))
2
h
Expect analogy between an optical

system and a mechanical system
Souri Banerjee
Lecture 10
Souri Banerjee
Step Potential
Objective:
What will happen to a particle
moving with total energy E if it
strikes at potential step?
Souri Banerjee
Two Cases
V(x)
Particles motion
V(x)=V0
E
V ( x ) = V0
II
Todays work:
E > V0
Souri Banerjee
=0
x>0
x<0
A General Study
Sch. time-independent eqn for
a potential V(x)
d ( x ) 2m
[
]
+
E
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
2
2
dx
h
2
d ( x )
2
=
(
x
)
=
0
2
dx
2
2m
k = [E V( x )]
h
2
Souri Banerjee
Study of Diff. Equn.
d ( x )
2
=
(
x
)
=
0
2
dx
2
For E > V(x)
2m
k = [E V( x )]
h
2
k >0
2
< 0 for ( x ) > 0

Souri Banerjee
Geometrically
(x)
>0
" < 0
x
<0
" > 0
Solution is
oscillatory
Value of d/dx decreases with

increasing x, " (rate of change
of d/dx ) is negative
Souri Banerjee
Check
Please check the case E<V(x)

(x)
>0
" > 0
x
<0
" < 0
Solution is no more oscillatory

but it is exponential
Souri Banerjee
One More Thing

V(x)
V(x)
V0
V0
E
-L
+L
Bound State, E
is quantized
-L
+L
Unbound State,
E continuum
Souri Banerjee
Consider Step
V(x)
Particles motion
V(x)=V0
E
E > V0
II
Particle must be treated

freely on both the regions
Souri Banerjee
Query
Q. What will be the Schroedinger
equations for region I and
region II ?
Souri Banerjee
Treat Classically
V(x)
Particles motion
V(x)=V0
E
II
Region II in no more forbidden

for a particle with E > V0
Souri Banerjee
Energy Equations
Total energy E is constant
For, x < 0
E=
2
1
2m
For, x > 0
2
2
p
E=
2m
+ V0
This is invalid for E<V(x) but

Sch. Eq. exists. Sign of (E-V(x))
is changed and hence the solution
Souri Banerjee
Schroedinger Equations
h d 1( x )
= E 1 ( x )
2
2 m dx
2
1 ( x ) = Ae
ik 1 x
+ Be
x<0
ik 1 x
2 mE p1
k1 =
=
h
h
Souri Banerjee
Other Region
h d II ( x )
=
(
E
V
)
(
x
)
0
II
2
2m dx
2
II ( x ) = Ce
k2 =
ik 2 x
+ De
x>0
ik 2 x
2 m ( E V0 ) p2
=
h
h
Souri Banerjee
Note the Feature

De Broglie wavelength for x<0 :
h 2
1 = =
p1 k1
De Broglie wavelength for x>0 :
h 2
2 =
=
p2 k 2
Note: 2 > 1
Souri Banerjee
What it Says?
Classically no reflection possible
Because there is a discontinuous
change in de Broglie wave length,
there is a certain probability that
the particle will be reflected
Souri Banerjee
Solutions
For x<0
1 ( x ) = Ae
ik 1 x
+ Be
ik 1 x
And we are justified to take

both the terms
Souri Banerjee
Other One
For x>0
II ( x ) = Ce
ik 2 x
+ De
ik 2 x
Set D=0 as no reflection for x>0
II ( x ) = Ce
Souri Banerjee
ik 2 x
Final Results
Use standard matching techniques:
I( x ) = Ae
ik 1 x
k1 k 2 ik x
e
+A
k1 + k 2
1
x0
2 k1 ik x
II ( x ) = A
e
k1 + k 2
2
Souri Banerjee
x0
Calculation of R
B B k1 k 2
R = =
A A k1 + k 2
R < 1 for E > V0

Surprising part is
NOT R<1 but R>0
Souri Banerjee
Calculation of T
v 2C C v 2 2 k1
T=
=
v1 A A v1 k1 + k 2
+
p1 hk1
p2 hk 2
=
=
v1 =
and v 2 =
m
m
m
m
Souri Banerjee
Final T
4 k1 k 2
T=
2
( k1 + k 2 )
( k1 + k 2 )
R+T =
=
1
2
( k1 + k 2 )
2
Souri Banerjee
Things to Note
1) The probability flux incident on
potential step is split into reflected
and transmitted flux. But R+T=1
suggests that sum equals to the
incident flux
2) The probability that the particle
is either reflected or transmitted
is one
Souri Banerjee
Continue
3) The particle does not vanish at
the step, nor does it split.
4) In any particular trial, it will go
either way. A number of trial
results meaningful R and T.
Souri Banerjee
What Else?
5) R and T are unchanged even if
k1 and k2 are interchanged.
6) Compare T of proton and an
electron of same E
k1 =
2 mE
h
k2 =
2 m ( E V0 )
h
Particle mass plays a role

Souri Banerjee
From Graph
R or T
1.0
0.5
T
0.
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Souri Banerjee
E/V0
An Interesting Fact
For EM waves of frequency moving
through a medium with refractive
index :
d 2
+
(
x
)
=
0
2
dx
c
2
(x) specifies magnitude of E

or B
Souri Banerjee
Compare
Comparing with Sch. Eq.
( x ) =
c
2
2m
(
E
V
(
x
))
2
h
Expect analogy between an optical

system and a mechanical system
Souri Banerjee
E<V(x)
( x ) =
c
2
2m
( E V ( x ))
2
h
For E < V(x),
(x) is imaginary
Souri Banerjee
TIR
A
Glass
> c
B
Air
From EM theory, (x) is real in AB

region and imaginary in BC region
BC region Poynting vector=0
Souri Banerjee

Quantum Mechanics Souri

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Quantum Mechanics Souri

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Lect 1

The passion begins

Matter wave, Concept

Beginning Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics is the

Physics that tune up QM

Black body radiation (1900)

Problem and Solutions

Physics need a reformation

Planck and de Broglie Hypothesis

Concept of Wave Packets

Construction of Wave Packet

Property of a Wave Packet

Space and Time Packet

Q. How does a wave-packet

Phase Velocity (vp)= /k

For time packets:

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Principle states:

The Last Term

The smallness of h makes the

Planck and de Broglie Hypothesis

Construction of Wave Packet

Fourier Integral and Transform

Concept of Time Packet

For time packets:

From Space Packets

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

From Time Packets

The smallness of h makes the

The Principle states:

Expt. with Bullets (Set up)

What is the probability that a

How you measure probability?

Expt. With Light

I12= I1+I2 + 2I1I2cos

Expt. With Electrons

P12 not like what we obtain for bullets

Is the proposition false ?

Every time we hear a click, we also

Our proposition is necessarily true

Let us keep a track of the electrons

Then, P12 = P1+P2

Ascertains Uncertainty Principle

For interested people:

Ref: Gasiorowicz; p33-35

Introducing wave function

x direction under the action of

Task Cut Out

(x,t) should include the notion

of the particle being Likely to be

It is large in magnitude where the

Consider Free particle

(x,t) should correspond to

What Type of solutions?

Form of Wave Equation

The Other Property

Look for wave equn.

Q. Can we accept it?

differential equation is linear

What about the property 2 ?

1st. derivative of time should be

What Comes Out?

1st. derivative of time relates