However, the definition of surfaces as mappings has certain shortcomings:

\begin{itemize}
\item There is an inevitable a priori restriction on the types of
singularities that can occur
\item There is an a priori restriction on the topological complexity
\item The natural topology lacks compactness properties

\end{itemize}

\\
\bigskip

\textbf{Proposition 2.3.3} If $W$ is an $m$-dimensional rectifiable subset of ${\mathbf

R^n}$, then for almost all points $a$ in $W$, the density $\Theta^{m} (W,a)=1$ and
$Tan^{m}(W,a)$ is an $m$-dimensional plane. If $f$ is a Lipschitz map from $W$ to $
{\mathbf R^v}$, thn $f$ is approximately differentiable $\mathscr{H}^m$ almost
everywhere.
To establish compactness properties and define boundary, it is appropriate to
view rectifiable sets as currents, which is also known as linear functionals on
smooth diferential forms $\varphi$.

\textbf{Definition 3.2.2} (Compact Support).

\\

If the support of a function is a compact set, then we say a function has compact support.

\begin{enumerate}
\item The \textit{space of m-dimensional currents} is the dual space of
$\mathscr{D}^{m}_{c}({\mathbf R^n})$ and is denoted by $\mathscr{D}_{m}$.
\item $\mathscr{E}_m$ is the set of currents $T \in \mathscr{D}_m$ such
that spt $T$ is compact.
\item $\mathscr{R}_m$, the set of rectifiable currents, consists of
currents $T \in \mathscr{E}_m$, associated with oriented rectifiable sets,
with integer multiplicities, with finite total measure.
\item $\mathscr{P}_m$, the set of integral polyhedral chains, consists of
additive subgroup of $\mathscr{E}_m$ generated by classically oriented
simplices.
\item $\textbf{I}_m$, the set of integral currents, are rectifiable
currents such that its boundary $\partial T \in \mathscr{R}_{m-1}$.
\item $\mathscr{F}_m$, the set of integral flat chains, are $m$-dimensional
currents of the form $T + \partial S$ such that $T \in \mathscr{R}_m$ and
$S \in \mathscr{R}_{m+1}$.

\end{enumerate}

\begin{enumerate}
\item $\textbf{N}_m$, the set of normal currents, are $m$-dimensional
currents with compact support such that $\textbf{M}(T) + \textbf{M}
(\partial T)< \infty$.
\item $\textbf{F}_m$ are real flat chains and they are the $ \textbf{F}
\mbox{-closure of} \; \textbf{N}_m $ in $\mathscr{E}_m$.
\item $\textbf{R}_m$ is the set of real flat chains such that $\textbf{M}
(T)< \infty$.
\item $\textbf{P}_m$ is set of real linear combination of elements of
$\mathscr{P}_m$.

\end{enumerate}

Integral polyhedral chains

$\mathscr{P}_m$, the set of integral polyhedral chains, consists of additive
subgroup of $\mathscr{E}_m$ generated by classically oriented simplices.

Coarea/area
\textbf{Theorem 2.2.5} (Area Formula). [6]
\\
For $m\leq n$, let $f: {\mathbf R^m} \to {\mathbf R^n}$ be a Lipschitz
function.
\\
(a) If $A$ is an $\mathscr{L}^m$ measurable set, then
\begin{center}
$\int_{A} J_m f(x) \; d \mathscr{L}^m x = \int_{\mathbf R^n} N(f|A,y)\;
d \mathscr{H}^m y$.
\end{center}
(b) If $u$ is an $\mathscr{L}^m$ integrable function, then
\begin{center}
$\int_{\mathbf R^m} u(x) J_m f(x) \;d \mathscr{L}^m x = \int_{\mathbf
R^n} \sum_{x \in f^{-1}\{y\}} u(x) \;d \mathscr{H}^m y$.
\end{center}
\end{flushleft}
\begin{flushleft}
\textbf{Theorem 2.2.6} (Coarea Formula). [6]
\\
For $m>n$, let $f: {\mathbf R^m} \to {\mathbf R^n}$ be a Lipschitz
function.If $A$ is an $\mathscr{L}^m$ measurable set, then
\begin{center}
$\int_{A} J_nf(x) \; d{\mathscr{L}^m}x = \int_{\mathbf R^n} \mathscr{H}^{mn}(A \bigcap f^{-1}\{y\}) \; d {\mathscr{L}^n}y$.

\end{center}

Hausdorff dimension
\newpage
For simplicity, we rewrite it as
\begin{center}
$\mathscr{H}^m(F)= \begin{cases} \infty, 0 \leq m< dim_H(F) \\ 0, \;\;m>
dim_H(F) \end{cases}$
\end{center}

In addition, if $ m=dim_H(F)$, then the $m$-dimensional Hausdorff measure may be 0 or

$\infty$ or may satisfy $0<\mathscr{H}^m(F)<\infty$.

Given $\epsilon >0$, $\exists N$ such that $\forall i \geq N$, $\mathbf{F}
(T-T_i)< \epsilon$. By definition of real flat norm, this translates to
\begin{center}
$\min \{ \mathbf{M}(A-Ai) + \mathbf{M}(B-B_i) \} < \epsilon$,
\end{center}

where $T-T_i= A-A_i +\partial (B-B_i), \; (A-A_i) \in \mathscr{E}_m, \; (B-B_i) \in
\mathscr{E}_{m+1} $.

What I have done so far:

$T_i \to T$ under the real flat norm: $\forall \epsilon>0, \exists N$ such that
$\min \{ \mathbf{M}(A-A_i) + \mathbf{M}(B-B_i)\} < \epsilon, \; \forall i \geq N$.

From here, I know I can split $ \mathbf{M}(A-A_i) + \mathbf{M}(B-B_i)$ into $

\mathbf{M}(A+B)$ and $ \mathbf{M}(A_i-B_i)$ and I feel that there is something
to do with the theorem of limit inferior. Can anyone guide me on this, or at least
tell me if I am heading in the right direction?

Property of rectifiable sets

\textbf{Proposition 2.3.2} In the definition of a rectifiable set $F$, we
can take the Lipschitz functions to be $C^1$ diffeomorphisms $f_j$ on
compact domains with disjoint images whose union coincides with $F \;
\mathscr{H}^m$ almost everywhere. In addition, the Lipschitz constants of
$f_j$ and ${f_j}^{-1}$ can be taken near 1.
\\
\bigskip

Proof: It suffices to look at a piece of domain and extend to the whole domain by repeating
the process countably many times. By subdividing the domain, we may assume that the new
domains have diameter at most 1. By lemma 2.2.3, the Lipschitz function $f$ can be replaced
by a $C^1$ approximation $g$. By theorem 2.2.5, we may assume that $Dg$ is nonsingular.
By subdividing the domain, we may assume it is reasonably small and we take a portion of
the domain such that the image of $g \subset$ image $f$, so $Dg$ is approximately constant
and so $g$ is injective. Next, we alter the domain $g$ by a linear transformation to make $Dg

\approx$ identity and Lip $g \approx$ Lip $g^{-1} \approx 1$. Finally, replace the domain by
a compact subset and we get what we want. $\square$

Second definition for real flat norm

${\mathbf F}(T)= \sup\{T(\varphi): \varphi \in \mathscr{D}^m, \parallel \varphi
(x) \parallel ^* \leq 1 \; \mbox{and} \; \parallel d \varphi (x) \parallel ^* \leq
1 \; \mbox{for all} \; x \}$.

In general, it is not possible to give a meaning to the intersection of two currents

or between a current and a smooth surface. However, we can define the
intersection of a $m$-dimensional normal current and a level surface $f^{-1}(y)
$ of a smooth map $f$ for almost every $y$, resulting in a current $T_y$.
3.5.2
Proof: If $\chi$ is the characteristic function of the set $\{x:u(x)>r \}$,
then $\langle T,u,r+ \rangle = (\partial T) \lefthalfcup \chi - \partial (T
\lefthalfcup \chi)$. For small, positive h, approximate $\chi$ by a $C^{
\infty }$ function $f$ satisfying
\begin{center}
$f(x)= \begin{cases} 0 & \text{if } u(x) \leq r, \\ 1 & \text{if } u(x)
\geq r+h \end{cases}$
\end{center}
and Lip $f \leq \mbox{Lip}/h $. Then
\begin{align*}
\mathbf{M} \langle T,u,r+ \rangle \approx \mathbf{M}((\partial T)
\lefthalfcup f - \partial (T \lefthalfcup f)) = \mathbf{M}(T \lefthalfcup
df)
\\
\leq (\mbox{Lip} f) \parallel T \parallel \{x:r<u(x)<r+h \}
\\
\leq (\mbox{Lip} u) \parallel T \parallel \{x:r<u(x)<r+h \} /h.
\end{align*}

By taking limit inferior as $h \to 0$, we get what we want. $\square$

3.5.3
Proof: Consider the function $f(r)= \parallel T \parallel \{u(x)<r\}$.
Since $f$ is monotonically increasing, its derivative exists for almost all
r. Therefore, by proposition 3.5.2,
\begin{align*}
\int_a^b \mathbf{M} \langle T,u,r+ \rangle dr
\leq (\mbox{Lip} \; u) \int_a^b f^{'}(r) dr
\\
\leq (\mbox{Lip} \; u)(f(b)- \lim_{x \to a+} f(x))
\\
= (\mbox{Lip} \; u) \parallel T \parallel \{a<u(x)<b \}. \;\;\;\; \square

\end{align*}
3.5.5
Proof:
\\
\bigskip

Now, we consider slices of $T$ by the function $u(x)=|x-a|$. If $T$ has no

boundary, then
\begin{tabbing}
$\langle T,u,r+ \rangle = \partial(T \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x) \leq r \})(\partial T) \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x) \leq r \}$
\\
\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; $= \partial(T \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x) \leq
r \})-0$
\\
\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; $= \partial(T \lefthalfcup \mathbf{B}(a,r))$
\end{tabbing}

With that, the next lemma tells us that if almost all such slices by spheres are rectifiable, then
$T$ is rectifiable.

Lower semi continuity

\\
Proof: For all $\epsilon >0$, there exists $\delta >0$ such that $|
\mathbf{F}(T-T_i)|< \delta $ implies $\mathbf{M}(T) \leq \mathbf{M}(T_i)
+ \epsilon$. From the definition of real flat norm, $| \mathbf{F}(T-T_i)|
< \delta \Rightarrow |\sup \{(T-T_i)(\varphi) | \; \varphi \in
\mathscr{D}^m, \; \parallel \varphi (x) \parallel^{*} \leq 1, \; \parallel
d \varphi (x) \parallel^{*} \leq 1, \; \forall x \} |< \delta $. Now,
\begin{tabbing}
$\mathbf{M}(T_i-T)= \sup \{(T-T_i)(\varphi) | \; \parallel \varphi (x)
\parallel^{*} \leq 1 \}$
\\
\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; $\geq \sup \{(T-T_i)(\varphi) | \; \varphi
\in \mathscr{D}^m, \; \parallel \varphi (x) \parallel^{*} \leq 1, \;
\parallel d \varphi (x) \parallel^{*} \leq 1, \; \forall x \} $
\\
\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; $\geq -\delta$.
\end{tabbing}
In addition, because $\varphi$ and $T$ is a norm and linear functional
respectively, $\mathbf{M}(-T) = - \mathbf{M}(T)$ and hence, $\mathbf{M}
(T_i)- \mathbf{M}(T) \geq \mathbf{M}(T_i-T)$.
\\

By taking limit infimum on both sides, we get what we want. $\square$

FROM ORAL PRESENTATION

\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Slicing}
In general, it is not possible to give a meaning to the intersection of two
currents or between a current and a smooth surface. However, we can define
the intersection of a $m$-dimensional normal current and a level surface
$f^{-1}(y)$ of a smooth map $f$ for almost every $y$, resulting in a
current $T_y$.
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Slicing}
\textbf{Definition: Slice}
\\
Let $T$ be a $m$-dimensional normal current in $\mathbf{R}^n$, $u:
\mathbf{R}^n \to \mathbf{R}$ be a Lipschitz function and $r$ be a real
number. A \textit{slice} is defined as

\begin{center}
$\langle T,u,r+ \rangle = (\partial T) \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x)>r \} \partial(T \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x)>r \})$
\\
$\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; = \partial(T \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x)
\leq r \})- (\partial T) \lefthalfcup \{x: u(x) \leq r \}$.
\end{center}
It follows directly from the above definition that $\partial \langle T,u,r+
\rangle = - \langle \partial T,u,r+ \rangle$.
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Slicing}
\textbf{Proposition:} $\mathbf{M} \langle T, u, r+ \rangle \leq (\mbox{Lip}
\; u) \liminf_{h \to 0+} \parallel T \parallel \{r<u(x)<r+h\}/h$.
\\
In particular, if $f(r) = \parallel T \parallel B(x,r)$, then for almost
all r, $\mathbf{M} \langle T,u,r+ \rangle \leq f^{'}(r)$.
\\
\bigskip
\textbf{Proposition:} $\int_a^b \mathbf{M} \langle T,u,r+ \rangle \;
d\mathscr{L}^1 r\leq (\mbox{Lip} \; u) \parallel T \parallel \
{x:a<u(x)<b \}$.
\\
\bigskip
\textbf{Corollary:} $\langle T,u,r+ \rangle \in \mathbf{N}_{m-1}$, for
almost all $r$.
\\
\bigskip
\textbf{Proposition:} $\int_a^b \mathbf{F}[T \lefthalfcup \{u(x) \leq r \}]
\; d \mathscr{L}^1 r \leq [b-a+ \mbox{Lip} \; u] \mathbf{F}(T)$.
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Slicing}
\textbf{Lemma:} If $T$ is a normal current without boundary and if for each
$a \in \mathbf{R}^n$, $\partial (T \lefthalfcup \mathbf{B}(a,r))$ is
rectifiable for almost $r \in \mathbf{R}$, then $T$ is rectifiable.
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Slicing}
%picture%

\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[plain]
\frametitle{Some Useful Results}
\textbf{Lemma:} $\textbf{M}$ is $\textbf{F}$ lower semicontinuous on
$\mathscr{D}_m$. In other words, if $T_i, T \in \mathscr{D}_m$ and $T_i \to
T$ in the real flat norm, then $\textbf{M}(T) \leq \limsup \textbf{M}(T_i)
$.
\\
\bigskip
\textbf{Proposition:} The set $\{T \in \mathscr{F}_m : \mbox{spt} \; T
\subset \mathbf{B}(0,R)\}$ is complete in the flat norm.

\end{frame}

Let $T$ be the infinite collection of unit disks of radius $\frac{1}{r}$ in

example 3.2.7. The boundary of $T$ is an integral flat chain because...
\\

In addition, this provides a counterexample to show that an integral flat chain is not always
rectifiable because the length of an integral flat chain may diverge to infinity.

In this thesis, we will make use of fractals to discuss Hausdorff measure, a notion
which is frequently used in geometric measure theory. In addition, in example
3.2.16, fractals will be used to show that a rectifiable current is not necessarily
integral.