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Climate
Climate is weather averaged over time over
broader geographic areas.
Usually averaged over 30-yr periods.
Climatology is the study of climate over both time
and space.
The average state of atmosphere

Climate Classification

Climate Classification

Koppens Classification
Koppen climate classification
Developed 1918
Developed to correlate the spatial distribution of
plants to the spatial distribution of climate

Climatic Relationships

Modified Kppen System

Five major climate groups
Groups A, B, C, D, E and H
14 individual climate types

Special category of highland (H) climate

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Kppens Climate Classifications

Primary Letters

Tropical Climates (A) Megatherms

Average temp of every month > 18C

Dry Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Xerophytes
Evaporation > precipitation

Mesothermal Climates (C) Mesotherms

Kppens Climate Classifications

Primary Letters

Microthermal Climates (D) Microtherms

Average temperature of warmest month >10C
Average temperature of coldest month < -3C

Polar Climates (E) Hekistotherms

Average temperature of all months < 10C

Highland (H)

Coldest month average temperature < 18C but >-3C

At least 1 month average temperature > 10C

Kppens Climate Classifications

Secondary Letters
These letters are based primarily on seasonal
precipitation:
f = adequate rainfall all through the year, no distinct dry
season
w = winter dry (keep in mind the hemisphere), if 70% or
more of annual rainfall occurs in summer
s = summer dry, if 70% or more of annual rainfall occurs in
winter
m = extremely wet summer = monsoon. A climate only.

Kppens Climate Classifications

Tertiary Letters
The third letters in the system are based
exclusively on seasonal and annual
temperature:
a = hot summer, warmest month > 22C; C and D only
b = warm summer, warmest month < 22C; C and D only
c = cool summer, < 4 months over 10C; C and D only
d = very cold winter, coldest month < -38C; D only
h = dry-hot, annual temperature > 18C; B only
k = dry-cold, annual temperature < 18C; B only

Kppens Climate Classifications

Secondary Letters
For B climate only:
S = semiarid = steppe
W = arid = desert
which results in either BS or BW.

For E climate only:

T = tundra
F = perpetual frost = permanent ice
which results in either ET or EF.

Kppens Climate Classifications

Examples of Combinations
Af = Tropical Rainforest climate type
Am = Tropical Monsoon climate type
BWh = Low-Latitude Hot Desert climate type
Cfa = Humid Subtropical climate type
Csa = Mediterranean climate type
Dfb = Humid Continental climate type
ET = Tundra climate type

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Generalized Climate Regions

World Climate Classification

Climographs

Tropical Climate (A)

Temperature
(curve)

Precipitation
(bars)

Tropical Climates (A)

Tropical Rain Forest Climates (Af)
Tropical Monsoon Climates (Am)
Tropical Savanna Climates (Aw)
Consistent day length and insolation input

Tropical Humid Climates (Group A)

Distribution of A Climates

Within 025 of equator

= consistent warm temperatures

Dominance by ITCZ
Shifts seasonally with high sun period

Warm ocean currents, unstable maritime air

masses

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Tropical Rain Forest and Monsoon

Tropical Rain Forest (Af)

Tropical Rain Forest Climates (Af)

No true winter

Winter in tropics refers to the low-sun half of the year

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

Summer refers to the high-sun half of the year

High temperatures prevail every month

Main locations

A climates are distinguished by the monthly pattern of rainfall

f = year-around rainfall
m = year-round rainfall, but with a brief drier
period
w = wet summer and dry winter

Within 510 of equator

Amazon basin
Northern Congo basin
Islands of East Indies

Characteristics
Monotonous (seasonless)
Night is the season of the tropics
High humidity
Afternoon convective thundershowers
High annual rainfall, evenly distributed during year

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Dominant Controls

Climographs

ITCZ influence entire year

summer
NH winter
wet season
season
dry

cT

cT

winter
SH summer
dry season
Wet
season
Convective
precipitation

0
Af
Animated Drawing (toggle forward-back-forward)

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Tropical Monsoon (Am)

Af Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Tropical Monsoon Climates (Am)

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Tropical Savanna (Aw)

Am Tropical Monsoon

Tropical Savanna Climates (Aw)

Aw Tropical Savanna

Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Arid and Semiarid Climates

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Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Kppen system:
W = Desert (arid), S = Steppe (semiarid)
h = hot (mean annual temp > 18C)
usually found in lower latitudes
k = cold/cool (mean annual temp < 18C)
usually found in the mid-latitudes

Low-Latitude Hot Desert Climates (BWh)

Mid-latitude Cold Desert Climates (BWk)
Low-Latitude Hot Steppe Climates (BSh)
Mid-latitude Cold Steppe Climates (BSk)

Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Potential for evaporation exceeds rainfall (called
moisture deficiency)
Cover 35% of Earths surface
Most extensive geographically of the major climate
groups
One-third of U.S. is classified as arid/semiarid
Plants are sparse but specifically adapted:
Xerophytes: adapted to aridity, drought resistant, able to
store moisture

Arid and Semiarid Climates (B)

Climatic controls:
STHP: dry subsiding air over land masses
Shifting STHP: produces semiarid conditions
around periphery of arid areas
Rain shadows: leeward sides of mountain ranges
that intercept rainfall on windward side
Continentality: interiors of continents far from
moderating effects of water bodies

Dry Climates (Group B)

Distinctive Features of B climates
Cover 34% of the total land area of the world

More area than any other climate group

Dry conditions prevail all year

Potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation

Two main sub-types based on precipitation

BW is extremely arid (desert)

BS is steppe (semi-arid)

The two sub-types are further subdivided based on

temperature
Distribution of B Climates

Subtropical Dry Climates within 2035 of latitude

Midlatitude Dry Climates within 35-55 of latitude

h is for the hot subtropical desert (BWh, BSh)

k is for the cold midlatitude desert (BWk, BSk)

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Characteristics

Main
locations
Subtropical
Desert (BWh)
Centered at latitudes 2530
Western sides of continents, including coasts
Extend into continental interiors

Northern Hemisphere

Precipitation: extremely arid

Scarce (most nearly rainless regions on Earth)

Unreliable (extremely long periods without rain)

Very hot summers

Enormous daily temperature range
Coastal fog

Sonora-Colorado
Sahara
Arabian

Southern Hemisphere
Peru-Atacama
Kalahari-Namib
Great Australian
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Dominant Controls

Subsidence from subtropical highs (STHs)

Cold ocean currents

Equatorward extensions

Climographs

Subtropical Steppe (BSh)

Main locations
Fringing BWh except on west coasts

Characteristics
Similar to BWh but more moderate
Precipitation: semiarid

Dominant Controls
Similar to BWh

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Low-latitude hot steppe (BSh)

Climographs

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Midlatitude Desert (BWk)

Midlatitude Cold Desert Climate (BWk)

Main locations

Central Asia
Western interior of
United States
Patagonia

Characteristics

Climographs

Precipitation meager

Erratic, mostly showery

Some winter snow

Temperatures

Hot summers, cold winters

Very large annual temperature range
Large daily temperature range

Dominant Controls
Rain shadow effects
Distance from sources of moisture

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Midlatitude Steppe (BSk)

Main locations

Fringing BWk

Characteristics

Midlatitude cold
steppe (BSk)

Similar to BWk (more

moderate)
Precipitation: semiarid

Dominant Controls

Similar to BWk

BSk Midlatitude cold steppe

Climographs
Photo: U.S. Great
Plains, South Dakota

Mild Midlatitude Climates (Group C)

Distinctive Features of C climates

Temperatures

Long summers, usually hot

Short winters, relatively mild

Precipitation

No year-round moisture deficiency

Some climates have seasonal shortages

Three subtypes
Distribution of C Climates

Mediterranean (Csa, Csb)

Humid subtropical (Cfa)
Marine west coast (Cfb, Cfc)

Equatorward margin of the middle latitudes

Within 25-40 of latitude with some poleward extensions

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Characteristics

Mediterranean Climates (Csa, Csb)

Mild, wet winters, dry summers

Two sub-types based on summer temperatures

Main locations

Western side of continents

a hot summer (interior location)

b cool/mild summer (coastal location)

3040 of latitude

Mediterranean coast
California
Central Chile
Southern tip of Africa (Cape Town)
Australia (Perth & Adelaide)

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Climographs

Precipitation

Moderate annually
Winter maximum (midlatitude cyclonic storms)

Dominant Controls
STH subsidence in summer (forces cyclonic storms
poleward)
Westerly winds and cyclonic storms shift equatorward in
winter

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Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa)

Characteristics
Main locations

Temperatures

Eastern sides of continents

2530 of latitude

Summers, warm to hot

Winters, mild to cold

Precipitation

Southeastern United States

Eastern China
Southern Brazil and Uruguay
Small areas in Africa and Australia

Abundant, mostly as rain

Summer maximum

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Climographs

Marine West Coast (Cfb Cfb)

Main locations
Western sides of continents, mainly

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Western and central Europe

Largest area

North America

Oregon to Alaska

New Zealand and eastern Australia

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Characteristics
Temperature

Climographs

Very mild winters for latitude

Precipitation

Moderate to abundant, mostly in winter

Many rainy days
Much cloudiness

Dominant Controls
Westerly flow and oceanic influence year-round

Severe Midlatitude Climates (Group D)

Distinctive Features of D climates

Temperatures

Large annual temperature range

Cold winter, relatively short summer

Continentality

Precipitation

Summer maxima
Abundant to meager amounts
Diminishes toward inland and poleward

Two Main Subtypes

Humid Continental
Subarctic

Distribution of D Climates

Only in Northern Hemisphere

Within 3570 of latitude

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Humid Continental (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb)

Characteristics

Location

Temperature

N. Hemisphere only
3555 of latitude
Eastern sides of continents

Warm/hot summers
Large annual temperature range

Precipitation

Moderate to abundant
Summer maxima

Dominant Controls
Westerly winds and storms

Climographs

Midlatitude cyclones in winter in North America

Monsoons in Asia

Sub Arctic (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd)

Location

Northern Hemisphere only

Latitudes 5070
Across North American and Eurasia

Characteristics

Temperature

Long, dark, very cold winters

Brief, mild summers
Enormous annual temperature range

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Climographs

Precipitation

Meager
Summer maxima
Light snow in winter, little melting

Dominant Controls

Pronounced continentality
Alternating

Westerlies and cyclonic storms

Prominent anticylcones

Fig. 8-35

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Distinctive Characteristics

Polar Climates (Group E)

Temperatures

Coldest summers
Lowest annual average
Large annual temperature range
Small daily temperature range

Extraordinarily dry

Low precipitating, mostly snow

Evaporation is nil

Two subtypes

Tundra
Ice Cap

Distribution of E Climates

Poleward of 70 of latitude

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Characteristics

Tundra (ET)

Main Locations

Temperature

Fringes of Arctic Ocean

Small coastal areas in Antarctica

Long, cold dark winters

Brief, cool summers

Precipitation

Very sparse
Mostly snow

Dominant Controls

Latitude
Distance from sources of heat and moisture
Extreme seasonal contrasts in sunlight/darkness
Polar anticyclones (A and cP air masses)

Fig. 8-36
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Climographs

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Ice Cape (EF)

Location

Antarctica
Greenland

Characteristics

Temperature

Long, cold, dark

winters
Cold, windy summers

Precipitation

Very sparse, all snow

Fig. 8-36
Fig. 8-37

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Dominant Controls

Climographs

Latitude
Distances from sources of heat and moisture
Extreme seasonal contrasts in sunlight/darkness
Polar anticyclones (A and cP air masses)

Fig. 8-38

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Characteristics

Highland Climate (Group H)

Locations

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Complex local variation in small areas

Vertical climate zonation

High uplands (mountains and plateaus)

Fig. 8-42
Fig. 8-40

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Climographs

Changeability of weather

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Fig. 8-43

Dominant Controls
Altitude
Slope aspect and slope angle

Fig. 8-41

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Global Patterns Idealized

Idealized Global Pattern

General Models of the Climate Distribution

Idealized seasonal precipitation

patterns and climates along the
west coasts of continents (Fig. 8-44).

Fig. 8-45

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Climatic Distribution in Africa: A Practically Perfect Example

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The modified Kppen system recognizes six major climatic zones:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tropical humid (A)

Dry (B)
Mild midlatitude (C)
Severe midlatitude (D)
Polar (E)
Highland (H)

A model of climate distribution on a hypothetical continent helps

use predict what the climate should be like at a particular
location.

Fig. 8-45 and Fig. 8-46

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