Report Content

Executive Summary

State what was done

why it was done
what major results were obtained
implication of results
One or two pages; short, crisp and to the point

Chapter 1 Introduction
Background
One of the most critical steps in well completion is cementing. Despite the haste to put the well
on production at the end of drilling, time and commitment must be put in to get a good job done.
This is essential to avoid spending significant amounts of time correcting or battling with the
effects of a bad cement job. The quality of cementing operations will affect the success of
follow-on drilling, completion, production and work-over efforts in the well.
To successfully a liner string to a specific depth the cement slurry needs to be designed based
on down hole a condition which dictates the slurrys density, yield, volume, additives and
rheology.
Problem Definition
Cementing of a 7, P-110 liner string, from 16,000ft back to 11,600ft in drilled with an 8-1/2 bit to
True Depth (TD) of 16,000ft below a 9-5/8 intermediate casing string set and cemented at
12,000ft. A calliper long indicated the hole was actually 9.5 in diameter. Minor seepage lost
problems was encountered while drilling below, 12,000ft, indicating fairly competent formation,
but with high permeability sections. The float collar is to be placed at 15,920ft and the liner will
be run in using a 4-1/2, 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe work string.
Objective
To design a programme for the cementing of a 7, P-110 liner string, from 16,000ft back to
11,600ft in a 9.5 diameter hole.
Scope

Determination of pump rates and pump pressures associated with the cementing of the

liner by doing hydraulics analysis.

Determination of which flow regime should be used to cement the liner whether it is in

turbulent or plug flow.

Determination of the total number of sacks of cement, the total volume of slurry and the

amount of water required for the job, assuming an excess of 400ft above the liner top.
Determination of whether a spacer or pre-flush should be used.

Plan of Action
The data provided:

Temperatures taken from previous logging runs

Pre-flush and Spacers density and Fann rheological data
Mud Density and Fann rheological data
Turbulent flow cement slurry compositions additives and Fann rheological data
Laminar and Plug flow cement slurry compositions additives and Fann rheological data

Based on the above data provided the plan of action was:

Calculation of slurry weight and yield of both compositions based on additives and their

percentages
Analysis flow regime and flow rates of slurry associated with the regime based on the

Fann rheological data

Calculation of total cement requirements and water needed for mixing based on the

various sections of the well

Calculation the amount of barrels of water needed for the mixing of the cement.
Calculation volume of displacing fluid
Calculation pressures at TD and at surface
The mixing and thickening time of the cement slurry
Recommend whether a preflush or a spacer is to be used and its volume
Determination why both a float shoe and float collar should be used

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Various forms of literature such as text books and SPE papers relating to cementing operations
was sourced and studied in an effort to successfully complete this liner cementing project. The
relevant literature is presented below.

1. Adam T. Bourgoyne Jr, Keith K. Millheim, Martin E Chenevert, F.S. Young Jr. Applied
Drilling Engineering, 1st Printing, 1986
Chapters 3 and 4 of this book provided the information needed to successfully complete this
project.
Chapter 3 provides information on the theory of cements with respect to:

Its composition
Additives
Testing and placement techniques.
The physical properties of the class H cement were also obtained

Chapter 4 provided information on cement with respect to cement mud and cement slurries. In
addition to an overview of Newtonian and non- Newtonian fluids. Also presented in the chapter
were equations for:

Reynolds Number for fluids

Critical velocity
Frictional factors
Frictional pressure losses for the various sections of the well.

2. SPE 152, March 1962 - Knox A. Slagle, Halliburton Company, Duncan, OKLA.
Rheological Design of Cementing Operations
This paper described a series of rheological calculations needed in order to determine slurry
properties. The equations assisted in the designing of the cementing job and selection of flow

regime. The rheological calculations presented in this paper which can be done through the
usage of filed date assisted in the selection of a cementing program.
Flow behaviour index, n, and consistency index, K, which is necessary for adequate fluid-flow
calculations was also information provided with respect to the parameters. The paper
furthermore provides a step by step description of how to obtain data that would be used in the
cementing job.

3. Suman. G. O, Ellis. R.C - Worlds Oil Cementing Handbook

Chapters 4 and 6 of this book provided some useful information. Chapter 4 discusses the
different flow regimes and practical interpretation of rheologies.
Chapter 6 provides information on cementing equipment used in liner applications and
installation as well as common problems to avoid while pumping cement.
The importance and value for contact time to be used in the cementing operation was obtained
from this chapter.

4. Lapeyrouse. Norton. J Formulas and Calculations for Drilling, Production and

Workovers, 2nd Edition, 2002
From Chapter 2 of this book all the necessary formulae needed for the cementing operation was
presented. These equations included

Differential hydrostatic pressure between sections of the wellbore

Annular capacities
Slurry density
Slurry yield
Slurry volume
Barrels of water needed
Number of sacks of cement required

5. Thomas O. Allen, Alan P. Roberts Production Operations, Well Completions, Workover

and Stimulation, Volume 1, 2nd Edition.
Chapter 4 provides information on oil well cementing jobs which includes:

Required properties
Characteristics of cements
Cement additives
Flow properties of cements
Displacement mechanics
Cementing hardware
Cementing operations considerations

6. Nelson. Erik B. Well Cementing, 1990

Chapter 3, 4 and 5 of this book provided some useful information on liner cementing.
Chapter 3 presents information on cement additives and their impact on the slurry and usage.
Chapter 4 provided information on rheological models and their analysis. This information was
used in the calculations of the flow rate for turbulent flow and a plug flow composition.
Chapter 5 describes the process of selection of a spacer or pre-flush.

7. William C. Lyons Standard Handbook of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering,

Vol.1.
Chapter 4 provides general information on oil well cementing.
The provided information aided in the decision of selecting a spacer or pre-flush. Cementing
principles, properties of cement slurry and thickening time of cement were also included in the
chapter.

8. Rev. B Baker Hughes INTEQ Drilling Engineering Workbook, December 1995.

Chapter 2 of this book contained information on cementing which included:

Cementing nomenclature
Cement slurries
Field calculations
Cement additives

The provided information aided in the calculations aspect of this project.

Chapter 3 Theory
Cement fills and seals the annulus between the casing string and the drilled hole. It has three
general purposes: (1) zone isolation and segregation, (2) corrosion control, and (3) formation
stability and pipe strength improvement (4) To protect the casing from damage or failure
(5) To support the borehole through the productive interval (6) to protect the casing from
damage or failure. A cement slurry is placed in the well by mixing powdered cement and water
at the surface and pumping it by hydraulic displacement to the desired location. Cement forms
an extremely strong, nearly impermeable seal from a thin slurry. The property of the cement
slurry and its behaviour depends on the components and the additives in the cement slurry.
There are 7 classes of cement (A- F) each with different intended uses. However there are a
wide range of chemical additives that can be added to the classes of cement to provide slurry
characteristics for almost any subsurface environment. Currently Class G and H are the most
popular and widely used due to the fact that they can be easily modified through the use of
additives to meet almost any job specification.
Cement additives can be subdivided into groups such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Density Control
Setting Time Control
Lost Circulation Additives
Filtration Control Additives
Viscosity Control Additives
Special Additives for Unusual Problems

Some additives serve more than one purpose and

would thus fit under more than one

classification.

Factors Affecting Cement

Increasing temperature accelerates the set time of cement. Both the bottom hole temperature
and the heat produced by a large mass of cement during hydration may affect the set time. To
correctly design a cementing job, the bottomhole temperature of the formation and an estimate
of circulating temperature should be known. A temperature gradient is calculated from this
information to give the temperature exposure the cement will face during the pumping operation.

Thought must also be given to heat transfer from the cement rising in the annulus to the cement
coming down the inside of the casing. Pressure has a tendency to accelerate the thickening
time and the set time of the cement, but the effect of pressure is not nearly so pronounced as
that of temperature. The cement must be strong enough to secure the pipe in the hole, to isolate
the zone and to withstand the nominal shock of drilling, perforating and fracturing. More strength
is required in withstanding loading from drill bits and pressure. In designing the cementing
operation, it is imperative that high strength cements be used around the casing shoe (the
bottom end of the pipe) and across potential pay, thief zones (areas of fluid loss) and water
producing zones. Filling the annulus behind pipe and zone separation requires very little
strength and more economical cements or cement extenders may be used. While the cement
slurry is liquid, the hydrostatic force from the weight of the slurry exerts force to prevent entry of
gas into the wellbore annulus. When pumping stops, the cement starts to gel and set and it
begins
to support itself by the initial bond to the formation. This initial attachment, coupled with fluid
loss to the formation, reduces the applied hydrostatic load.13 Fluids can then enter the annulus,
causing
voids and channels in the cement behind the pipe. Methods of control include reaction with the
formation
gas to plug the channels14 and stopping the gas from entering by reducing permeability.15 Use
of an external inflatable casing packer (ECP) is also an option.16 This tool operates like a
hydraulic set
packer between the casing and the open hole.
The necessary volume of cement is the volume of the openhole less the volume of the casing
across the
zone. An excess of 30% to 100% of the total is usually added to the cement volume to allow for
washouts
and mud contaminations. The 30% to 100% range of excess cement volumes is large, even for
the
technology of the oil field. It reflects the variability of drillers expertise and formation conditions.
Hole
volume is calculated from the caliper log. The bit diameter should not be used for hole volume
calculations
since it will not reflect washouts. In most operations, 4-arm caliper tools that give two
independent

diameters are more accurate than 3-arm calipers that give a maximum or averaged reading.

Liner Cementing
A liner is a short string of casing that does not reach the surface. The liner is hung from the
bottom of the previous casing string using a liner hanger that grips the bottom of the previous
casing with a set of slips. The liner is run into the borehole on the drill pipe and the cementing
operation for the liner is carried out through the same drill pipe. The liner assembly is made up
of the following:

1. A float shoe is similar a back-pressure valve is included which prevents any fluid during
running and cement slurry from re-entering the casing after the job is complete. Different
valve designs are available.
2. A float collar is a device placed at least one joint above the cementing shoe. It contains a
back-pressure valve similar to the float shoe and provides a seat for the cementing
plugs. The float collar serves an important function. When only a top plug is used,
cement contamination around the shoe is possible. With a float collar, this mud/cement
mixture remains in the casing and does not contaminate cement around the shoe. Float
shoes and collars are the most common equipment in use.
After the liner is set, a spacer or pre-flush is pumped down hole followed by the bottom plug
then the cement which will be followed by the top plug. The liner cement head and manifold are
installed on the drill pipe with the bottom plug the two inlets. The plug releasing stem holds the
plug in the cement head. After the cementing lines are rigged up and pressure tested, the pre
flush or spacer is pumped down the drill pipe. No bottom wiper plug is used ahead of the spacer
or slurry. Once the slurry is mixed and pumped into the drill pipe, the bottom plug is dropped
and displaced to the liner hanger. At this point, the plug passes through the liner setting tool,
and then latches into and seals the hole in the liner wiper plug.
The surface pressure will rise as an indication of the plug landing. Further applied pressure of)
will shear the pins holding the liner wiper plug in place. When internal volume of the liner has
been completely displaced, the plugs seat on the float collar, and a further pressure rise will
occur, indicating completion of the job.

The drill string is then released from the liner setting tool and withdrawn before the cement
hardens.
Pre-Flushes are fluids with a density and a viscosity very close to that of water or oil. They act
by thinning and dispersing the mud and washed the well bore area. Due to their very low
viscosity, they are particularly easy to put into turbulent flow.

Spacers are carefully designed viscous densities and rheological properties. They have much
higher solid particle content than washes, and are generally more effective buffers for avoiding
contact between the cement slurry and the drilling mud. Some may be pumped in turbulent flow,
and thus share the same cleaning action as pre-flushes. The particles in spacers are also
thought to have a scrubbing effect on the annular surfaces.
Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow.
To calculate the frictional pressure in the annulus and the casing, first the determination of which
fluid model to use. There are the Newtonian model and Non Newtonian Model (the Bingham
Plastic model and Power law model). With the identification of the rheological properties with a
rotational viscometer the flow regime could be established (laminar or turbulent).
The character of flowing fluid is described by the relationship between flow rate (shear rate) and
pressure (shear stress) that caused the movement. There are two basic fluid types, Newtonian
and non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids, exhibit a linear relationship between flow rate (shear rate)
and pressure (shear stress) while the fluid is in laminar flow. The application of pressure causes
a Newtonian fluid to flow. As pressure increases, flow velocity increases, from laminar, through a
transition zone (part laminar and part turbulent), to fully turbulent flow.
Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit resistance to flow (gel strength) with the application of. Fluids with
gel strength can flow at very low rates in a solid or plug-like manner. Non-Newtonian fluids thus
can have three flow regimes- plug, laminar and turbulent-with transition zones between each.
Drilling muds and oil well cement slurries are non-Newtonian.
Mathematical models have been develop that can be used to predict flow properties and
pressure-velocity relationships of such as the Bingham Plastic Model and the Power Law Model
that are most commonly used. Such models attempt to describe the relationship of shear rate

and shear stress for muds and cement slurries. They are also used to determine flow regime
and pressure requirements for displacement.
Fluid property measurement.
The Fann V-G (viscosity- gel) meter is used to measure plastic viscosity, yield point and gel
strength of mud, and cement slurries.
The viscometer can measure properties over a range of speeds. However, the two speeds of
the field instrument (300 and 600 rpm) are enough to measure plastic viscosity (p.p) and yield
point (ty) used for pressure drop and flow regime determination with the Bingham model, The
Power Law Model requires two different fluid property descriptions. Consistency index (K') and
flow behaviour index (n') are also determined from the Fann V-G meter readings.

Equations

Weight= of additave weight of sack of cement (94 lbs)

Weight= of additave weight of water
Volume=weight of additave |volume| factor

Slurry Density , =

Slurry yeild=

Amt of bbl of water=

Total weight of all additives

total volume of all additives

Total volume of all additives

7.48

6.1 gal total no . of sacks

42

Displacement volume=Volume of the drill pipe+Volume liner top up the float collar
Annular capacity = /4 ( Dh2- Dp2)( 1/144)

Slurry vol, ft3 = number of sacks of cement to be used x slurry yield, ft3/sk

Number of sacks needed= Slurry volume/ yield

n ' =3.32log( 600/300)

k' = (N*300*1.066)/(100*511n)
Vc = ( (Nre * k' *(96/D)n)/(1.86* )(1/(2-n')) q= (Ve*Da^2)/3.057
q= (Ve*Da^2)/17.15
v = (17.15*Q)/D2
Nre = (1.86 * V^(2-n')* )/(k'*((96/D)^n')
dPf = (0.039*L**v^2*F)/D
Cement fluid time = mixing time + displacement time + safety factor + plug release time.

Chapter 4 Methodology
Slurry weight and yield of both compositions
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

Listing all the additives for one of the slurry composition.

Determining the weight for each of the additives.
The additives by weight of water were multiplied by the weight of water.
Listing the respective absolute volumes for each of the additives.
Calculate additive volume.
.Calculating the slurry volume (yield) and weight (density).

Flow regime and flow rates of slurry

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Calculations were based on the Power Law Model for Non-Newtonian fluid.
Calculate n and K.
Determine Reynolds number for turbulent and plug flow
Calculate velocity of the slurries both turbulent and plugs flows
The flow rate for the slurry composition was then calculated in cuft/min and bbls/min for

VI.
VII.

each slurry composition.

Calculate the minimum flow rate for the slurry to remain turbulent flow
Calculate the maximum flow rate for it to remain it plug flow for each of the cement slurry

VIII.

compositions.
Based on the results of the calculations the flow regime which should be used to pump
the cement slurry will be decided.

Calculation of Total cement requirements and water needed for mixing

I.
II.
III.

IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

Determination of the total number of sacks of cement required

Determination of the total slurry volume theoretically needed to fill the annular volume
with a 30% excess
Calculate annular capacity for:
Between the float collar and float shoe
Annulus between the hole and liner
Annulus between the casing and liner
Excess of 400 feet above the liner top
Determine the length of the various sections
Calculate the number of sacks of cement and the volume of slurry required for the
sections of the well.
Calculate the total amount of sacks required.
Calculate the total slurry volume
Calculate the amount of barrels of water needed for the mixing of the cement.

IX.
X.
XI.

Calculate volume of displacing fluid

Calculate pressures at TD and at surface
Calculation of frictional pressure drops will used to predict the pressures at TD as and at

XII.
XIII.
XIV.

surface in the well include:

The cement in the annulus between the hole and liner
The cement in the annulus between the liner and casing
The cement in the annulus between the casing and pipe
The cement in the liner between the float collar and the float shoe
The spacer in the annulus between the casing and pipe
The mud in the pipe
The mud in the liner above the float collar
The mud in the annulus between the casing and pipe
The mixing and thickening time
Recommend preflush or a spacer and calculate the volume
Determine why both a float shoe and float collar should be used

Chapter 5 - Results & Discussion

State clearly your final design. Present your data in a clear, informative and readable format.
Adequate use should be made of tables, charts, graphs and photographs wherever these can
enhance the clarity of the data and in particular, portray the patterns of observed relationships.
Analysis of treatment of the data should be done as appropriate, using approved methods.

Flow Regime

Turbulent

Density

15.9 ppg

Yield

1.53 ft3/sk

Minimum Flow Rate

5.87 bbl/min

Pressure @ Depth

10, 5272.95 psi

Pressure @ surface

1,608.63 psi

Spacer or Pre-flush

Spacer

Volume of Spacer or Pre-flush

60 bbls

Sacks of Cement Needed

875.55 sks

Barrels of Mixing water needed

Displacing fluid and volume
Mixing time
Displacement time
Bottom Hole test temperature

The discussion should show a sound understanding of the phenomena at work and their
significance to the area of application or enquiry. Adequate discussion of the findings, the
relationships uncovered and explanations of relationships, trends etc. that emerged from the
study should be given. Results should be interpreted with regard to their theoretical and
practical implications to current theory and practice. Application studies should include an
assessment of the costs and benefits involved and address implementation issues.

Chapter 6 Learnings, Conclusion & Recommendation

Clearly state the work accomplished in relation to the study objectives. Include where
appropriate, the implications for further work/research and technological, economic, social
impact of the findings. In general this chapter is most easily written by working through the
discussion chapter and recording each clear definite finding, numbered if desired.