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Adam C. Maloof 1, Sarah T. Stewart2, Benjamin P. Weiss3, Samuel A. Soule4, Nicholas L. Swanson-Hysell1, Karin
L. Louzada2, Ian Garrick-Bethell3, and Pascale M. Poussart1
1
Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Guyot Hall, Washington Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 20 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
3
Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
4
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA
2
ABSTRACT
Lonar Crater, India, is one of the youngest and best preserved impact structures on
Earth. The 1.88-km-diameter simple crater
formed entirely within the Deccan traps,
making it a useful analogue for small craters
on the basaltic surfaces of the other terrestrial planets and the Moon. In this study, we
present a meter-scaleresolution digital elevation model, geological map of Lonar Crater
and the surrounding area, and radiocarbon
ages for histosols beneath the distal ejecta.
Impact-related deformation of the target
rock consists of upturned basalt flows in the
upper crater walls and recumbent folding
around rim concentric, subhorizontal, noncylindrical fold axes at the crater rim. The
rim-fold hinge is preserved around 10%
15% of the crater. Although tearing in the
rim-fold is inferred from field and paleomagnetic observations, no tear faults are identified, indicating that large displacements
in the crater walls are not characteristic of
small craters in basalt. One significant normal fault structure is observed in the crater
wall that offsets slightly older layer-parallel
slip faults. There is little fluvial erosion of
the continuous ejecta blanket. Portions of the
ejecta blanket are overlain by aerodynamically and rotationally sculpted glassy impact
spherules, in particular in the eastern and
western rim, as well as in the depression
north of the crater known as Little Lonar.
The emplacement of the continuous ejecta
blanket can be likened to a radial groundhugging debris flow, based on the preserved
thickness distribution of the ejecta, the efficient exchange of clasts between the ejecta
flow and the underlying histosol, and the
lack of sorting and stratification in the bulk
E-mail: sstewart@eps.harvard.edu
GSA Bulletin; January/February 2010; v. 122; no. 1/2; p. 109126; doi: 10.1130/B26474.1; 12 figures; Data Repository item 2009131.
109
Maloof et al.
24
68
72
76
80
A
AURANGABAD
Telecom Pits
20
Little Lonar
N. Quarry S.
LONAR CRATER
MUMBAI
16
Lonar
12
North
Fault
Hotel
DECCAN TRAP
FLOOD BASALTS
Lonar Lake
5000
1000
3000
m
6000
Durga Devi
Dhar
Kalapani Lake
Figure 1. (A) EToPo2 (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/01mgg04.html) topography of India (color scale is in meters, coordinates in
latitude and longitude), showing the extent of the Deccan Plateau (Deshmukh, 1988; Bondre et al., 2004) and the location of Lonar Crater;
(B) Four-band, pan-sharpened, true-color Quickbird satellite image of Lonar Crater, draped on the digital elevation model of Figure 2. The
locations of measured stratigraphic sections from Figure 3 are marked with yellow arrows. The crater rim diameter is 1.88 km.
110
111
Maloof et al.
radius is slightly larger than the 915-m average
radius previously reported (Fredriksson et al.,
1973a; Fudali et al., 1980).
We found that the GPS units were most accurate when left on and collecting data the entire
day; therefore, the units were only shut off at
night. In order to determine absolute accuracy
and reproducibility of our spatial GPS data set,
we surveyed six specific landmarks (for <5 seconds each) once or twice a day for three weeks
(over the course of two years). Histograms of
GPS deviation from the mean are shown in
Figure DR6 [footnote 1]. We found that the
656000
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661000
545550
472475
550555
475480
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480485
560565
485490
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540545
2208000
2208000
2209000
467469
2212000
ELEVATION (m)
2209000
2210000
2211000
2212000
655000
655000
656000
Figure 2. Global positioning system (GPS)derived digital elevation model for Lonar Crater. The filled contour map is derived from 64,000
individual GPS measurements (see Fig. DR4 [footnote 1]). Bathymetric data in Lonar lake are derived from contours presented by Nandy
and Deo (1961), and the 2006 lakeshore (white line) is traced from the Quickbird satellite image (Fig. 1). Kalapani and Lonar town lakes
do not have bathymetric data but are very shallow, and we approximate them as flat surfaces. Thin black lines delineate 10-m contour
intervals. Easting (655000661000) and Northing (22080002212000) coordinates are in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) (WGS84)
meters. Color version in GSA Data Repository [footnote 1].
112
nar basalt (Figs. 5C and 5D), which is particularly well developed at Durga Devi Hill Quarry
(Fig. 1B). The microcolumns display disordered
9090 angles at the true flow top, and become
more widely spaced and better ordered 60
120 hexagonal and pentagonal cracks at depth,
consistent with sequential fragmentation during downward propagation of the cooling front
(Jagla and Rojo, 2002). Both columnar-jointed
and vesicular autobreccia flow tops are very
permeable and usually deeply altered. When
the alteration front penetrates more than a few
centimeters, a fine red powdery paleosol (often
referred to as red bole) is commonly developed between basalt flows (Figs. 5C and 5D).
Although previously interpreted as aa flows
(Dube and Sengupta, 1984; Ghosh and Bhadur,
2003), the lack of prominent flow bottom breccia,
the lack of mixing between flow-top breccias
and flow core units, and the sheet-like geometry of flows over several kilometers indicate
greater affinities to typical inflated pahoehoe
(Duraiswami et al., 2003). The northeast and
east regional elevation highs (Fig. 2) are coincident with the preservation of a thicker basalt
Devi Durga
Hill Quarry
Tf6
Tf5
Tf6
Tf6
Tf5 597
Tf5 599
Hotel
Canyon
Ej
100
Kalapani
Dam
Penpalmer
Dam Quarry
50
Tf5
Tf4
540
537
Tf4
Tf3 502
Dhar
Canyon
Ej
Tf5
Tf5
Tf4
Tf4
Tf4
Tf3 537
Tf3
Tf5
Tf4
Ej
Fault
Canyon
Ej
Tf2 530
North
Quarry N
North
Quarry S
North
Canyon
Ej
Tf5
Tf4
LITHOFACIES
Tf3
528
Tf3
1 cm = 10 m
Tf2
Tf1
sequence boundary
492
Tf1
Tf2
Tf3
Tf4
Tf5
Tf6
Ej
Figure 3. Basalt stratigraphy from crater walls (Hotel Canyon, Fault Canyon, and Dhar Canyon) and surroundings (Penpalmer Dam
Quarry, Kalapani Dam, Durga Devi Hill Quarry, North Quarry South, and North Quarry North). Flow 0 (Fig. 4) is present as isolated outcrops near the bottom of the crater and is not included in measured stratigraphic sections. Elevations in meters (not corrected for rim uplift)
are marked at the base of each section; section locations are marked on Figure 1B, except for Penpalmer Dam Quarry, which is southeast of
the Figure 1B map area. Basalt and ejecta lithofacies are color coded by relative age. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) locations are
provided in Table DR1 [footnote 1]. Color version in GSA Data Repository [footnote 1].
113
Maloof et al.
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658000
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661000
Geology
Minimum Ejecta
Lake Thickness (m)
Qb
Qe
2212000
Qf
Qh
Qi
Qt
Small Clasts
0.31.9
2212000
655000
8.09.9
Tf2
Tf3
2.03.9
Tf4
Tf5
Tf6
Urban
Glass
Faults
2211000
2211000
6.07.9
Rim Fold
0.31.9
Tf1
minor
6.07.9
8.09.9
10.013.0
2.03.9
4.05.9
6.07.9
8.09.9
10.013.0
2208000
2208000
2209000
major
2210000
Roads
4.05.9
Large Blocks
0.31.9
Ejecta
(Ghosh, 2003)
2210000
4.05.9
10.013.0
Tf0
2209000
2.03.9
655000
656000
657000
658000
659000
660000
661000
Figure 4. Geological map of Lonar Crater. Blue symbols are shaped and sized to reflect the type and thickness (meters), respectively, of
impact ejecta at specific outcrops. Magenta circles correspond to glass impact spherule localities. The dashed gray curve outlines the edge
of the continuous ejecta blanket determined by Ghosh (2003). Quaternary units: Qbbeach, Qeejecta, Qfforest, Qhhistosol, Qi
irrigated alluvial fan, and Qttalus. Easting (655000661000) and Northing (22080002212000) coordinates are in Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) (WGS84) meters.
114
115
Maloof et al.
2210609
657909
657928
F5m
2210613
148
F5
F4
F4v
C
F4v
F4v
50
2
Rim fold brecciated
massive basalt
Massive basalt
flow( F#m)
Vesicular basalt
flow top (F#v)
F5m
F5m
F5m
F5m
Strike-dip of
bedding
133
F4v
2210571
F4v
2210578
F4v
657945
5m
657928
F5m
100 m
F4v
3
F5v
F5m
F3m
F3v
F4m
F4v
Figure 6. (A) Geological map (plan view of [E]) of the rim-fold where it is intersected by five excavated pits associated with an abandoned
telecom office building project. Corner coordinates for surveyed telecom pits are reported in meters (Universal Transverse Mercator
[UTM], WGS84). White area refers to grassy alluvium where there are no excavations. (B) Schematic drawing of Lonar Crater, emphasizing the geometry of the rim-fold breccia, parasitically folded around rim-concentric fold axes, with individual breccia blocks progressively
rotated around vertical axes with distance away from the crater and/or toward cryptic tear zones. Note that the pseudo-concentric fractures
in the rim-fold ejecta are meant to depict pervasive brecciation, not specifically observed concentric fractures. (C) Example of preserved
fold hinge in crater rim, with massive flow banded basalt in foreground dipping steeply into the crater (also see Fig. DR8 [footnote 1]).
Contacts 1, 2, and 3 from (A) are indicated in (D), a very schematic drawing of three of the excavation pits showing only F5m for simplicity
(white area is a combination of F4v and colluvium), and (E) a cross section through the north wall of Lonar Crater (topography and surface
contacts are drawn accurately and to scale). The rim-fold preserves a brecciated, parasitically folded, reverse basalt stratigraphy, with
vesicular Tf4 flow-top upside-down on top of massive lower Tf5. Color version in GSA Data Repository [footnote 1].
116
Dip azimuth ()
360
Figure 7. Dip azimuth of flow
Basalt flows
banding in massive basalt from
Rim fold
Ejecta blocks
intact lava flows in the crater
300
wall, rim-fold, and ejecta blocks.
Crater wall basalts dip radially
240
outward from the crater and
can be fit with a line of slope 1
180
with r 2 = 0.9. Rim-fold blocks
have populations dipping radi120
ally out from the crater (solid
linear regression), as well as
60
radially into the crater (dashed
linear regressions), suggesting
0
parasitic folding around sub0
60
120
180
240
300
360
horizontal, rim-concentric fold
Compass direction from center of crater ()
axes (see Fig. 6). Ejecta blocks
around the fringe of the rim-fold also show rim-concentric fold axes, but with relatively more
azimuthal scatter associated with vertical axis rotation near tear zones. Dip information is
derived from flow banding in massive basalts or contacts between flow units.
within the ejecta up to 0.75 m above the ejectahistosol contact. However, we did not find any
histosol clasts in ejecta more than 10 m away
from an observed outcrop of histosol.
Minimum ejecta thicknesses (Fig. 10) were
determined by measuring the thickness of ejecta
above the basement surface. The basement surface was defined at the rim by the core of the rimfold and elsewhere by the sharp contact between
the surrounding basalt flow structures and the
debris flow layer. All ejecta thickness measurements are considered minimum values, as some
erosion has occurred throughout the ejecta blanket and, in some cases, the basement rock level
was not exposed. In locations proximal to road
or farm excavations, we did not measure ejecta
thickness unless the ejecta was directly overlain
by Quaternary bedded alluvium deposits (e.g.,
Figs. 9C and 9D) that predate any accumulated
anthropogenic debris. Note that Quaternary alluvium deposits were not included in the minimum thickness measurements. The symbols in
Figure 10 reflect three categories of clast sizes:
(1) circlesrim-fold material with brecciated
inverted stratigraphy (Fig. DR8 [footnote 1]);
(2) squareslarge (m-scale) blocks with a
smaller volume fraction of finer grained matrix
(e.g., Fig. DR10C [footnote 1]); and (3) trianglessmall clasts (typically <1 m) in a coarse
matrix (Figs. DR10D and DR10E [footnote 1]).
Note the abrupt transition between the rimfold and the ejecta debris flow. Clasts within
the ejecta debris flow are randomly oriented
and pass a paleomagnetic conglomerate test
(Louzada et al., 2008).
The observed minimum thicknesses for the
ejecta blanket show a strong departure from
the expected ballistic power-law thickness profile for small craters (McGetchin et al., 1973;
Kring, 1995). Instead, at Lonar, the ejecta thickness decays rapidly within 1.2 crater radii and is
thicker than expected between 1.5 and 3 crater
radii. There is no significant azimuthal or regional slope dependence on the ejecta blanket
profile (Fig. DR11 [footnote 1]); the terminal
rampart appears in all directions, including
upslope. Note that we were unable to reproduce
the exact ejecta thickness measurements at locations reported in Ghosh (2003).
In order to quantify the brecciation in the
ejecta debris flow, we measured the bulk density of ejecta deposits in the field. Bulk density
measurements were conducted at three locations to the northwest of the crater at distances
of 1.2, 1.4, and 2.2 crater rim radii from the
crater center. Using a portable hanging scale
and a measuring vessel of known volume, we
determined the mass of material in a 23.5 L
hole dug into the ejecta blanket. With increasing distance from the crater center, the average
117
Maloof et al.
Geology
Lake
Qb
Qe
Qf
Qh
Qi
Qt
Tf0
Tf1
Tf2
Tf3
Tf4
Tf5
Tf6
Urban
Temples
Faults
Figure 8.
118
119
Maloof et al.
Figure 9.
120
older, pre-impact histosols. Such an interpretation would be broadly consistent with previous
age estimates and the excellent state of preservation of Lonar Crater despite the seasonally wet
monsoonal climate. To test this hypothesis, future
work could attempt to isolate and date material
such as pollen or charcoal that more clearly was
deposited during histosol formation. Microscope
work at the Limnological Research Center, University of Minnesota (Vania Stefanova and Amy
Myrbo, 2005, personal commun.) did isolate
Pinus and Tricolpate pollen, as well as charcoal,
in our samples, but unfortunately not enough for
material-specific AMS 14C dating.
DISCUSSION
Preservation State and Reconstruction of
Lonar Crater
Lonar Crater is a remarkably well-preserved
impact crater. Ejecta preservation has been
aided by light ground shrub cover (Fudali et al.,
1980), and a reduction in surface runoff as a result of the high permeability of the ejecta blanket. The crater cavity and rim are protected by
the state from new construction, but the ejecta
blanket is not. Unfortunately for geologists, the
residents of Lonar town and surrounding farms
are steadily removing and reworking the ejecta
blanket. Nevertheless there are rare areas where
the presence of an impact spherule-rich layer
suggests that the original ejecta surface of fine
debris and impact glass has been unaltered by
human activity or mass wasting.
The erosional state of Lonar is only a little
more developed than that of Barringer Crater,
which is similar in size and age to Lonar Crater. Roddy (1978) estimated from mass-balance
121
Maloof et al.
1.5
2.0
15
2.5
<Rceb >
This work
3.0
<Rceb >
Ghosh2003
10
0
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Based on their (lower limit) reconstruction, Fudali et al. (1980) suggested that the rim
height at Lonar was anomalously low. Typical rim heights around fresh simple craters are
0.036DR for the Moon (Pike, 1977), 0.04DR to
0.05DR for Earth and Mars (Fudali et al., 1980;
Stewart and Valiant, 2006), where DR is the
pre-erosion rim diameter. If Lonar were similar
to other terrestrial craters with an original rim
height of 0.04DR , the total thickness of the
rim would be ~71 m (for DR = 1780 m). Based
on our DEM, the rim height above the preimpact level varies from 18 m in the northeast
(near Dhar Canyon) to 68 m in the southwest,
which reflects the regional slope. We confirm
that the average present-day rim height is ~30 m.
In the rim-fold to the northwest and southeast,
perpendicular to the regional slope, the total
heights are 35 and 33 m, respectively. At these
locations, the preserved ejecta deposit is ~10 m
thick. A maximum average ejecta thickness of
13 m is observed on the north rim-fold (Fig. 4).
The extent of the uplifted strata in the rim-fold
can be used to estimate the amount of erosion
122
Figure 11. Basaltic impact glass spherules and fldle with a variety of splash forms recovered from undisturbed regions of the crater rim and at Little Lonar (Fig. 4). Note pancaketoroid (Aupper-middle) and dumbbell (B) forms.
The similarity between the volume of continuous ejecta deposits around Lonar Crater
and fresh Martian impact craters also supports our inference of excellent preservation at
Lonar Crater.
Ejecta Blanket Emplacement
The excellent exposure of the continuous
ejecta blanket in multiple quarries makes Lonar
an invaluable and unique site for study of ejecta
emplacement processes. Assuming that the ejecta
thickness profile at Lonar has not been altered
significantly by erosion or human activities, the
Lonar profile is remarkably similar to lobate,
rampart-terminated ejecta blankets observed
around fresh craters on Mars (solid gray line,
Fig. 10). The profile consists of two sections:
(1) an inner section that is composed primarily
of large ejecta blocks that were not significantly
mobilized post-emplacement, and (2) an outer
ejecta section composed of smaller clasts and
coarse matrix that was involved in a radial debris
flow. In between the two sections is a moat-like
feature in the ejecta profile that is commonly
seen around Martian craters (Stewart and Valiant,
2006). Ramparts terminating Martian ejecta
blankets are often scalloped or sinuous (Barlow,
1994) in a manner similar to Lonar Crater (Fig. 4).
The observed ejecta thickness profile significantly departs from the expected ballistic power
law around small craters. In Figure 10, the 3
power law (dashed line) has the same volume
as the average ejecta thickness profile (solid
black line). In the outer ejecta (beyond 1400 m
from crater center), the Lonar ejecta blanket
has ~20%30% more material compared to the
power-law profile. The observations of lateral
123
Maloof et al.
658200
658300
2211300
2211400
658100
2211200
2211400
2211100
2211300
558560
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657900
Minimum ejecta
thickness (m)
0.31.9
2.03.9
4.05.9
2211100
658300
2211300
658200
2211200
658100
2211200
658000
2211100
2211100
2211200
2211300
2211400
657900
Elevation (m)
6.07.9
Glass locality
657900
658000
658100
658200
658300
657900
658000
658100
658200
658300
Figure 12. Panoramic photograph (A), digital elevation model (B; see Fig. DR12 [footnote 1]), and Quickbird satellite image (C) of Little
Lonar, an ~300-m-diameter side depression located 700 m NNE of Lonar Crater (Fig. 1). Coordinates are Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) (WGS84) in meters. Color version in GSA Data Repository [footnote 1].
124
CONCLUSIONS
We developed a digital elevation model and
a geological map of Lonar Crater, India, with
horizontal and vertical resolution of 13 m.
Lonar Crater formed in at least six 10- to 25-mthick basalt layers typical of inflated pahoehoe
flows. The flows grade upward from massive
fine-grained pipe-vesicle basalt to nonvesicular
jointed and sometimes flow-banded basalt. Flow
tops are often characterized by columnar jointing, and vesiculation and weathering.
Along the crater rim, the uppermost flow
is recumbently (and parasitically) folded
around rim concentric, subhorizontal, noncylindrical fold axes. Rim-folding was locally chaotic resulting in breccia blocks that
have been shown to be randomly oriented
through a paleomagnetic conglomerate test;
the rim-fold hinge is preserved around only
10%15% of the crater rim.
The present-day rim diameter is 1.88
0.05 km. The erosional state of Lonar Crater is
comparable to Barringer Crater, with an esti-
125
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