FM Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO -1
BERNOULLIS THEOREM
1. Practical Significance:
Learn application of Energy equation and understand how the various
heads changes with change in cross sectional area of flow.
Various heads involves are as follows
Potential energy
Pressure energy
Kinetic energy
P1 / W + V2 / 2g + Z1 =
P2 / W + V2/ 2g + Z2
2. Competency Statement:
Application of Bernoullis in conversion & diversion,
Student should be able to analysis various of energy different flow
geometry,
3. Skill:
1. Learn pressure measurement by using piezometer .
2. Application of theoretical principle on real life situation
3. Team work ,critical thinking, problem solve,
4. Experimental objective:
To verify the Bernoullis equation using the Venturimeter (Law of Conservation
Of Energy)
5. Theoretical background:
Bernoullis theorem is stated as in a steady continuous flow of a frictionless
incompressible fluid, the sum of the Potential head, the pressure head & the
Kinetic head is the same at all points.
The present apparatus is a self contained unit operated on a closed circuit basis
consisting of Sump Tank, collecting tank (delivery Tank), over head tank
connected to Venturimeter with connections to Piezometer tubes at different
sections. A constant steady supply of water by means of mono block pump-set
INDLAB EQUIPMENTS Pvt Ltd
Page 1
with outlet delivery valve for flow control. There is also provision for
measurement of flow rate thus the velocity.
6. Experimental set-up:
Bernoullis theorem apparatus
7. Resource s required:
Sr no
Name Of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
3
8. Precautions:
1
Do not start pump set if the supply voltage is less than 180V (phase to phase
voltage).
Do not forget to give electrical earth & neutral connections correctly.
Initially, fill-in the tank with clean water free from foreign material.
At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent any clogging of
the rotating and moving parts.
Page 2
To start and stop the supply pump, always keep valve open.
It is recommended to put clean water to avoid scale formation on venturimeter.
In case of any major faults, Please write to manufacture, and do not attempt to
repair
9. Procedure:
1
Fill-in the Sump Tank with clean water.
Keep the delivery valve open.
Connect the power cable to 1 ph, 220V, 6 Amps with neutral and earth
connections
Switch-ON the pump. Now, you will find water flowing to the over head
tank through venturimeter.
Now, you find the different piezometric heads for corresponding points
of venturimeter for constant supply head & delivery head.
Note down all the
pie zometric
readings & pressure head at particular point
is also noted separately by bringing the inserted probe to that point.

7
Note down the time taken for height of water collected in the collecting
tank provided downstream of the setup.
Change the delivery head by pushing down the overflow pipe and
repeat the experiment.
Also, change flow of rate and repeat the experiment.
10. Observation & calculation:
Discharge measurement (Q) =
Velocity of water (V) =
Q
A
( finalinitial ) collectingtank area

Time
Where A is the cross-sectional area of conduit
Velocity head = V2/2g

Area of collecting tank cm2 a
= 430
Discharge (Q))
= cm
Initial (h1
Final (h 2)
Time (t)
= cm
= sec
Page 3
Tube
No.
Distance
from inlet
section
(cm)
Area of
Velocity
crossof flow
section of
V= Q/A
conduit
2
A (cm )
4.3
4.91
5.3
3.57
6.3
2.45
7.3
1.42
8.32
1.56
9.62
1.75
12.62
2.02
15.32
2.79
18.02
3.69
10
20.72
4.71
Cm/sec
Velocity
Pressure
Head
Head
V2/2g
p/w
(cm)
(cm)
Datum
head
Z (cm)
p/w+
V2/2g+Z
(cm)
11. Results:
12.Interpretation of results:
Graph plot distance versus velocity head , pressure head ,total head.
Total head
Page 4
13 Conclusions.
14. Experiment related questions.

1. What do you mean by energy equation ?
2. What is total energy ?
3. How Bernoullis equation is different than see.
4. Why Perspex tube is used in the experiment.
5. What is effect of mass flow rate on velocity ?
6. How you calculate discharge.
7. Why actual discharge is different than theoretical, explain logical reason.
15. Assessment scheme:
( a ) Team work.
( c ) Conclusion.
( b ) process related.
( d ) Safety.
(e) Would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable.
Page 5
Experiment No: 02
ORIFICE EXPERIMENTS
Determine of Cd, Cc , Cv using different head method , to understand loss of
energy and amplification of the same on the measurement & discharge or
velocity,
2. Competency statement :
Apply basic law of conservation of mass & energy in case of flow through
orifice.
Calculate time of empty of tank & various coefficient like Cd, Cv, Cc.
3. Skill:
1. Interdependent learning.
2. Problem solving, critical thinking , Team work.
4. Experimental Objective:
To determine the Coefficient of discharge C d, Velocity Cv and Contraction Cc of
various types of Orifices and Mouthpieces.
5. Theoretical Background:
An orifice is an opening in the wall of a tank, while a mouthpiece is a
short pie fitted in the same opening. A mouthpiece will be running full if
its length does not exceed two to three times the diameter. Both orifice
and
mouthpiece
are
used
for
discharge
measurement.
The
jet
approaching the orifice continues to converge beyond the orifice till the
streamlines becomes parallel. This section of the jet is then a section of
minimum area and is known as vena contracta.
If Vc is the true horizontal velocity at the vena contracta, then the
properties of jet trajectory give the following relationship:
Page 6
= (g/2v c 2 ) x2
= (gx2 /2y) 1/2
Vc
The theoretical velocity in the plane of the vena contracta V0 is given by
V0
=h
2g
2 gh
i.e.
Vo
actualvelocity
theoreticalvelocity
Now coefficient of velocity C v
X
2 yh
Cv
In which h is the constant head in the supply tank and x & y are
coordinates of jet with respect to center of opening.
2 gh
The actual discharge Q when divided by a
yield the coefficient of
discharge Cd . Here a is the area of cross-section of the orifice (or the

mouthpiece) and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Once Cd and
are known, the coefficient of contraction C
can be
obtained by dividing Cd with C v
c=
Cd
Cv
C
The coefficient of discharge can be also be computed by falling head
method in which the supply is kept closed after filling the tank to a
suitable level and fall in the head from h 1 to h2 in time T is noted. The
coefficient of discharge is then obtained from
Page 7
2A
T .a 2 g
Cd
[ h11/2 h21/2]
6. Experimental Set-up:
Fig. Experimental setup for Orifice Experiments

The experimental setup consists of a supply tank with over flow
arrangement and gauge glass tube for water level measurement in the
tank. There is also provision for fixing the various orifices and
mouthpieces (interchangeable) installed in the vertical plane of the tank
Side. A set of orifice consisting of 10mm dia. and 15mm dia orifice is
provided with the apparatus. Further a set of mouthpiece is also
provided which consists of (i) 10mm dia x 25 mm length (ii)10mm dia x
40mm length (iii)10mm dia x 25mm x 25mm long divergent and (iv) 25
x 10 x 25 mm long convergent mouthpiece. Arrangement is made such
that the water passes only through this attached opening. Water comes
out of the opening in the form of jet.
A horizontal scale on which is mounted a vertical scale with a hook
gauge is attached to the supply tank. Thus hook gauge can be moved
horizontally as well as vertically in x and y direction and its
corresponding movement can be read on horizontal and vertical scales
respectively. A collecting tank is used to find the actual discharge of
water through the jet.
7. Resource Required:
Page 8
Sr. no
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8. Precautions:
Discharge Apparatus should be in leveled conditions.

Reading must be taken in steady or near by steady conditions. And it
should be noted that water level in the inlet supply tank must be constant
There should not be any air bubble in the piezometer.
Orifice must be free from dirt and kept clean.
9. Procedure:
Step1: Note down the relevant dimensions as area of collecting tank and supply
tank.
Step2: attach a orifice/mouthpiece and note down its diameter.
Step3: The water supply was admitted to the supply tank and conditions were
allowed to steady
to give a constant head. The lowest point of the orifice/mouthpiece is
used as the datum
for the measurement of h and y.
Step4: The discharge flowing through the jet is recorded together with the
water level in the supply tank.
Step5: A series of readings of dimensions x and y was taken along the
trajectory of the jet.
Step6: The above procedure is repeated by means of flow control valve.
Step7: The above procedure is repeated for other types of orifice/mouthpiece.
10. Observation and calculation:

Size and shape of the mouth piece/orifice
= 1 cm
Page 9
Area of cross-section of mouth piece/orifice, a, cm2
Area of cross-section of collecting tank, cm2
Area of cross-section of supply tank, A, cm2
30 40
30 30
6 cm
Reading on the piezometer at the level on the

center mouth piece/orifice h0
measurement Discharge (Q) =

Time
Q
actual discharge
theoretical discharge
a 2 gh
Coefficient of discharge
Cd =
=
where a is the cross-sectional area of orifice
h is the reading in piezometer( in supply tank)
actualvelocity
theoreticalvelocity
Coefficient of velocity C v
X
2 yh
Cv
Cd = Cc X Cv
A CONSTANT HEAD METHOD:

(i) Determination of Cd
Run
No.
Reading
on
The
piezomete
r
Value of
Discharge measurement
h = A1 ho
a 2 gh
Cd
(cm)
A1(cm)
Initial
Final
Tim
e
Discharge
Page 10
(cm)
(cm)
(sec
)
Q
(cm3/sec)
1
2
3
04
(ii) Determination of C v
Reading of horizontal scale at exit of orifice/mouthpiece Xo
=
Reading of vertical scale at exit of orifice/mouthpiece
Yo
Run
X= x- xo
Y= y- yo
No.
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
2 Yh
Cv
Average Cv
There for
=
Cd = C c X C v
11. Result:
Coefficient of discharge Cd =
Coefficient of Velocity Cv
=
Coefficient of Contraction Cc =
12.Interpretation of result:
Page 11
13.Conclusion
14. Related short questions:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
define coefficient of discharge Cd, velocity Cv and contraction Cc .

what is the relation between Cd ,Cv and Cc ?
why the value of these coefficients always remains less than one?
what is called venacontracta?
Among an orifice plate and venture meter, which apparatus
provides more precised value of discharge and why?

(a) Process related.
(b ) team work.
(c ) conclusion.
( d ) safety.
(e ) would be done based on flowing miserable & Observable.
Experiment No:-03
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
1. Practical significance:
To analyses the flow through pipe and understood various flow like
Laminar, turbulent,
2. Competency statement:
Application of energy equation in case of flow through pipe,
Page 12
Practical understanding of flow visualisation...ion.

3. Skill:
2. Team work ,critical thinking, problem solve.
4.Experimentel Objective:
1.
2.
To study different flow conditions.

To study the Reynolds number in different flow conditions.
5. Theoretical background:
Depending upon the relative magnitudes of viscous and inertial forces, flow can
occur in to different manner viz. Laminar flow and turbulent flow. In laminar flow
viscous effect are more predominant than the inertial effects. But when shear
and normal stresses are added with the increase in velocity of flow the flow is
turbulent. To identify the laminar and turbulent ranges of flow a dimensionless
parameter is being utilizes which is a measure of the relative importance of
inertial force and viscous force prevailing in the flow of a fluid, which is known as
Reynolds number. It is equal to the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force
per unit volume. This
01mean that a large value of Reynoldss number signifies
less viscous effects and vice versa. For determine the different flow conditions,
equipment first used by Professor Osborne Reynolds after whose name Reynolds
number (Re) exists.
The motion is laminar or turbulent according as the value of Re is less then or
greater then a certain value. If a liquid such as water is allowed to flow through
glass tubes, if one of the liquid filaments is made visible by means of dye, then
by watching this filament we may get insight in to the actual behavior of the
liquid as it moves along.
After the water in the supply tank has stood for several hour to allow to it
to come completely to rest. The outlet valve is slightly opened. The
central thread of dye carried along by the slow stream of water in the
glass tube is seen to be nearly as steady and well defined as the
indicating column in an alcohol thermometer. But when, as a result of
further opening of the valve, the water velocity passes a specific limit, a
Page 13
change occurs, the rigid thread of dye begins to break up and to group
momentarily ill-defined. The moment the dye deviates from its straight
line pattern corresponds to the condition when the flow in the conduit is
no longer in laminar conditions. The discharge, Q flowing in the conduit at
this moment is measured and the Reynolds number=4Q/dv
(in which d is the diameter of the conduit and v is the kinematics viscosity of
water) is computed. This is the lower critical Reynolds number. Finally, at high
velocities the
dye mixes completely with the water and the colored mixture
fills the tube
Reynolds Apparatus for Demonstration of Laminar& Turbulent Flow

Apparatus consist of storage cum supply tank, which has the provision
for supplying colored dye through je. A Perspex tube is provided to
visualize the different flow condition. The entry of water in Perspex tube is
through elliptical bell mouth to have Smooth flow at the entry. A
regulating valve is provided on the down stream side of the tube to
regulate the flow. The discharge must be varied very gradually from a
smaller to larger value. A collecting is used to find the actual discharge
through the Perspex tube
S.r
no
Name of Item
INDLAB
1 EQUIPMENTS Pvt Ltd
2
Specification
Quantity
Remark
Page 14
8. Precautions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Ensure the water in supply tank is clean. It should not be colored

Regulate the flow slowly
Take the observation only after the flow is established
Do not release the potassium permagnate continuously, release
only when you need to monitor the flow pattern
9. Experimental procedure:
Step 1: Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter of Perspex tube, area of
collecting tank and room temperature etc.
Step 2: By maintaining suitable amount of steady flow in the Perspex tube, open
inlet of the dye tank so that the dye stream moves as a straight line in the tube.
Step 3: The discharge flowing in the Perspex tube is recorded.
Step 4: This procedure is repeated for other values of discharge.
Step 5: By increasing the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube, again open the
inlet of the dye
tank so that the dye stream begins to break up in the tube, which shows
the fluid is
no more in the laminar conditions .Hence transition stage accurse.
Step 6: The discharge flowing in the Perspex tube is recoded.
Step 8: On further increase in the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube, again
open the inlet of dye tank so that the dye mixes completely in the tube which
shows fluid is no more the transition stage. Hence turbulent flow occurs in the
tube.
Step 9: The discharge flowing in the Perspex tube is recorded.

Inner diameter of conduit D
0
Room temperature
c
Kinematic viscosity of water cm2/sec

Area of collecting tank, cm2 A
= 25 mm
=
= 0.01
=
Page 15
Sr. no
Initial
(cm)
h1
Final
(cm)
h2
Discharge Measurement
Time
Discharge
taken ( t) Q
(sec)
Cm3/sec
Reynolds No.
Re =
4Q
D
1
2
3
Reynolds No .Re =

Time
4Q
D
where Q is discharge, D is diameter of conduit
is kinematic viscosity of water
11. Result:
Reynoldss Number for laminar flow is = ----Reynoldss number for Transition flow is = --Reynolds ,s number for Turbulent flow is = ------
12. Interpretation of result:
13. Conclusion:
14.Related short questions:

1. Define the raynolds number.
2. What is range of raynolds number for turbulent and laminar flow?
3. What is called a critical reynolds number ? What is its value for the laminar
flow?
Page 16
4. The equations of motion for laminar flow of a real fluid are known as.
5. In which type of flow, the viscous forces are dominant?
15.Assessment scheme:
(a) process related
( b) safety
( c ) Conclusion
( d ) Team work
(e) would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable
Experiment No: 04
RECTANGULAR AND V- NOTCH

Calibration of rectangular and v- notch,
It in part understanding of calibration of flow measurement devices,
Page 17
2.Competency statement:
Notch apparatus to calibrate rectangular and v- notch.
3.Skill:
1. Interdependent learning ,
2 Problem solving, critical thinking , Team work.
4.Experimental Object:
Determination of discharge coefficients of:
V- Notch ( V )
Rectangular notch ( U )
5.Theoritical background
Different types of models are available to find discharge in an open
channel as notch, venturiflume, weir etc. For calibration of rectangular
notch, trapezoidal notch or V notch some flow is allowed in the flume.
Once the flow becomes steady, uniform discharge coefficients can be
determined for any notch.
In general sharp crested notches are preferred where highly accurate
discharge measurements are required. For example in hydraulic
laboratories, industry and irrigation pilot schemes, which do not carry
debris and sediments.
Notches are those overflow structures whose length of crest in the
direction of flow is accurately shaped. They may be rectangular,
trapezoidal, V notch etc. The V- notch is one of the post precise
discharge-measuring devices suitable far a wide range of flow. Making
the flowing assumptions as to the flow behavior can develop the
relationship between discharge and head over the weir.
(a)
Upstream of the weir, the flow is uniform and the pressure varies
with depth
According to the hydrostatic equation p = gh
(b) The free surface remains horizontal as far as the plane of the weir,
and all
Page 18
Particles passing over the weir move horizontally.

(c)
The pressure through out the sheet of liquid or nape, which passes
over the
Crest of the weir, is atmospheric.
The effect of viscosity and surface tension are negligible.
(d) The velocity in the approach channel is negligible.

A triangular or V notch is having a triangular or V shaped opening
provided in its body so that water is discharged through this opening
only. The line which bisects the angle of the notch should be vertical
and at the same distance from both side of the channel. The discharge
coefficient Cd of V notch may be determined by applying formula.
C d=
5
2
8/15 2 g H tan
Where Q is the discharge over a triangular notch, is the apex angle of notch
and H is
the head over the crest of the notch.
A rectangular notch, symmetrically located in a vertical thin plate, which is
placed
perpendicular to sides and bottom of a straight channel, is defined as
rectangular sharp
crested weir. The discharge coefficient C d of a rectangular notch may
be determined
by applying formula.
d=
Q
2/ 3 2 g B H3 /2
Page 19
Where Q is the discharge over a rectangular notch, B is the width of notch,

H is the head
The crest of the notch and g is acceleration due to gravity
6. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
The experimental set up consists of a tank whose inlet section is
provided with two Nos.
of baffles for streamline flow. While at the downstream portion of the
tank one can fix
a notch of either rectangular or V- notch. A point gauge is used to
measure the head of
water over the model A collecting is used to fined the actual discharge
through the notch
7. Resources Required
S.r
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
no
1
2
8. Precautions:
Reading must be taken in steady state or near steady conditions.
For the measurement of correct discharge there must not be any

leakage near the notch and take care that notch is not running in
overflow conditions.
For measurement of correct head over the notch the point gauge
must be installed little distance away from the crest of the notch.
Page 20
Discharge must be varied very gradually from a higher value to

smaller values.
9. Procedure:
Step 1: The notch under test was positioned at the end of the tank, in a
vertical plane, and
with the sharp edge on the upstream side.
Step 2: The tank was filled with water up to the crest level and subsequently
note down the
crest level of the notch by the help of a point gauge.
Step 3: The flow-regulating valve was adjusted to give the maximum possible
discharge
without flooding the notch.
Step 4: Conditions were allowed to steady before the rate of discharge and
head H were recorded.
Step 5: The flow rate is reduced in stage and the readings of discharge and H
were taken.
Step 6: The above procedure is repeated for other type of notches.
10. Observation & Calculation:

Time
The discharge coefficient Cd of V notch may be determined by applying formula
d=
Q
8 /15 2 g H 5/2 tan / 2
Where Q is the discharge over a triangular notch, is the apex angle of notch
and H is the head over the crest of the notch.
The discharge coefficient Cd of a rectangular notch may be determined by
applying formula.
d=
Q
2/ 3 2 g B H3 /2
Where Q is the discharge over a rectangular notch, B is the width of notch, H is

the head the crest of the notch and g is acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Triangular or V notch
Apex angle of notch,
= 90
Page 21
Crest level of V notch H 1, cm
Area of collecting tank, a ,cm 2

Sr.
Head over
notch
H=H1-H2
No
.
Cm
Initia
l
h1
cm
Final
Time
h2
cm
Secon
d
d=
Q
8 /15 2 g H 5/2 tan / 2
Discharg
e
Q(cm3/se
c)
2
3
Average Cd =
(b) Rectangular notch
Sl.
Width of notch cm
= 12.0
Crest level of notch,H1 cm
Area of collecting tank, a cm 2
Head
over
notch
No.
Initial
Final
Time(t)
h1 cm
h2 cm
Secon
d
Discharge
Q
d=
Q
2/ 3 2 g B H3 /2
H=H1-H2
Cm
(cm3/sec)
1
2
3
Page 22
Calculate discharge (Q) and coefficient of discharge Cd for V-notch and

rectangular notch
11. Result:
Coefficient of discharge of V-notch is =
Coefficient of discharge of Rectangular-notch is =
12.Interpretation of Result:
Graph plot Q versus Hon a log- log paper with Q is ordinate. Draw a best fit
straight line to the data point
13. Conclusion:
14.Related short question:

1. If the head measurement error 1%, then how much error will occur in
discharge?
2. What do you mean by calibration of V-noch and rectangular notch?
3. What is difference between notch and weir?

(a) process related.
(b) safety.
( c ) Conclusion.
( d ) Team work.
(e) would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable.
Page 23
Experiment No: 05
DARCYS LAW
1.Practical Signification:
Analysis flow of fluid through porous medium,
Similar situation in flow of crud oil through petroleum reservoir.
Determination of coefficient of permeability of pours medium,
Application of log log graph paper plot nonlinear behavior of velocity and
hydraulic gradient
3. Skill:
2. Application of theoretical principle on real life situation.
To verify Darcys law and to find out the coefficient of permeability of the
given medium.
5. theoretical background:
The flow of a fluid through a porous medium follows, under certain
limitations, Darcys law.
Darcys law status When a fluid flows trough a
porous medium, the apparent mean velocity of flow
is proportional to the
gradient i.e. hf/L, where hf is the head loss between the two sections which areL
apart. This means,
Page 24
V = ki -------------- (1)
Where V is the mean apparent velocity which is equal to the rate
of discharge divided by the area of cross section of the sand mass
perpendicular to the flow direction (note that actual area of flow crosssection is smaller then the area of sand mass perpendicular to the flow),
K is the constant of proportionality termed as the coefficient of
permeability and i (hf/L) is the hydraulic gradient.
This law is valid when inertial forces are less than the viscous forces. In
general, the law is considered as valid when the Reynolds number
(defined as Vd/v, where d is the average diameter of the sand grains) is
less than unity. Beyond Darcys range (i.e. Reynolds number greater
than unity) the mean velocity is given by
V
Ki n
(2)
Where the index n is greater then unity.
It is obvious that velocity and hydraulic gradient are measured for small
velocities of flow (i.e. Reynolds number, less than unity and plotted on a
log-log graph paper, the resulting plot will be a straight line inclined at
an angle of 450
(i.e. slope equal to unity). Beyond this range the
resulting straight line will have a steeper slope.

The experimental setup consists of a perspex column of size 6.9cm X
100cm. The column is filled with sand grains of uniform size (about
2.0mm diameter). Six pressure points are provided on one side of the
column. These pressure points are connected to piezometer tubes
connected to a manometer. This supply pipe is connected to the lower
end of the column. Outlet pipe is connected to the upper end of the
column. Mesh is provided to prevent the migration of sand grains along
with the flow. Discharge of water can be collected by the help of a
collecting tank.
Page 25
Fig: Flow through sand
7.Resources Required:
S.r
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
No
1
2
8.Precaution:
Remove all entrapped air from the piezometer tubes of

manometer.
Page 26
Maintain constant discharge for one set.
Take a number of readings to obtain accurate result.
All the readings should be taken carefully during the experiment to

reduce the error.
9. Procedure:
Step 1: Open the inlet flow control valve to allow a steady flow through the
vertical
column. Check If there is any air bubble in the manometer tube. If so
remove the same.
Step 2: By maintaining suitable amount of steady flow in the vertical column,
there establishes a
Steady none-uniform flow in the circuit. Time is allowed to stabilize the levels
in the manometer tube.
Step3: The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water
levels in each Piezometer tube.
Step 4: The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and
the discharge & readings of manometer are recorded.

Time
V
ki
Where V is apparent velocity and I is hydraulic gradient and K is

coefficient of permeability , V= Q/A cm/sec
and I = hf/L
hf is head loss
between two points and L is distance between two points

Sand grain diameter, d mm
Page 27
Diameter of vertical column, D cm
Area of column, A cm
Uni
t
Initi
al
(cm)
Fina
l
(cm
)
Tim
e
(sec
)
Discharge
Q(cm3/sec
)
2
4 D
Area of collecting tank, a cm 2

S
No.
= 6.9
Piezometer
Readings
Apparen
t
Mean
Velocity
Q
A
V=
Cm/sec
Mean
Value of
i as
obtained
From
the
graph
1
2
3
I -fill up the data sheet.

II- Calculate the discharge, difference of manometer reading and C d for different
given sand mass is sets of readings.
III- Plot the piezometer reading (on Y-axes)v/s distance of the corresponding
pressure points from the selected reference points for each of the runs taken. Fit
in a straight line for each of these runs and find the slope of each of these lines.
These are the mean values of i (h f/L) for different runs. Enter these values of i in
the last column of the observations and computations table. Also calculate the
velocity V for all these runs.
IV- Plot V v/s
i (with I on x- axes) on a log-log graph paper. Fit in a straight line
having unit slop to data points for relatively low velocity. For higher velocity data
points, fit in another straight line with different slope. This is verification of
Darcys law.
Page 28
Select any point on V v/s
I line for small velocity data points and find its
coordinates i.e V and i. Determine k using equation(1). Thus the coefficient of

permeability of K = V/ i
V- Determine the value of n from V = ki n from V v/s i line fir higher velocity data
points.
VI- determine the value of n from V = Ki n from V v/s i line for higher velocity data
points.
Position of piezometer points from the reference point (screen)
Piezometer
point
Distance for
reference
point(screen)c
m
16
31
46
61
76
11. Result:
Coefficient of permeability of given medium is =
12.Interpretion of results:
Graph plot v versus I on log-log graph paper.
13. Conclusion:
14.Short Questions:
1. What is darcy weisbach equation?
2. How to relate friction factor in laminar flow with Reynolds number?
3. What is apparent mean velocity?
Page 29
4. Define permeability?
5. Why log-log paper is used in this experiment?
(a) process related
(c) Safety
(b) conclusion
(d) Teamwork
Experiment No: 06
MOMENTUM EQUAVATION
Page 30
Develop basis understanding of momentum principal in hydraulic

machinery like hydraulic turbine.
2.Competency Statement:
Student should be able to apply momentum equation on horizontal and
curved vane.
3.Skill:
1. practical understanding of momentum equation.
4.Experimental OBJECTIVE:
1. To verify the momentum equation experimentally.
2. Comparison of change in force exerted due to shape of the vane for
different targets.
5.Theortical background:
Momentum equation is based on Newtons second law of motion which
states that the algebraic sum of external forces applied to control
volume of fluid in any direction is equal to the rate of change of
momentum in that direction. The external forces include the
components of the weight of the fluid and of the forces exerted
externally upon the boundary surface of the control volume.
If a vertical water jet moving with velocity V is made to strike a target,
which is free to move in the vertical direction, the a force will be
exerted on the target by the impact of jet. According to momentum
equation this force (which is also equal to the force required to bring
back the target in its original position) must be equal to the rate of
change of momentum of the jet flow in that direction.
Page 31
Applying momentum equation in X direction

-Fx
= Q [ Vx.out -Vx.in]
= Q [V Cos - V]
Fx
= QV [1- Cos]
For flat plate, = 90 0
Fx
= QV
For hemispherical cup, = 180 0
Fx
= 2 QV
Here , p is the mass density, Q is the discharge through the nozzle, V
is the velocity at the exit of nozzle (i.e. Q/A) and a is the area of
cross section of nozzle.
Fx
= Q2/a
While for curved hemispherical vane the force is
Fx = 2Q2/a
6. Experimental Set- UP:
The Experimental setup primarily consists of a nozzle through which a water jet
emerges vertically in such a way that it may be conveniently observed through
the transparent cylinder. It strikes the target vane positioned above it. The force
applied on the vane by jet can be measured by applying weight to counteract the
reaction of the jet. Vanes are interchangeable i.e. flat or curved.
Arrangement is made for the movement of the plate under the action
of the jet and also because of the weight placed on the loading pan. A
scale is provided for carrying the vanes to its original position I,e. as
before the jet strikes the vane. A collecting tank is used find the actual
discharge and velocity through the nozzle.
Page 32
Fig: Impact of jet Apparatus

7. Resources Required:
S.
r
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
No
1
2
8.Precautions:
Apparatus should be in leveled condition.

Reading must be taken in steady or near by steady condition.
Discharge must be varied very gradually from a higher
to smaller value.
9. Procedure:
Step 1: Note down the relevant dimension as area of collecting tank, mass
density of water and dia of nozzle.
Step 2: The flat plate is installed.
Page 33
Step 3: When jet is not running, note down the position of upper disc.
Step 4: The water supply is admitted to the nozzle and the flow rate adjusted
to its maximum value.
Step 5: As the jet strikes the vane, position of upper disc is changed. Now place
the weights to bring Back the upper disc to its original position.
Step 6: At this position find out the discharge as well as note down the weights
placed on the upper Disc.
Step 7: The procedure is repeated with the installation of curved vane in the
apparatus.


Time
mass density of water () = 1 gm/cm 3

Dia of nozzle is
1.0 cm
Cross-sectional area of nozzle a =
d2
For hemispherical cup, = 180 0

Fx
= 2 QV
Here , is the mass density, Q is the discharge through the nozzle, V is
the velocity at the exit of nozzle (i.e. Q/A) and a is the area of cross
section of nozzle.
Fx
= Q2/a
F x = 2Q2/a
Dia of nozzle, d , cm
=
1.0
Mass density of Water , gm/cm3
Area of collecting tank cm2
Area of nozzle, a
=
=
=
d2
Page 34
Horizontal flat vane:

When jet is not running, position of upper disc =
Run
No.
Initial
(cm)
Final
(cm)
Time
(sec)
Discharg
e
(Cm3/sec
)
Q
Balancing
Mass
m(gm)
Theoretical
Force
F
Q2/ a
(dyne)
Error in
%
F-F/ F
Force
F
(dyne)
2
3
Curved vane:
When jet is not running, position of upper disc =
Run
No.
Initia
l
(cm)
Final
(cm)
Time
(sec)
Dischar
ge
(Cm3/se
c)
Q
Balancing
Mass
m(gm)
Theoretic
al
Force
F
2Q2/a
(dyne)
Error in
%
F-F/F
Force
F
(dyne)
1
2
Page 35
For hemispherical cup, = 1800

Fx
= 2 QV
Here , is the mass density, Q is the discharge through the nozzle, V is
the velocity at the exit of nozzle (i.e. Q/A) and a is the area of cross
section of nozzle.
Fx
= Q2/a
Fx
= 2Q2/
11. Result:
Percentage error for flat vane is = %
Percentage error for curved vane is = %
13. Conclusion:
14. Related short question:

1. What is momentum theorem ? it based upon which conservation principal?
2. Explain why force on hemispherical vanes is double than the flat vanes?
3. What is the maximum hight of free jet, if it is issued vertically?
4. What is casuse of error between the theoretical and actual force?
Page 36
(a) Process Related

(b) safety
(b) conclusion
( d ) Team work
Experiment No.-07
PIPE FRICTION
This experiment helps students to understand role of viscous action in
flow through pipes. It provide basis of measuring frictional pressures
drop and how does the friction factor varies with change in diameter
and material of the pipe.
Determination of friction factor
Comparing experimental observations with the corresponding value obtained
from Darcys friction factor plot.
Rest will be same
3.skill:
1. Learn pressure difference measurement by using U tube manometer .
4. Experimental Objectives:
To study the variation of the friction factor, f, with the Reynolds Number, Re, for flow of fluids in
rough and smooth circular commercial pipes.
When a liquid flows through a pipe with a pressure driving force, head is lost in overcoming the
viscous friction in the flowing liquid. This frictional resistance for flow from point, 1, to point, 2
(locations of the two pressure taps), in a circular, horizontal, uniform-diameter pipe with no
Page 37
pump/turbine in-between the pressure taps and with no fittings in-between points 1 and 2, is described
by the following form of the macroscopic energy balance (engineering Bernoulli equation):
p1 p 2 fL V 2p
=
g
Dp 2 g
(7.1)
In Eq. 7.1, f is the friction factor (a dimensionless quantity), L is the length of the pipe between the
two pressure taps (points, 1 and 2), Vp is the average velocity of flow in the pipe (
Q
D 2p /4 ), Q
(m3/s) is the volumetric flow rate in the pipe of (actual internal) diameter, Dp, and are the density
and dynamic viscosity of the fluid flowing, g is the acceleration due to gravity and pi is the pressure at
point, i. The Darcys friction factor, f, is a function of the Reynolds Number, Re (
D p V p
) and
the roughness factor, /Dp, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

The values of for a commercial steel pipe and a copper/brass pipe are: 0.046 10 -3 m and 0.0015
10-3 m, respectively.
The apparatus consists of a pipe circuit in which flow of water takes place in four commercial,
Schedule 40, steel pipes (galvanized iron on the outside) having different (nominal) diameters: 15
mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, and 32 mm, at different flow rates. The fifth pipe is smooth, made of
copper/brass, having a nominal diameter of 25 mm. Each pipe is provided with two pressure taps, a
certain distance apart. A U-tube manometer is provided to find the p (pressure drop) between the
points used for the pressure taps. The pressure taps are connected to a manometer, turn by turn. The
discharge, Q m3/s, of water through the pipes can be measured easily at different openings of the valve
in the circuit, as can be the corresponding p.
7.Resource Required:
S.R
NO
Name
item
OF
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
Page 38
8.Precautions:
Maintain the steady flow

Take the reading when steady condition acure.
Do not open control valve fast.
Remove air bubble in the U tube manometer.
9.Procedure:
Step 1: Note down the relevant dimension as diameter of pipe, length of pipe
between the Pressure tapings, area of collecting tank etc.
Step 2:
closed.
Pressure tapings of a pipe are kept open while for other pipes it is kept
Step 3: Open the inlet flow control valve and regulate the valve to allow a
steady flow through the pipe. Check if there is any air bubble in the manometer
tube. If so remove it.
Step 4: The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining
suitable amount of steady flow or near by steady flow in the pipe circuit, there
establishes a steady non-uniform flow in the circuit. Time is allowed to stabilize
the levels in the manometer tubes.
Step 5: The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water
level in left and right limbs of Manometer tubes.
Step 6: The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and
the discharge &readings of manometer are recorded.
Step 7: This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapings of this pipe
and for opening of another pipe
10 .Observation & calculations:

The generally accepted formula governing turbulent flow in pipes may be
summarized as follows by Darcy-Weisbach formula for head loss due to friction
hf
hf
=
=
flv2/2gD
8fL Q2/2gD5
Where f is known as friction factor which is a dimensionless quantity,

L is length of pipe, V is mean velocity of flow in pipe, Q is discharge
through pipe, g is acceleration due to gravity and D is diameter of pipe.
Material of pipe
Diameter of pipe D
Length of pipe between two pressure tapping L cm
cm
Area of collecting tank a cm2
=
=
240
=
Page 39
Temperature of water, 0 C
Kinematics viscosity of water v m 2/sec

Time
=?
02
S.No
Manometer readings
hf=8fLQ2/2
gD5
Diameter
Of Pipe
D
Left
limb
h1(cm
)
Right
limb h2
(cm)
Difference
of head in
terms of
water hf
12.6(h1-h2)
Initi
al
(cm
)
Fin
al
(c
m)
Tim
e
(se
c)
Discharg
e
Q(cm3/s
ec)
3.2 (G.I)
2.5 (G.I)
1.9 (G.I)
1.2 (G.I)
2.5(BRAS
S)
Fill up the data sheet.
Page 40
Calculate the discharge, difference of manometer reading and f friction

factor for different pipes for different sets of readings,
Find the average friction factor f.
The observation shows that the coefficient f is not a constant but its value
depends on
the roughness condition of the pipe surface and the Reynolds number of the
flow.
11.Results:
friction factor of (G.I) pipe dia 3.2 cm is =
Friction factor of (G.I) pipe dia 2.5 cm is =
Friction factor of (copper) pipe dia 2.5 cm is =
12. Interpretation of Result

Plot a graph between the Reynolds no versus the friction factor with f1
is ordinate.
Compare the result with the standard curve (Moodys diagram )
13.Conclusion:
14.Related short questions:

1.
2.
Define the friction factor. Is there any other friction factor than Darcys friction factor?
What are the extra energy losses (in fittings) for flow through pipe networks?
4.
Explain why the friction factor, f, depends only on Re for some ranges of Re, while it depends
on two dimensionless parameters for other ranges of Re.
5.
How does the material of the pipe affect the pressure loss due to friction?
6.
Deduce how the pressure drop is related (exponent) to the velocity in the pipe for low Re, and
for very large Re.
3.
Define the surface roughness, .
Page 41
Fig. 7.1: Darcys friction factor plot (Fig. 10.3 in V. Gupta and S. K. Gupta, Fluid Mechanics
and its Applications, 3rd Ed., New Age International, New Delhi, 2015)
15.Assessment Scheme:
(a) Process Related
(c) Safety
(b) Conclusion
(d) Team work
(e) would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable

Page 42
Experiment N0. 08
LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS

1.Practical Significance:
It develop understating of minor losses in pipe flow,
compare minor losses in different geometry change.
also helps to
2. competency Statement:
Students should be able to determine loss coefficient for different
fittings. They should compare loss coefficient for elbow and bends,
sudden expansion and sudden contraction.
3. Skill:
1. Learn pressure difference measurement by using U tube manometer .
To determine the minor head loss coefficient for different pipe fittings.
In pipe networks, the major loss of mechanical energy is associated with straight-length pipes, while
minor losses are associated with pipe fittings. The latter are caused by changes in the velocity of the
flowing fluid (magnitude or direction). Losses due to changes in cross-section, bends, valves and
fittings of all types are categorized as minor losses. At times, the losses in the fittings may even
outweigh the friction losses in straight-length pipes.
The macroscopic energy balance (engineering Bernoulli equation) between an upstream point, 1, and
a downstream point, 2, can be written as (for flow of the same liquid of density, )
2
p1
V
p
V
KV
fL V p
+ z 1+ 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2 +
+ i i
g
2 g g
2g
Dp 2 g
2g
(8.1)
In Eq. 7.1, f is the friction factor (a dimensionless quantity), L is the length of the straight-length pipe
between the two points, 1 and 2, Vp is the average velocity of flow in the straight-length pipe (
Q
3
D 2p /4 ), Q (m /s) is the volumetric flow rate in the pipe of (actual internal) diameter, Dp, and
Page 43
are the density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid flowing, g is the acceleration due to gravity and pi
is the pressure at point, i. The frictional losses in the straight-length pipes are to be added for the
several sections (possibly of different diameters), if necessary. The Darcys friction factor, f, is a
function of the Reynolds Number, Re (
D p V p
) and the roughness factor, /Dp, in each section
of the straight-length pipe. Ki is the friction loss coefficient in the ith fitting between points 1 and 2,
again to be added for each fitting between points 1 and 2.
The last term in Eq. 8.1 can also be written in terms of the head-loss factor, hL,i, for the ith fitting as
h L, i=
K i V 2i
2g
(8.2)
Ki depends on the detailed flow inside the fitting, and is normally a function of the Reynolds number
in the straight-length pipe associated with the fitting, attaining an asymptotic value at high Re.
However, this conservative asymptotic value of Ki is used in pipeline design (and this value is
available for various fittings in textbooks).
For sudden enlargement of the cross-section, the simultaneous application of the continuity, Bernoulli
and momentum equations shows than
h L, i=
Ki
(V V L )2
2g S
where VS and VL are the mean velocities of flow in the smaller and larger diameter pipes at the two
ends of the expansion, respectively.
The experimental set-up consists of a pipe network with straight-length pipe of diameter 25 mm with
the following pipe fittings and with valves to vary the flow rate:
Large bend
Sudden enlargement from the pipe diameter to 50 mm diameter
Small bend
Sudden contraction from 50 mm diameter to 25 mm diameter
Pressure taps are provided on the up-stream and down-stream ends of each of the fittings to enable the
measurement of the pressure difference, p, across the fittings at different flow rates, Q. The pressure
taps are connected to a differential manometer. A collecting tank is used to estimate Q.
Page 44
S.r no
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8.precaution:
Apparatus should be leveled (made horizontal) initially.

Readings must be taken under steady conditions.
There should be no air bubble trapped in the manometer.
9. Experimental procedure:
Step 1: Exist valve is fully open.
Step 2: The pressure taps of the pipe fitting being studied are kept open while those for all the other
fittings are kept closed.
Step 3: The flow rate through this fitting is adjusted to its maximum value.
Step 4: Time is allowed to stabilize the levels in the two limbs of the manometer.
Step 5: The flow rate, Q, of the water in this circuit is measured as also the manometer reading.
Step 6: This is repeated at a few more (lower) values of Q, as well as for the other fittings
8.Observation & Calculation:

Table -1
Type of fitting: Large bend and small bend
Diameter of bend pipe d = 2.5 cm
Cross-sectional area of bend pipe a =
d2
Page 45
Run
No.
Manometer readings
Left limb
h2
(cm)
Righ
t
limb
h2
(cm)
Differenc
e of head
in terms
of water
hL=
12.6(h1h2)Cm
Initia
l
(cm)
Fina
l
(cm
)
Tim
e
(sec
)
Discharg
e
Q
Cm3/sec
V=Q/a
Cm/se
c
Loss
Coefficient
k=2ghL/V2
2
3
4
Table-2
Type of fitting: Sudden enlargement and sudden contraction

Diameter of smaller pipe cm
= 2.5
Area of smaller pipe, a cm

Diameter of bigger pipe cm
=
d1
Area of bigger pipe a1 cm2
Manometer Readings
Left
Limb
h1
(cm)
Right
Limb
H2
(cm)
Difference
of head in
terms
of
water
hL=12.6(h1
-h2)
(cm)
d2
= 5.0
= 4
Area of collecting tank, A cm2

Ru
n
No
.
(d1)2
Initial
(cm)
Final
(cm)
Time
(sec)
Discharge
Q
(cm3/sec)
V= Q/a
(Cm/sec)
V1=Q/a1
Loss
coefficient
k=
2 g hl
(V V 1 )2
1.
2.
Page 46
3
4
for large and small bed :

Velocity of flow V=Q/a cm/sec
Loss Coefficient k=2gh L/V2
Average loss coefficient, k =
For sudden enlargement and sudden contraction:
Velocity of flow in small pipe dia V=Q/a cm/sec
Velocity of flow in large pipe dia V 1=Q/a1 cm/sec
Loss coefficient k=
v v 1
( 2)
2 ghL
11. Results:
Loss coefficient k in small bend is =
Loss coefficient k in large bend is =
Loss coefficient k in sudden enlargement bend is =
Loss coefficient k in sudden contraction
=
12. Interpretation of Result:
13. Conclusion:

1.
2.
What is minor loss?

Explain dependency of large diameter pipe in case of sudden
contraction loss.
Page 47
3.
4.
How you can reduce entrance loss?

Which one is more suitable for changing the flow direction ? Elbows or
bends?
5.
In case of reducer how angle of cone affects m
15. Assessment of Scheme:

(a) Process related
(b) conclusion
(c) safety
(d) Team work

Experiment No:-09
FLOW MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

1.Practical Signification:
It provides insight of flow measurements in internal flow. In industrial practice
flow measurement is important aspect to take necessary decision.
1
To calibrate a venture & Orifice meter and to study the variation of its coefficient of
discharge with the Reynolds number
3.Skill:
1. Learn pressure difference
measurement by using U tube
manometer .
2. Team work, critical thinking, problem solve.
3. Application of venturimeter & orifice meter.
4. Experimental OBJECTIVE:
1. To calibrate a venture meter and to study the variation of its coefficient of discharge with the
Reynolds number
2.To calibrate an orifice meter and study the variation of its coefficient of discharge with the
Reynolds number
5. theoretical background:
Page 48
The venturi and orifice meters are devices used for the measurement of the flow rate of the fluid (here,
water) flowing in a pipe. The basic principle on which these meters work is that by reducing the crosssectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of this
pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe.
Fig. 9.1: Schematic of a venturi meter

A venturi meter consists of an inlet section (1) followed by a convergent cone, (2), a cylindrical throat
and a gradually divergent cone (3). Since the cross-sectional
cross-sectional area of the inlet section, the
area of the throat is smaller than the
velocity of flow at the throat is higher than in the
inlet section (continuity equation). The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in a
decrease in the pressure at this section (Bernoulli equation). The pressure difference is determined
using a U-tube manometer between the two pressure taps provided. This pressure difference enables
one to calculate the flow rate (Q) of the fluid in the pipe using
Q C d
a0 a1 2 g hm ( Hg f )/ f
a a
2
1
2
0
where a0 is the area of cross-section of the throat (diameter, d 0), a1 is the area of cross-section of the
pipe (diameter, D or d1), g is the acceleration due to gravity, hm is the manometer reading, Hg and f
are the densities of mercury and the flowing fluid (water), and C d is the coefficient of discharge of the
venturi meter.
The venture-coefficient, Cd, accounts for viscous losses and depends upon the Reynolds number (at
the throat), Re0 (which is equal to V0d0/, where V0 = Q/a0 and d0 is the diameter of the throat), and the
ratio d0/D. For the given experimental set-up, d0/D is fixed. Usually, Cd varies between 0.96 and 0.99
for the throat-Reynolds numbers above about 105.
An orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement for the measurement of the discharge through pipes and its
installation requires a smaller length as compared to other flow measuring devices, like the venture
meter (or a flow nozzle). An orifice meter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole, called
Page 49
the orifice, which is concentric with the pipe axis, as shown in Fig. 2. The orifice is not of constant
diameter but makes an angle of about 30-45 with the axis. The orifice
Fig. 9.2: Schematic of an orifice meter

plate is clamped between two pipe flanges. Two pressure taps are provided at points 1 and 2 (in Fig.
2), one on the upstream side of the orifice plate and the other on the downstream side of the orifice
plate (about one-half the pipe diameter from the orifice). A pressure difference is created between the
two taps, which is measured using a U-tube mercury-water manometer. The discharge coefficient can
be calculated using formula.
Q C d
a0 a1 2 g hm ( Hg f )/ f
a a
2
1
2
0
Here, Cd is the orifice coefficient, a0 is the cross-sectional area of the orifice, a 1 is the cross-sectional
area of the pipe, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h m is the manometer reading. The value of
Cd, in general, depends on the d0/d1, location of the pressure taps (1) and (2), and the orifice-Reynolds
number, Re0. Since the first three parameters are fixed in the experimental set-up in the laboratory, C d
can be said to depend only on the Re 0, defined as V0d0/f where V0 is the velocity of flow at the orifice
(Q/a0). It should be noted that Cd attains a constant value at higher values of Re 0 (higher than about 10
5
).
The experimental set-up consists of a flow circuit having two parallel paths. The two parallel
pipelines are of diameter 25 mm each. One path incorporates a venturi meter while the other has an
orifice meter. Both the venturi meter and the orifice meter have d/D = 0.6 and both have two pressure
taps each, one upstream and the other downstream (throat or orifice) of the meter. A U- tube watermercury manometer is provided to measure the pressure difference between the two pressure taps for
the venturi meter and the orifice meter. A regulating valve is provided on the downstream side of each
pipe to regulate the flow rate of the water. Water is collected in a tank for a specified period of time,
and this information is used to find the actual discharge rate through the circuit.
7.Resource required:
Page 50
S.r no
Name Of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8. Precaution:
Remove all entrapped air from the two limbs of the manometers.
Maintain steady state conditions for each run.
Take a number of readings for the same flow rates to obtain accurate results.
9. Procedure:
Step1: Note down the relevant dimension as diameter of the pipe, diameter of
orifice/throat, area Of collecting tank, room temperature etc.
Step2: Regulating valve of a pipeline is kept open while for other it is closed.
Step3:
Pressure tapings of a venturimeter are kept open while for orifice meter
are kept closed

Step4:
Open the inlet flow control valve and regulate the valve to allow a
tube. If so remove the same.
Step5:
The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining
suitable amount of Steady flow or near by steady flow in the pipe circuit, there
establishes a steady none uniform flow in the circuit. Time is allowed to stabilize
the levels in the manometer tube.
Step6:
The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water
levels in left and right limbs of manometer tube.

Step7:
The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and
the discharge & readings of manometer are recorded for every stage.
Page 51
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW BY ORIFICEMETER

Step 8: pressure tapings of a orifice meter are kept open while for venturimeter
are kept closed.
Step 9:
Open the inlet flow control valve and regulate the valve to allow a
tube. If so remove the same.
Step10: The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining
suitable amount of steady flow or near by steady flow in the pipe circuit, there
establishes a steady non-uniform flow in the circuit. Time is allowed to stabilize
the levels in the manometer tube.
Step11: The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water
levels in left and and right limbs of manometer tube.
Step12: The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and
the discharge & Readings of manometer are recorded for

for venturimeter
Where a is the area of cross-section of throat, a is the area of crosssection of inlet, g is The acceleration due to gravity, h is the difference of head
in terms of water and C d is The coefficient of discharge of venturimeter.
Q=C d
a0 a
1 2 gh
a a
2
1
2
0
Where Cd is coefficient of orifice, a0 is cross-sectional area of orifice,a1 is crosssectional area of pie, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the difference
of head in terms of water.
Observation:
Page 52
Type of flow meter
Venturimeter
Diameter of pipe line D cm
= 2.5
Cross-sectional area of the pipe line Acm 2
Diameter of throat/orifice sectiond cm (d/D=0.6)
Temperature of water,
d2
Kinematics viscosity of water cm2/sec
Ru
D2
= 1.5
Cross-sectional area of throat/orifice section, cm 2

Area of collecting tank cm 2
Manometer Reading
Cd
Re=
Qd
No.
a
Initia
Fina
Tim
(cm)
(cm
(sec
Discharge
Q
(Cm3/sec)
Left
Righ
limb
h1
(cm)
limb
h2
Diff. of
Calculate
Head
By using
h=12.6(h1-
Formula
h2) (cm)
(cm)
Page 53
1
2
3
4
5
Type of flow meter
= Orifice meter
Diameter of pipe line d 1 cm
Cross-sectional area of the pipe line a 1cm2
2.5
Diameter of throat/orifice sectiond 0 cm (d/D=0.6)
Cross-sectional area of throat/orifice section, a 0 cm2

Area of collecting tank cm 2
Ru
d1 2
= 1.5
d 02
Manometer Reading
Cd
Re=
Q d0
No
a
Initi
al
(cm)
Final
(cm)
Tim
Discharg
Left
Right
limb
limb
(sec
Q(Cm3/se
h1(cm)
h2(cm)
c)
Diff. of Head
h=12.6(h1h2) (cm)
Page 54
2
3
4
calculate the coefficient of discharge for venturimeter and orificemeter
11. Result:
average coefficient of discharge of venturimeter is =
Average coefficient of discharge of orificemeter is =
12.Interpretation of results:
Graph draw
1.
Plot Q v/s h on a log- log graph paper and fit in a straight line for the
plotted points. This is the calibration curve.
2.
Plot Cd v/s Re for the observed data.
13.Conclusion:

1
2
3
4
5
6
Derive the meter equations from first principles.

Define the coefficient of discharge, CD.
Why is CD higher for the venture meter than for the orifice meter? What does this mean in
terms of the total energy loss in the meters?
Explain converging and diverging cone angles for the venture meter. Why is the diverging
section so long (and the angle of this section so small)?
How are eddy losses minimized in the diverging section of the venture meter?
Can the equations given above be used for the measurement of flows of air? What changes
would be required in the set-up?
15. Assessment Scheme:

(a) process related
(B) conclusion
Page 55
(C) Safety
(d) Team work
EXPERIMENT : 10
COMPUTERIZED RECIPROCATING PUMP

1.Practical Significance
To develop understanding of positive displacement pump, how they differ
from centrifugal pump.
Analyze performance characteristics of reciprocating pump.
3. skill:
Page 56

2. Application of flow sensor.
4. Experimental Object:
To obtain the performance characteristics of a Computerized
reciprocating pump.
Theoretical Background:
: A reciprocating pump is a device, driven by power from external
sources, which when interposed in a pipe transfers mechanical energy to
the liquid flowing through the pipe.
The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump, I.e., it operates
on the principle of actual displacement or pushing of liquid by a piston or
a plunger that executes a reciprocating motion in a closely fitting
cylinder. The liquid is alternatively
Draw from the sump and filled in to suction side of the cylinder
Led to the discharge side of the cylinder and emptied to the delivery
pipe.
The piston or plunger gets its reciprocating motion (moves backward
and forward) by means of a crank and connecting rod mechanism.
Reciprocating pump
Demonstration:
Page 57
(i)
The rotation of the crank causes the plunger to move backward and
forward in the cylinder.
Vacuum is created in the cylinder as the plunger moves to the right
during suction stroke.
The atmospheric pressure on the water surface forces the water up
the suction pipe. The suction valve is opened and the water enters the
cylinder.
01
On the return stroke of the plunger (plunger moving to the left), called
delivery stroke, the water pressure closes the suction valve and opens
the delivery valve, forcing the water up the delivery pipe.
Again in the suction stroke the water is sucked from the pump and the
cycle continues.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
In a double acting reciprocating pump, suction and delivery strokes

occurs simultaneously. A pump gives comparatively a more uniform
discharge than the single acting pump, because of the continuity of
suction and delivery strokes.
The present test rig is a self-contained unit operated on closed circuit basis. The
pump, electric AC motor, collecting-measuring tank set, control panel are
mounted on rigid frame work with anti-vibration mounts. The following are the
provisions incorporated with the unit.For conducting the experiments at three or
two speeds using AC Motor and a drive controller.
1.
The speed is indicated on digital RPM indicator.
2.
To measure overall input power to the AC Motor using Wattmeter.
3.
The delivery and suction head are measured by using pressure & vacuum
sensors which are connected to a pressure scanner.
4.
For changing the Pressure (Delivery Head) and Vacuum (Suction Head) by
operating the valves.
5.
The flow rate is calculated using measuring (collecting) tank and flow
sensor which is connected within the delivery line.
6.
The
overflow
and
butterfly
valve
are
provided
in
collecting
measuring tank for recirculation of water for closed circuit operation.
Page 58
7.
Change to different speed positions
by using the drive controller and
repeat the experiment either manually or by using computer interface

software.
S.r no
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8. Precaution:
1. Dont start the pump if the voltage is less than 180V.
2. Dont forget to give neutral and earth connections to the unit.
3. Frequently (at least once in three months) grease/oil the rotating parts.
4. At least once in a week, operate the unit & avoid clogging of moving parts.
5. Replace the water possibly once in a month.
6. Dont exceed 1.5 kg/cm2 on pressure gauge reading and never fully close the
delivery valve.
9. Procedure:
1.
Fill the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery and suction valves open.

3. Connect the power cable to 1 ph, 220V, 15 Amps.
4. Meanwhile , switch -ON the Computer & keep it ready with the
Observation Menu.
Page 59
5. To go to Centrifugal pump test in computer follow the route, Start >

Programs > Centrifugal Pump > Application.
6. Now on software screen click onComm
the
, Computer port setting
dialog box will open, now select the required connected port and press OK.
7. After the computer port selection click on
Start
. A dialog box
with the file name will be displayed, select the required file path and press
OK. In the data indicator tab of the software all the values will start
indicating as shown in the control panel.
8. Set the speed of the pump either by adjusting the knob in the control panel or
in the software.
9. Keep the delivery valve fully open after priming.
10. Once all the values are displayed on the software as per the values
indicated
.
Log
indicators
of the control panel click
Data
and all the data will be logged in the data tabulation tab of the
in
the
digital
software along with performance graphs.
Log
Data
11.Log different values at different loadings by clicking
..
icon at
different intervals. As the test is running, the computer will carry out
all the Calculations and Tabulations with the Menu Display . Repeat
the same procedure for other
Stop speed condition.
Test
12.To save the data click on the
and all the logged data will be
saved in the defined file path(Excel file format) selected at the time of
starting the test.
View
file
13.To retrieve the recorded data click on
and select the file used
and press OK. All the logged data will be displayed in the software along
with the graphs. Use the arrow keys to view the combustion graphs at
different loads.
Page 60
14.After the experiment is over, keep the delivery valve open and switch-OFF the
mains.
10.Observation & Calculation:

Time
suction pressure, m
Discharge pressure, m
Flow rate, m3/sec
Total head across pump, H m
= p1
= p2
= Q
=
p 2 - p1
Input power pi
= P watts
Water power P0 = gHQ watts
(Where is the mass density of the liquid being pumped)
waterpower
inputpower
Efficiency =
X100
Vs = Swept volume of Piston in One minute

VA = Actual Volume of water collected in one minute
Where Va = Q x 60 cm3/min
At corresponding speed picked
VS = 2d2 l N
Where d = dia of the piston = 5.5 cm
l = stroke of piston = 4.0 cm
N = Speed of pump in rpm
% Slip =
V S VA / VS
Page 61
Sr.
Input
Power
Speed
Suctio
Deliver
Pressu
Pressur
Discharg
re
(RPM)
P1
P2
Outpu
Efficie
Total
ncy
Head
Power
(m)
(%)
1
2
3
4
11. Results:
12.Interpretation of Results
Graph plot in Microsoft excel sheet.
1. Discharge versus total head.
2. Discharge versus efficiency.
3. Power output versus efficiency.
13. Conclusion:
14.Experiment related questions:

1. What is difference b/w positive displacement machine and turbo machine ?
Sl
Page 62
(%
2. What do you mean by surge tank ?

3. What is principle behind pressurizing incompressible fluid by positive
displacement
machine ?
4. What is the velocity of fluid with respect to piston velocity?
5. What clearance factor ? what do you mean by clearance volume?
15.Assissment Scheme:
( a ) Process related
(b) conclusion
(c) Safety
(d) Team work
EXPERIMENT NO -11
GEAR AND VANE PUMP

Page 63
To develop understding of gear pump, especially regarding working and

application. Also, to examine the performance of gear pump under different
operating conditions.
2.Compytency statement:
Students should be able to analyze the performance of pump.
Understading of measurement devices for pressure, energy and rotational speed
of the shaft.
3. Skill:
1. Application of energy meter.
2. learn to increase or decrease speed of a pump at same speed of motor by
change of pulley.
4. Experimental Object:
To obtain the efficiency of a gear pump under various head.
5.Theortical Background:
the gear pump which is of present concern falls into the category of Rotodynamic
pumps.
In this pump, the liquid is made to rotate in a closed chamber. This
pump consist of two identical inter meshing spur pinions working in a fine
clearance inside a casing. One of the pinions keyed to driving shaft. Alternatively
one of the pinions can be integral with the driving shaft. The other pinion
revolves idly. These pumps compared to reciprocating
pumps are simple in
construction, more suitable for handling viscous, turbid (muddy) liquids, can be
directly coupled to high speed electric motors (without any speed reduction ) &
easy to maintain.
But, their hydraulic heads at low flow rates is limited, and
hence not suitable for very high heads compared to reciprocating pump of same
capacity. The present testing allows the students to understand and draw the
operating characteristics at various heads, flow rates and spee
The apparatus consists of a gear pump connected with a A.C. motor. The suction
pipe is provided with a vacuum gauge for measurement of suction head. While at
the discharge side a pressure gauge is fitted for measurement of the delivery
head. A digital wattmeter may be connected to the motor of the pump as the
Page 64
motor is directly connected to the pump. A collecting tank is used to find the
actual discharge through the pump.
* Pump
Gear pump and Vane pump , 1HP.
7.Resourse Required:
S.r. no
Name Of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8. Precaution:
5. Dont exceed 4 kg/cm2 on pressure gauge reading and never fully close the
delivery valve.
6. In case of any major fault, it is suggested to contact the manufacturer before
taking up any major repairs.
9. Procedure:
3. Select the Pump on which experiment to be conducted by changing selector
switch position and set required speed using step cone pulley arrangement.
5. Switch-ON the Mains, MCB so that the Mains-ON indicator glows.
Now
switch-ON the motor.

6. Note down the speed using digital RPM indicator using selector switch
7. Note down the pressure Gauge, Vacuum Gauge and time for number of blinks
of Energy meter .
8. Operate the butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against
the known time, and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
Page 65
9. Repeat the experiment for different openings of the delivery valve (Pressure
and Flow rate), note down the readings as indicated in the tabular column.
10.
Repeat the experiment for different speeds so that the pressure gauge
reading are shown and repeat the steps (4 & 9).

11. After the experiment is over, keep the delivery valve open and switch-OFF
the mains.
12. Calculate the results using formulae given and tabulate it.
13. Draw the graphs of Head Vs Discharge.

1. Discharge Rate ( Q ) IN m3/sec.
Q
Where, ( A ) =
AR
T
m3/s
0.127m2 is the area of collecting tank.
(R) =
the rise of level water collected in mm.
(T)
time taken in second s for R mm rise of water
3. Total Head (H ) in mtr.

H
P1
p 2 p1
= Pressure at inlet section
P 2 = Pressure at outlet section

Hydraulic Power ( Deliverd by the pump )
Output power ( PO ) =
WQH
1000
KW
1 Electrical power as indicated by Energy meter:

Input power ( P i ) =
n 1000 60 60
3200 t 1000
KW
n = Number of revolution of energy meter.

t = is the time taken by the energy meter for n revolutions, in seconds.
3200 is Energy Meter Constant.
Efficiency Pump ( ) % = P O/Pi
Page 66
s.r
no
Delivery
Pressure
"P" in
Kg/cm2
Suction
Pressure
"Pv" in
mm of
Hg
Total
Head
"H" in
m
No of
blink
n
Time
Taken
"t"Sec
Discharge
Qa in
m3/sec
Power
output,
Ppump
in KW
2
3
4
11. Results:

13. Conclusion:
Page 67
Efficiency

1. Explain functioning of gear pump ?
2. Why water can not be used in gear pump ?
3. Which type of gear is used in gear pump ?
4. How does the gear pump differs from vane type of pump ?
(a) Process related.
(c) Safety.
(b) Conclusion.
(d) Team work.
Page 68
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
Experiment No- 12
COMPUTERISED CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
Selection of pump based on performance characteristics.
2. Competency statement:
Students should be able to plot the performance characteristics. Understand
measuring devices for flow, pressure, energy and speed of shaft.
3. Skill:`
1. Application flow rate meter.
2. learn how to use RPM indicator.
Page 69

To obtain the head developed (H) vs. flow rate (Q) for a centrifugal pump, as well as associated
parameters like efficiency, etc., at different RPMs. Note that the engineering Bernoulli equation from
point 1 to point 2 is given by:
2
p1
V
p
V
KV
fL V p
+ z 1+ 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2 +
+ i i + hs
g
2 g g
2g
Dp 2 g
2g
If applied between the outlet (2) and inlet (1) ports of a centrifugal pump, this gives:
h s ,1 2=H =
p2 p 1
g
The experimental rig is shown below. This test-rig is linked to a computer and has several digital
indicators which may be read off directly. You must familiarize yourself with this unit before starting
experiments
The present test rig (see diagram) is a self-contained unit with the water being recirculated. The pump,
electric AC motor, collecting-measuring tank set (with area of cross section = 0.127 m2) and the
control panel are mounted on a rigid frame with anti-vibration mounts. The following are incorporated
in the unit
6.Experimental Set-up:
8.
Experiments can be conducted at two or three RPMs using the AC motor (driving the
centrifugal pump) and the drive controller
9.
The speed/RPM may be read off from the digital RPM indicator
10.
The wattmeter is used to read off the overall input power, HPshaft, to the AC Motor. This
power is different than the power input, HP pump, to the flowing water (which is QgH). These may
be used to compute the pump efficiency, % pump =
HP Pump
HP Shaft
Page 70
FLOW INDICATOR RPM INDICATOR
PULLEY
A.C MOTOR
BELT
DELIVERY VALVE
FLOW SENSOR
RS 485
AC WATTMETER
PRESSURE SENSOR
AC DRIVE CONTROLLER
DELIVERY PRESSURE
CONSOLE ON
MAINS ON
PRIMING
OVER FLOW
RPM SENSOR
SUCTION VALVE
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
SUMP TANK
SUCTION PRESSURE
SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TEST RIG.
11.
The speed/RPM may be read off from the digital RPM indicator
12.
The delivery and suction heads are measured by using the pressure/vacuum sensors which are
connected to a pressure scanner. Valves may be used to change the pressure (delivery) and
vacuum (suction) heads [Note: pressure head at a point = p/g]
13.
The flow rate is measured using the collecting tank and the flow sensor connected on the
delivery line
14.
The manual drive controller (or the computer interface software) is used to change the RPM
of the pump (and so the flow rate, etc.)
15.* Pump
Centrifugal pump (Kirloskar make), 1.5 HP.
7. Resource required:
S.r
no
Name of Item
Specification
Quantity
Remark
1
2
8. Precaution:
Page 71

5. Replace the water possibly once in a month.
6. Dont exceed 1.5 kg/cm 2 on pressure gauge reading and never fully close
the delivery valve.
7. In case of any major fault, it is suggested to contact the manufacturer
before taking up any major repairs.
9. Procedure:
1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.
4. Meanwhile , switch -ON the
Computer &
keep it ready with
the
Observation Menu.
5. To go to Centrifugal pump test in computer follow the route, Start >
Programs > Centrifugal Pump > Application.
6. Now on software screen click on the Comm Sett
, Computer port setting dialog box will open, now select the required
connected port and press OK.
7. After the computer port selection click
on
Start
. A dialog box with
the file name will be displayed, select the required file path and press OK. In the
data indicator tab of the software all the values will start indicating as shown in
the control panel.
8. Set the speed of the pump either by adjusting the knob in the control
panel or in the software.
Page 72

10. Once all the values are displayed on the software as per the values
indicatorsLog
of the control panel click
Data
and all the data will be logged in the data tabulation tab of the
indicated
in
the
digital
software along with performance graphs.
Log
Data
11. Log different values at different loadings by clicking
aaaaa..
icon at different intervals.

12. As the test is running,
the
computer
will
carry
out
all
the
Calculations and Tabulations with the Menu Display . Repeat the same
procedure for other speed condition.
13. To save the data click onStop
the
and all the logged data will
Test
be saved in the defined file path(Excel file format) selected at the time of
starting the test.
View
file
14. To retrieve the recorded data click on
and select the file
used and press OK. All the logged data will be displayed in the software
along with the graphs. Use the arrow keys to view the combustion graphs
at different loads.
15. After the experiment is over, keep the delivery valve open and switchOFF the mains.
1. Discharge Rate ( Q ) IN m3/sec.
Q
Where, ( A ) =
AR
T
m3/s
0.127m2 is the area of collecting tank.
(R) =
the rise of level water collected in mm.
(T)
time taken in second s for R mm rise of water
3. Total Head (H ) in mtr.

H =
p 2 p1
Page 73

P1
= Pressure at inlet section
P 2 = Pressure at outlet section

Spe
Input
Sr.N
o.
ed
Power
(W)
(RP
Disch
Suction
Delivery
Pressure
Pressure
M)
arge
Total
(Cu.m Head
/s)
(m)
Output
Power
(W)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Hydraulic Power ( Deliverd by the pump )
Output power ( PO ) = wHQ
Input power ( P i ) =
From AC watt meter
Efficiency Pump ( ) % = P O/Pi
11.Results:
12.Interpritation of result:
13. Conclusion:
Page 74
Effic
ncy
(%)
14. Related short question.

1. What is cavitation?
2. What is priming ?
3. How to increase discharge by using more than one centrifugal pump?

(a) process related
(c) Safety
(b) Conclusion
(c) Team work
Page 75
Page 76

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EXPERIMENT NO -1

Do not forget to give electrical earth & neutral connections correctly.

It is recommended to put clean water to avoid scale formation on venturimeter.

Fill-in the Sump Tank with clean water.

Keep the delivery valve open.

Note down all the

readings & pressure head at particular point

is also noted separately by bringing the inserted probe to that point.

Also, change flow of rate and repeat the experiment.

10. Observation & calculation:

Discharge measurement (Q) =

Velocity of water (V) =

( finalinitial ) collectingtank area

Where A is the cross-sectional area of conduit

Velocity head = V2/2g

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14. Experiment related questions.

(e) Would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable.

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= (gx2 /2y) 1/2

The theoretical velocity in the plane of the vena contracta V0 is given by

yield the coefficient of

discharge Cd . Here a is the area of cross-section of the orifice (or the

are known, the coefficient of contraction C

obtained by dividing Cd with C v

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Fig. Experimental setup for Orifice Experiments

Discharge Apparatus should be in leveled conditions.

There should not be any air bubble in the piezometer.

Orifice must be free from dirt and kept clean.

10. Observation and calculation:

Area of cross-section of mouth piece/orifice, a, cm2

Area of cross-section of collecting tank, cm2

Area of cross-section of supply tank, A, cm2

Reading on the piezometer at the level on the

measurement Discharge (Q) =

( finalinitial ) collectingtank area

A CONSTANT HEAD METHOD:

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14. Related short questions:

define coefficient of discharge Cd, velocity Cv and contraction Cc .

provides more precised value of discharge and why?

15. Assessment scheme:

(e ) would be done based on flowing miserable & Observable.

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Practical understanding of flow visualisation...ion.

To study different flow conditions.

01mean that a large value of Reynoldss number signifies

Reynolds Apparatus for Demonstration of Laminar& Turbulent Flow

Ensure the water in supply tank is clean. It should not be colored

10. Observation & calculation:

Kinematic viscosity of water cm2/sec

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Discharge measurement (Q) =

( finalinitial ) collectingtank area

where Q is discharge, D is diameter of conduit

is kinematic viscosity of water

12. Interpretation of result:

14.Related short questions:

(e) would be done based on flowing measurable & Observable

RECTANGULAR AND V- NOTCH